1.1.

EVOLUTION OF DEMOCRACY:
A COLONIAL PERSPECTIVE

The term democracy is derived from the Greek words demos and Kratos.
Demo means people and Kratos, means 'power'. Thus democracy means power of people.
According to Maclver "Democracy is primarily a way of determining who shall govern and
broadly to what ends.
Democracy refers to a system of government where power is vested in the people, who rule
either directly or through freely elected representatives.

A). Democracy in the Ancient Period:

During the Vedic period, monarchy was the form of government. But the elements of
democracy were found even in the monarchical form of administration.
Villages were considered as the lowest unit of administration. The villages were administered
by the head of the village. Each village had the powers to solve its own disputes through
"Village Panchayats." These policies highlighted the aspect of decentralisation of power.

B). Democracy during the British:

During the British rule, the following developments took place in the eld of democracy.
i. Lord Canning- developed the idea of local self government.
ii. Lord Lawrence- permitted the establishment of municipalities in presidency towns.
ili. Lord Mayo -extend the scope of municipalities. The system of election was extended.
iv. Lord Ripon a local board with subordinate taluk board was established for each revenue
district. The members of district board were elected.
v. Establishment of legislative councils. The practice of obtaining Indian opinion was realised..
Indians were nominated for the committee.
vi. The establishment of Indian National Congress in 1885 further strengthened the idea of
democracy.
vii. In 1908 a royal proclamation was issued to extend the principle of representative
institutions.
viii. 1909 Morley-Minto reforms
1. The provincial legislative councils were doubled
 2. provision was made for the representation of minorities
3 principle of election was introduced
4. the number of imperial legislative council was increased from 21 to
60. Some Indian members were appointed to the viceroy council. Indians were allowed to
take part in the administration of the country.
ix. In 1935 the Government of India Act provided for an All India federation. It provided for
setting up autonomous provinces in British India. The Congress contested elections and
assumed the federation of ce.
Freedom of Press:
x. During the British rule, the freedom of Press was recognised. There was a rise of
newspapers in Indian languages. Thus the British government made a signi cant contribution
to the growth of democracy.
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1.2. DEMOCRACY IN INDIA :
CONSTITUTIONAL PERSPECTIVE

● Division of power: power divided between a central government and regional

governments, with each level having its own speci c responsibilities and areas of
authority.
● Supremacy of Constitution: based on a written Constitution that de nes the powers
and responsibilities of the central and regional governments and establishes a system of
checks and balances to ensure that neither level of government becomes too powerful.
● Independent judiciary: includes an independent judiciary that can interpret the
Constitution and resolve disputes between different levels of government.
● Bicameral legislature: features a bicameral legislature, with one chamber representing
the people and the other representing the regional governments.
● Flexibility: allows for exibility in the sharing of powers between central and regional
governments and allows for adjustments as circumstances change.

1. Sovereignty of the People

● A constitution re ects the principle that the ultimate authority rests with the people. This is
often expressed through representative institutions like parliaments, where of cials are
elected by the populace.
2. Separation of Powers
● Most democratic constitutions establish a separation of powers between the executive,
legislative, and judicial branches to prevent the concentration of power.
● Each branch operates independently to check and balance the others, ensuring no single
entity can dominate.
3. Rule of Law
● Democracy is grounded in the principle of the rule of law, meaning that all individuals,
institutions, and government entities are subject to and accountable under the law.
4. Periodic Free and Fair Elections
● A hallmark of democratic systems enshrined in the constitution is the conduct of regular, •
free, and fair elections.
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5. Judicial Review
● A constitutional democracy often includes the power of courts to review laws and
government actions to ensure they comply with the constitution.
6. Pluralism and Inclusivity
● Many democratic constitutions promote pluralism by safeguarding the rights of minority
groups and encouraging inclusive governance.
7. Checks on Government Power
● Constitutions include mechanisms for holding the government accountable, such as
impeachment procedures, parliamentary oversight, and the role of the judiciary in
protecting civil liberties.

