Diversity of microorganisms

Introduction to Archaea
• Archaea, along with Bacteria and Eukarya, represent one of the
three domains of life. Initially considered a part of Bacteria,
Archaea were recognized as a distinct group in the late 1970s by
Carl Woese and George Fox, based on differences in ribosomal
RNA sequences.
Unique Characteristics of Archaea
• Cell Membrane Composition: Unlike bacteria, archaeal cell
membranes are composed of ether linkages between glycerol and
isoprene units, rather than ester linkages with fatty acids. This unique
lipid composition helps them survive in extreme environments.
• Cell Wall Structure: Many Archaea have a cell wall composed of
pseudopeptidoglycan, which is different from the peptidoglycan found
in bacterial cell walls. Some lack a cell wall entirely, relying on an S-
layer (a protein-based structure) for protection.
• Genetic and Biochemical Differences: Archaeal ribosomal RNA
(rRNA) and proteins are more similar to those of eukaryotes than to
bacteria. Additionally, their transcription machinery, including RNA
polymerase, is also more eukaryote-like.
• Ester bonds are generally stronger than ether bonds. Ester bonds
involve a carbonyl group, and the partial double bond character in the
carbonyl carbon-oxygen bond increases its strength compared to the
single bonds in ethers.
Classification of Archaea
• Archaea are classified into several phyla, with two major ones being:
• Euryarchaeota: This diverse group includes methanogens (which
produce methane), halophiles (which thrive in high-salt environments),
and some thermophiles (which thrive in high temperatures).
• Crenarchaeota: Mostly thermophiles, this group includes organisms
that can thrive in extremely hot environments, such as hydrothermal
vents.
• Other less well-known phyla include Thaumarchaeota, Korarchaeota,
and Nanoarchaeota, each with distinct ecological roles and
characteristics.
Ecological Roles of Archaea
• Extreme Environments: Many Archaea are extremophiles, thriving in
environments with extreme temperature, salinity, or acidity. Examples
include thermophiles in hot springs and hyperthermophiles in deep-
sea hydrothermal vents.
• Methanogenesis: Methanogenic Archaea are crucial in the carbon
cycle, producing methane as a byproduct of anaerobic respiration.
They are found in environments like wetlands, digestive tracts of
ruminants, and anaerobic sludge.
• Marine Environments: Archaea are abundant in marine environments,
particularly in the deep sea and in sediment layers.
• Thaumarchaeota, for example, are involved in nitrogen cycling through
ammonia oxidation.
Archaea in Biotechnology
• Enzymes: Due to their stability under extreme conditions,
enzymes from Archaea (e.g., DNA polymerases from
thermophiles) are used in industrial and biotechnological
applications, such as PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction).
• Methane Production: Methanogens are exploited in biogas
production, turning waste into energy in the form of methane.
• Environmental Cleanup: Archaea's ability to survive in harsh
conditions makes them candidates for bioremediation,
particularly in cleaning up oil spills or heavy metal-contaminated
environments.
Diversity of Cyanobacteria
• Introduction to Cyanobacteria
Cyanobacteria, often referred to as blue-green algae, are a diverse
group of photosynthetic bacteria that have had a profound impact
on the Earth's history. They are credited with producing the oxygen
that transformed the early Earth’s atmosphere, making it hospitable
for aerobic life. Despite their simple prokaryotic cell structure,
cyanobacteria have a remarkable diversity in form, function, and
habitat.
Unique Characteristics of Cyanobacteria
• Photosynthesis: Cyanobacteria perform oxygenic photosynthesis,
similar to plants. They use sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to
produce glucose and oxygen. Their photosynthetic machinery includes
chlorophyll a and phycobiliproteins, which are pigments that capture
light energy.
• Nitrogen Fixation: Many cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen
into ammonia, a process carried out in specialized cells called
heterocyst. This ability makes them crucial in nutrient-poor
environments, such as paddy fields.
• Cell Structure: Cyanobacteria possess a simple cell structure without
membrane-bound organelles. Their thylakoid membranes, where
photosynthesis occurs, are distributed throughout the cell, unlike the
chloroplasts of eukaryotic plants.
Morphological Diversity
• Cyanobacteria exhibit a wide range of morphologies, from
unicellular to complex multicellular forms:
• Unicellular Forms: Some cyanobacteria, such as Synechococcus
and Prochlorococcus, are unicellular and exist as solitary cells.
Prochlorococcus, one of the smallest known cyanobacteria, is
incredibly abundant in the world’s oceans.
• Colonial Forms: Many cyanobacteria form colonies. forms
spherical colonies that can float on water surfaces, while
Gloeocapsa forms mucilaginous colonies, with cells embedded in
a gelatinous sheath.
• Filamentous Forms: Filamentous
cyanobacteria, such as Anabaena
and Nostoc, consist of long chains
of cells. These chains can be
simple or branched.
• Filamentous forms often include
Heterocysts, specialized cells for
nitrogen fixation.
• Multicellular Forms: Some
cyanobacteria, like Oscillatoria
and Spirulina, show a higher level