8. Fundamental rights:

1. the right to equality

2. right to freedom
3. right against exploitation
4. right to freedom of religion
5. cultural and educational rights
6. right to constitutional remedies

9. Directive principles of state policy:

They are the guidelines to the government in the governance of the country. State shall apply
these principles in making laws.
1.3. PARLIAMENTARY DEMOCRACY:
REDEFINING WESTMINSTER MODEL

The Westminster Model is a form of parliamentary government that originated in the United
Kingdom and is named after the Palace of Westminster, where the UK Parliament meets. It is
characterized by a system of democratic governance in which the executive is drawn from
and accountable to the legislature (parliament). It has been adopted or adapted by many
countries, especially those that were part of the British Empire, such as Canada, Australia,
India, and New Zealand.
Key Characteristics of the Westminster Model:

Important features of the Westminster system include:

1. A head of state who is the nominal or theoretical source of executive power, holds
numerous reserve powers, but in practice is a ceremonial gurehead. Such examples
include the British Sovereign or the President of India.
2. A de facto executive branch usually made up of members of the legislature with the
senior members of the executive in a Cabinet; such members execute executive authority
on behalf of the nominal or theoretical executive authority.
3. The presence of opposition parties .A formal role for the opposition, with a designated
"Leader of the Opposition." The opposition plays a key role in questioning and challenging
the government and holding it accountable.;
4. An elected legislature, or a system in which one of two houses is elected and the other
appointed; 1.
5. Fixed or Flexible Election Dates:Elections are held at regular intervals (typically every
4-5 years)
6. The ability of the lower house of parliament to, by default, dismiss a government by
"withholding (or blocking) Supply" (rejecting a budget), passing a no-con dence motion,
or defeating a con dence motion. The Westminster system enables a government to be
defeated, or forced into a general election, independently of a new government being
chosen.
7. The ability for a parliament to be dissolved and elections called at any time.
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 Parliamentary Democracy:
A parliamentary system of government is one in which the majority of the legislature supports
the executive branch of government.

According to the Supreme Court, the Constitution is based on the British parliamentary
system, where the administration is thought to be primarily responsible for formulating
governmental policy and ensuring that it is passed into law by maintaining the Lok Sabha's
trust.

Parliamentary democracy rede ning Westminster Model:

India has adopted a parliamentary democracy which in itself rede nes Westminster Model of
UK. The key features of Indian Parliamentary democracy are:
1. The real executive and the nominal executive are the two executives.
The real executive is the Prime Minister
2. Rule by the party that has the majority in the Lok Sabha.
3 The cornerstone of the parliamentary system of government is collective responsibility (Art.
75) to the Lok Sabha.
4 Only for Lok Sabha, no-con dence vote (cannot introduce in Rajya Sabha)
5 Political homogeneity is provided. Shared party af liation and ideologies.
6 Ministers have dual membership in the legislative and executive branches.
7 A minister loses their position if they are absent from the Parliament for six months in a row.
8 The length of the government's tenure depends on whether it has a majority in the lower
chamber.
9 The Prime Minister is in charge of this system of government. The PM is often chosen from
among the leaders of the parties that gain a majority in the lower house.
10. The Parliament is legislative, and the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers make
up the executive. Since the members of parliament chose the prime minister and the
ministries, it appears that the executive branch is derived from the legislature.
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1.4
A). INDIAN DEMOCRACY IN COMPARISON TO UK DEMOCRACY:

Both India and the UK are parliamentary democracies, with systems rooted in the
Westminster model, but the scale, diversity, and constitutional structures of each country
have led to notable differences in practice.

1. Political Structure:
● UK: The United Kingdom is a unitary state with a constitutional monarchy. It does not
have a written constitution but operates based on laws, conventions, and precedents.
● India: India is a federal republic with a written constitution. It is the world’s largest
democracy, and powers are divided between the central government and individual
states.

2. Head of State and Head of Government:

● UK: The monarch (King or Queen) is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime
Minister is the head of government.
● India: The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister is the
head of government, similar to the UK. However, the president in India has more de ned
constitutional powers than the British monarch.

3. Parliamentary Structure:
● UK: The UK has a bicameral legislature with the House of Commons (elected) and the
House of Lords (non-elected, appointed, and hereditary peers).
● India: India also has a bicameral legislature with the Lok Sabha (elected lower house)
and the Rajya Sabha (indirectly elected upper house). Unlike the UK, both houses play a
critical role in the legislative process.

4. Role of Judiciary:
● UK: The UK follows the principle of parliamentary sovereignty, meaning that no court
can overturn or question an Act of Parliament. The judiciary can interpret laws but cannot
nullify them.
 ● India: India practices judicial review under its written constitution, giving the Supreme
Court the power to invalidate laws that violate the constitution. The judiciary serves as a
powerful check on parliamentary and executive authority.

5. Electoral System:
● UK: The First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) electoral system is used for elections to the House
of Commons. Members are elected from single-member constituencies.
● India: India also uses the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system for the Lok Sabha
elections, but its elections are on a much larger scale, with over 900 million eligible
voters, compared to around 47 million in the UK.

6. Federalism vs. Unitarism:

● UK: The UK is a unitary state with devolved governments in Scotland, Wales, and
Northern Ireland. However, the ultimate authority lies with the central parliament.
● India: India is a federal state with a division of powers between the central government
and the states. The constitution delineates subjects under the Union, State, and
Concurrent lists.

7. Role of Political Parties:

● UK: The political landscape in the UK is dominated by two major parties – the
Conservatives and the Labour Party. However, smaller regional parties like the Scottish
National Party (SNP) and Liberal Democrats also play a role.
● India: India has a multi-party system with several national and regional parties,
re ecting the country’s vast diversity. While the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and the
Indian National Congress (INC) are the two dominant national parties, regional parties
play a crucial role, especially at the state level.

8. Secularism and Religion in Politics:

● UK: The UK has an established church, the Church of England, and the monarch is its
supreme governor. However, the state is generally secular in its political functioning.
● India: India is a secular state with no of cial state religion.
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B). INDIAN DEMOCRACY IN COMPARISON TO US DEMOCRACY:

India and the United States are both vibrant democracies, but they follow fundamentally
different models of governance. While India is a parliamentary democracy based on the
Westminster model, the US operates as a presidential republic with a strong emphasis on
the separation of powers.

1. Political System:
● India: India has a parliamentary system of government. The executive (Prime Minister
and Council of Ministers) is drawn from and accountable to the legislature (Parliament).
● US: The US operates under a presidential system where the President is both the head
of state and the head of government. The executive is separate and independent from the
legislature (Congress).

2. Head of State and Head of Government:

● India: The President is the ceremonial head of state, while the Prime Minister is the
head of government, leading the executive and responsible to Parliament.
● US: The President is both the head of state and head of government. The President
leads the executive branch independently from Congress.

3. Election of Executive:
● India: The Prime Minister is the leader of the majority party in the Lok Sabha (lower
house of Parliament). There is no direct election for the Prime Minister by the people.
● US: The President is directly elected by the people through an Electoral College
system, which is separate from the legislative elections. The election for the executive is
independent of the legislature.

4. Legislature:
● India: India has a bicameral legislature consisting of the Lok Sabha (House of the
People) and the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). Members of the Lok Sabha are directly
elected by the people, while the Rajya Sabha members are indirectly elected.
● US: The US also has a bicameral legislature, consisting of the House of
Representatives (elected based on population) and the Senate (where each state is
represented equally with two Senators). Both houses are directly elected by the people.

5. Separation of Powers vs. Fusion of Powers:

● India: •The India follows a strict separation of powers, with distinct branches of
government (executive, legislative, and judiciary) India follows the fusion of powers
principle, where the executive (Prime Minister and Cabinet) is drawn from the legislature
and is directly accountable to it. If the government loses the con dence of Parliament, it
must resign.
● US: The US follows a strict separation of powers, with distinct branches of government
(executive, legislative, and judiciary). The President and Congress are independent of
each other and cannot dissolve one another.

6. Judicial Review and Judiciary’s Role:

● India: India has a strong system of judicial review, and the Supreme Court can strike
down laws passed by Parliament if they violate the constitution.
● US: The US Supreme Court also has the power of judicial review, where it can declare
laws or executive actions unconstitutional.
7. Federalism:
● India: India is a federal republic with powers divided between the central government
and the states. However, Indian federalism has a strong unitary bias, with more powers
vested in the central government, especially in times of crisis.
● US: The US follows a more decentralized federalism, where both the federal
government and individual states have substantial autonomy. States have more
legislative and judicial independence than in India.

8. Role of Political Parties:

● India: India has a multi-party system, with both national and regional parties playing
signi cant roles.
● US: The US has a two-party system, dominated by the Democratic Party and the
Republican Party. Third parties exist but have little in uence in national politics.
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9. Electoral System:
● India: India uses the First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) system for its Lok Sabha elections,
where the candidate with the most votes in a constituency wins. This system often leads
to disproportionate representation, especially for smaller parties.
● US: The US uses a combination of FPTP for Congressional elections and the Electoral
College system for Presidential elections. The Electoral College sometimes results in a
President winning without a majority of the popular vote (e.g., 2016 election).

10. Amendment Process:

● India: India’s constitution can be amended by a simple majority or special majority in
Parliament, depending on the provision. Some amendments also require rati cation by
half the states.
● US: Amending the US Constitution is more dif cult. It requires a two-thirds majority in
both the House of Representatives and the Senate, followed by rati cation by three-
fourths of state legislatures.

11. Role of Religion:

● India: India is a secular state, with no of cial state religion
● US: The US also maintains a separation of church and state, with no of cial religion.

12. Checks and Balances:

● India: While checks and balances exist between the legislature, executive, and judiciary,
the system is not as rigid as in the US.
● US: The US has a robust system of checks and balances where the executive,
legislative, and judiciary operate independently
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2.1 FUNCTIONING OF THE INDIAN DEMOCRACY DURING NEHRUVIAN ERA
The Nehruvian era, spanning from 1947 to 1964, was a foundational period for Indian
democracy. Jawaharlal Nehru, India's rst Prime Minister, played a pivotal role in shaping the
political, economic, and social landscape of the newly independent nation. Here’s a detailed
analysis of the functioning of Indian democracy during the Nehruvian era:
1. Political Landscape and Leadership
● Nehru's Vision: Nehru envisioned India as a secular, democratic, and socialist republic.
His leadership was instrumental in establishing democratic institutions and practices.
● Constitutional Framework: The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, laid the foundation
for a democratic polity. It enshrined fundamental rights, directive principles of state policy,
and a federal structure.
2. Institution Building
● Parliamentary Democracy: Nehru emphasized the importance of a robust parliamentary
system. The Parliament became the central institution for debate, legislation, and
governance.
● Independent Judiciary: The judiciary was established as an independent pillar of
democracy, ensuring the rule of law and protection of fundamental rights.
● Election Commission: The Election Commission was set up to conduct free and fair
elections, ensuring the democratic process's integrity.
3. Economic Policies and Planning
● Planned Economy: Nehru adopted a mixed economy model with a strong emphasis on
state-led planning. The Planning Commission was established in 1950 to formulate and
implement ve-year plans.
● Industrialization: Nehru focused on building a strong industrial base, with signi cant
investments in heavy industries, infrastructure, and public sector enterprises.
● Agricultural Reforms: Land reforms were initiated to redistribute land and improve
agricultural productivity, though their implementation varied across states.
4. Social Policies and Reforms
● Education and Health: Nehru prioritized education and healthcare, establishing
institutions like the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs) and All India Institute of Medical
Sciences (AIIMS).
● Social Justice: Efforts were made to address social inequalities through af rmative
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action policies for Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and other
marginalized communities.
5. Foreign Policy and Non-Alignment
● Non-Aligned Movement (NAM): Nehru was a founding leader of the NAM, advocating
for an independent foreign policy free from the in uence of the Cold War superpowers.
● Panchsheel Principles: Nehru promoted the Panchsheel principles of peaceful
coexistence, which guided India's relations with neighboring countries.
6. Challenges and Issues
● Partition and Integration: The immediate challenge post-independence was managing
the partition's aftermath and integrating princely states into the Indian Union.
● Communal Tensions: The partition led to signi cant communal violence, and
maintaining communal harmony was a major challenge.
● Economic Constraints: Despite efforts, economic growth was slow, and poverty
remained widespread.
7. Democratic Practices and Governance
● Regular Elections: India conducted its rst general elections in 1951-52, which were a
massive logistical exercise and a testament to the democratic process.
● Press Freedom: Nehru supported a free press, considering it essential for democracy,
though there were instances of tension between the government and the media.
● Civil Liberties: Nehru's government generally respected civil liberties, though there were
instances of curbing dissent, such as the dismissal of the Communist government in
Kerala in 1959.
8. Legacy and Impact
● Institutional Foundations: Nehru's era laid the institutional foundations for Indian
democracy, which have endured and evolved over time.
● Democratic Values: Nehru's commitment to democratic values, secularism, and social
justice has had a lasting impact on India's political culture.
Conclusion
The Nehruvian era was a formative period for Indian democracy, characterized by the
establishment of democratic institutions, economic planning, and social reforms. Nehru's
vision and leadership were instrumental in navigating the challenges of a newly independent
nation and laying the groundwork for a democratic and secular India.
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2.2 FUNCTIONING OF THE INDIAN DEMOCRACY POST NEHRUVIAN ERA
The functioning of Indian democracy post-Nehruvian era has been marked by signi cant
changes and developments. Here's a detailed analysis:
1. Political Landscape and Leadership Changes
● Indira Gandhi Era (1966-1984): Indira Gandhi's tenure saw a shift towards centralization
of power. The Emergency period (1975-1977) was a signi cant deviation from democratic
norms, marked by suspension of civil liberties and press censorship.
● Post-Emergency Period: The Janata Party's rise to power in 1977 marked a return to
democratic norms, but the coalition was short-lived due to internal con icts.
● Rajiv Gandhi Era (1984-1989): Rajiv Gandhi introduced technological and economic
reforms but faced challenges like the Bofors scandal and internal security issues.
2. Coalition Politics and Regional Parties
● 1990s Coalition Era: The 1990s saw the rise of coalition governments, with regional
parties gaining signi cant in uence. This period marked the end of single-party
dominance.
● United Front and NDA Governments: The United Front government (1996-1998) and
the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) led by Atal Bihari Vajpayee (1998-2004) were
signi cant coalitions that shaped Indian politics.
3. Economic Reforms and Liberalization
● 1991 Economic Reforms: The liberalization policies initiated by P.V. Narasimha Rao and
Finance Minister Manmohan Singh in 1991 transformed the Indian economy, leading to
increased growth rates and globalization.
● Impact on Democracy: Economic reforms led to the rise of a new middle class,
increased aspirations, and demands for better governance and accountability.
4. Judicial Activism and Public Interest Litigation (PIL)
● Role of Judiciary: The judiciary has played a crucial role in upholding democratic values
through judicial activism and PILs. Landmark judgments on environmental issues, human
rights, and corruption have strengthened democracy.
● Examples: The Vishaka Guidelines (1997) for preventing sexual harassment at the
workplace and the Right to Information Act (2005) are notable contributions.
5. Decentralization and Local Governance
● 73rd and 74th Amendments (1992): These amendments empowered Panchayati Raj
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Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), promoting grassroots democracy and
local self-governance.
● Impact: While signi cant progress has been made, challenges like inadequate devolution
of powers and nancial constraints remain.
6. Electoral Reforms and Voter Behavior
● Election Commission's Role: The Election Commission has introduced several reforms
to ensure free and fair elections, including the use of Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs)
and Voter Veri ed Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT).
● Voter Turnout and Behavior: Increased voter turnout and the rise of informed and issue-
based voting have been observed in recent elections.
7. Civil Society and Media
● Role of Civil Society: NGOs, activists, and civil society organizations have played a
crucial role in advocating for social justice, transparency, and accountability.
● Media's In uence: The media has been a watchdog, highlighting issues of corruption,
governance, and human rights. However, concerns about media bias and sensationalism
persist.
8. Challenges and Issues
● Corruption and Criminalization of Politics: Despite efforts to curb corruption, it remains
a signi cant challenge. The N.N. Vohra Committee Report (1993) highlighted the nexus
between criminals, politicians, and bureaucrats.
● Communalism and Casteism: Communal and caste-based politics continue to in uence
electoral outcomes and social harmony.
● Economic Inequality: Despite economic growth, disparities in income and opportunities
pose challenges to inclusive development.
9. Recent Developments
● Rise of BJP and Narendra Modi: The BJP's rise to power in 2014 under Narendra Modi
marked a signi cant shift in Indian politics, with a focus on nationalism, economic
reforms, and digital governance.
● Cooperative Federalism: The emphasis on cooperative federalism and initiatives like
NITI Aayog aim to foster collaboration between the Centre and States.
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 2.3(A) 73RD AMENDMENT
INTRODUCTION: The Constitution (73rd Amendment) Act was passed in 1992 and it came
into effect on 24 April 1993. The Act empowered state governments to take the necessary
steps that would lead to the formalisation of the gram panchayats and help them operate as
units of self-governance.

● Village panchayats existed in India long before the act was passed in 1992, but the
system had inherent weaknesses like the inability to be a people’s government
responsive to their needs. This was due to a variety of factors like a lack of nancial
resources, no regular elections and inadequate representation of the weaker sections like
scheduled castes/tribes and women.
● The Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution of India lays down in Article 40
that the government shall facilitate the establishment and smooth functioning of the gram
panchayats.
● In order to address these issues and strengthen the local self-governments in India, the
central government brought about the 73rd Amendment Act in 1992. The act was passed
in both houses and entered into force from 24th April 1993.
● This Act added a new chapter into the Constitution called ‘Part IX: The Panchayats’.

The main feature of the 73rd Constitutional Amendment are:

(i) Establishment of a three-tier structure: village panchayat (gram panchayat); intermediate
panchayat (panchayat samiti) and district panchayat (zilla parishad);
ii) Regular elections every ve years;
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(ii) Reservation of seats for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
in proportion to their population;
(iv) Not less than one-third reservation of seats for women at the three
different levels of PRIs;
(v) Establishment of State Finance Commissions to recommend measures to improve the
nances of panchayats;
(vi) Establishment of State Election Commissions to conduct election to
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the PRIs;
(vii Establishment of District Planning Committees to prepare
development plans for the districts;
(viii) Preparation of plans of economic development and social justice and implement 29
subject listed in the 11th Schedule of the Constitution;
(ix) Establishment of Gram Sabhas (village assemblies) and their empowerment as a
decision making body a the village level; and
(x) Rotation in accordance with the reservation of seats for women and the Scheduled Castes
in the PRIs.

CONCLUSION:
Thus, village-level democracy became a real prospect for India in 1992 with the 73rd
amendment to the Constitution, which mandated that resources, responsibility and decision-
making be devolved from central government to the lowest unit of the governance, the Gram
Sabha or the village assembly.
2.3 (B) 74TH AMENDMENT
INTRODUCTION:The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act of 1992 is a signi cant
milestone in India’s effort to decentralize governance and strengthen local self-government
institutions in urban areas. It aimed to revitalize urban local bodies by providing them with
constitutional status and empowering them to function effectively as units of local self-
government

Here are the key features of the 74th Amendment:

1. Constitutional Status to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs)
● The Act gave constitutional recognition to urban local bodies (Municipalities), making
them an integral part of the democratic structure of India.
2. Types of Urban Local Bodies
● The Act established three types of ULBs based on the size of the urban area:
Nagar Panchayat: For transitional areas (areas in transition from a rural to an urban
area).
Municipal Council: For smaller urban areas.
Municipal Corporation: For larger urban areas.
3. Mandatory Elections
● Regular elections to ULBs are mandated every ve years. The State Election
Commissions (SECs) are responsible for conducting these elections.
4. Reservation of Seats
● The Act provides for the reservation of seats in Municipalities for:
Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in proportion to their population.
Women, with at least one-third of the total seats reserved for women (including those
from SC/ST communities).
State Legislatures may also provide for reservation for Backward Classes.
5. Ward Committees
● In Municipalities with a population of over three lakh, the Act mandates the formation of
Ward Committees for each ward or group of wards, allowing for more local-level
participation in governance.
6. Powers and Responsibilities
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 ● The Act empowers Municipalities with functions and responsibilities concerning:
Urban planning, water supply, public health, sanitation, solid waste management,
urban poverty alleviation, etc.
A list of 18 functions that may be entrusted to Municipalities is provided in the Twelfth
Schedule.
7. State Finance Commission (SFC)
● The Act requires the constitution of a State Finance Commission (SFC) every ve years
to review the nancial position of ULBs and recommend measures to improve their
nancial autonomy.
8. State Election Commission (SEC)
● The Act establishes a State Election Commission in each state to ensure free, fair, and
timely elections to ULBs.
9. Financial Devolution
● The Act allows ULBs to levy, collect, and appropriate taxes, duties, tolls, and fees. The
SFC also recommends revenue-sharing between the state and ULBs.
10. Urban Planning and Development
● Municipalities are responsible for the preparation of plans for economic development and
social justice, and they can implement schemes and programs, especially those related to
urban development.
11. Autonomy and Accountability
● While Municipalities have more powers under the Act, they are subject to the supervision
and control of the State Government, ensuring a balance between local autonomy and
accountability.
CONCLUSION:
The 74th Constitutional Amendment Act strengthened grassroots democracy in urban areas,
giving Municipalities more powers and responsibilities. However, the success of urban
decentralization depends on the actual devolution of powers, nances, and resources from
state governments to local bodies.
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2.4 POLITICAL ELITE AND INDIAN
DEMOCRACY
INTRODUCTION: The concept of political elite refers to a small group of in uential
individuals who hold signi cant power and in uence in shaping political decisions and
governance. In the context of Indian democracy, the political elite play a crucial role in
guiding policy, shaping political discourse, and in uencing the trajectory of the country’s
democratic institutions.
1. Who are the Political Elite in India?
● Politicians: This group includes prominent national and regional leaders, members of
Parliament, legislative assemblies, and state governments. Dynastic politicians, such as
members of the Nehru-Gandhi family, regional political families (e.g., Yadavs in UP and
RJD in Bihar), also belong to this category.
● Bureaucrats: Senior civil servants, especially those in the Indian Administrative Service
(IAS), play an in uential role in policy-making and governance. The bureaucratic elite
often collaborate with political leaders to shape policies.
● Business Leaders: Industrialists and corporate leaders who have access to the corridors
of power often shape economic policies through lobbying and informal channels.
● Judicial Elite: The higher judiciary, including judges of the Supreme Court and High
Courts, also form part of the elite due to their role in interpreting the Constitution,
enforcing laws, and shaping the legal landscape.
● Media and Intellectuals: Prominent media personalities, editors, intellectuals, and think
tanks hold signi cant in uence in shaping public opinion and political discourse.
2. Role of the Political Elite in Indian Democracy

1. Policy Making: Political elites play a crucial role in the formulation and implementation of
policies. Their decisions can signi cantly impact the socio-economic landscape of the
country.
2. Governance: They occupy key positions in the government, including ministers,
legislators, and bureaucrats, thereby in uencing governance and administration.
3. Political Parties: Political elites often dominate political parties, making crucial decisions
regarding party policies, candidate selection, and election strategies.
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4. Representation: While ideally, democracy should ensure equal representation, political
elites often dominate the political scene, leading to a concentration of power.

Trends and Data

1. Dynastic Politics: A signi cant trend in Indian politics is the prevalence of dynastic
politics. Many political leaders come from families with a history of political involvement.
For example, the Nehru-Gandhi family in the Congress party and the Yadav family in
Uttar Pradesh politics.
2. Educational Background: A study by the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) in
2019 revealed that a signi cant proportion of Members of Parliament (MPs) have higher
educational quali cations, indicating the dominance of educated elites.
3. Wealth and Assets: Data from the ADR also shows that a large number of MPs and
MLAs are millionaires, highlighting the role of wealth in political in uence.

Challenges and Criticisms

1. Lack of Representation: The dominance of political elites often leads to a lack of
representation for marginalized and underprivileged sections of society.
2. Corruption and Nepotism: The concentration of power among elites can lead to
corruption, nepotism, and misuse of authority.
3. Policy Bias: Policies may be biased in favor of the interests of the elites, neglecting the
needs and concerns of the common people.

Recent Developments
1. Decentralization: Efforts towards democratic decentralization, such as the 73rd and 74th
Constitutional Amendments, aim to empower local bodies and reduce the concentration
of power among elites.
2. Electoral Reforms: The Election Commission of India has been working towards
electoral reforms to ensure free and fair elections, reducing the in uence of money and
muscle power.
3. Civil Society and Media: The role of civil society organizations and media in holding
political elites accountable has been growing, promoting transparency and accountability.
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