of complexity, with trichomes
(filaments) that can glide or rotate.
Ecological Roles of Cyanobacteria
• Primary Producers: Cyanobacteria are primary producers in
many ecosystems, especially in aquatic environments. They
contribute significantly to global carbon fixation and are essential
in marine and freshwater food webs.
• Oxygen Production: Through photosynthesis, cyanobacteria
produce oxygen, which is crucial for the survival of aerobic
organisms. The Great Oxygenation Event, which dramatically
increased Earth’s oxygen levels around 2.4 billion years ago, is
largely attributed to cyanobacteria.
• Nitrogen Cycling: Cyanobacteria play a key role in the nitrogen
cycle by fixing atmospheric nitrogen into forms usable by other
organisms. This is particularly important in nutrient-poor aquatic
environments and soils.
• Symbiotic Relationships: Cyanobacteria form symbiotic
relationships with various organisms. For example, Anabaena
lives symbiotically with the aquatic fern Azolla, providing it with
nitrogen. Cyanobacteria also form lichens in partnership with
fungi.
Cyanobacterial Blooms
• Under certain conditions, cyanobacteria can proliferate rapidly,
forming what are known as cyanobacterial blooms. These blooms often
occur in nutrient-rich (eutrophic) waters and can have significant
environmental and health impacts:
• Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs): Some cyanobacterial blooms produce
toxins (cyanotoxins) that can be harmful to aquatic life, animals, and
humans.
• Toxins such as microcystins, saxitoxins, and cylindrospermopsins can
cause liver damage, neurotoxicity, and gastrointestinal issues.
• Ecological disruption: Blooms can lead to oxygen depletion in water
bodies as the cyanobacteria die and decompose, causing fish kills and
altering aquatic ecosystems.
Applications of Cyanobacteria
• Biofuel Production: Cyanobacteria are being explored as a
sustainable source of biofuels due to their ability to produce lipids
and other hydrocarbons.
• Bioremediation: Cyanobacteria can be used to remove pollutants
from water and soil, including heavy metals and excess nutrients.
• Nutritional Supplements: Cyanobacteria like Spirulina and
Aphanizomenon flos-aquae are rich in proteins, vitamins, and
minerals, making them popular as dietary supplements.
• Biotechnology Cyanobacteria are used in biotechnology for the
production of bioactive compounds, including antibiotics,
vitamins, and pigments like phycocyanin.
Conclusion
• Cyanobacteria are an ancient and diverse group of organisms that
have shaped life on Earth in profound ways. Their ability to
perform photosynthesis, fix nitrogen, and thrive in a wide range of
environments makes them essential players in global
ecosystems. Understanding the diversity, ecology, and potential
applications of cyanobacteria is crucial for addressing
environmental challenges and harnessing their capabilities for
sustainable development.
Diversity of Phytoplasma
Introduction to Phytoplasmas
Phytoplasmas are unique, obligate parasitic
bacteria that infect plants and are
responsible for numerous plant diseases.
Unlike typical bacteria, phytoplasmas lack a
cell wall and have a reduced genome, making
them highly dependent on their plant hosts
and insect vectors. They belong to the class
Mollicutes, which also includes Mycoplasma
species that infect animals.
Unique Characteristics of Phytoplasma
• Cell Structure: Phytoplasmas are pleomorphic (variable in shape) due
to the absence of a rigid cell wall. They have a single, trilaminar
membrane composed of lipids and proteins. Their small size (0.2-0.8
µm in diameter) allows them to reside in the phloem tissue of plants.
• Genome: Phytoplasmas have a reduced genome, typically around 530-
1,350 kilobase pairs (kbp), which is much smaller than that of most
other bacteria. This reduction reflects their parasitic lifestyle, relying on
the host plant for many metabolic functions.
• Lack of Culture: Phytoplasmas cannot be cultured in artificial media,
which complicates their study. Most knowledge about them comes
from molecular techniques, particularly PCR and genome sequencing.
Taxonomy and Classification
• Phytoplasmas are classified based on the sequence similarity of
their 16S rRNA gene. They are grouped into 16Sr groups and
subgroups, with each group associated with specific plant
diseases.
• 16Sr Groups: There are over 30 recognized 16Sr groups, with each
group containing several subgroups. For example:
1. 16SrI (Aster yellows group): Includes phytoplasmas causing
aster yellows, one of the most widespread phytoplasma
diseases.
2.16SrII (Peanut witches' broom
group): Includes phytoplasmas
responsible for peanut witches’
broom and related diseases.

3.16SrV (Elm yellows group):

Associated with diseases like
elm yellows and flavescence
dorée in grapevines.
Flavescence dorée
• one of the most important
and
damaging phytoplasma dise
ases of the vine with the
potential to
threaten vineyards.
Ecological Roles and Host Range
• Plant Hosts: Phytoplasmas infect a
wide range of plant species, including
economically important crops like fruit
trees, vegetables, and ornamentals.
Some common diseases caused by
phytoplasmas include:
• Aster Yellows: Affects over 300 plant
species, causing yellowing, stunting,
and deformed flowers.
• Lethal Yellowing of Coconut: A serious disease in coconut
palms, leading to fruit drop and tree death
• .Apple Proliferation: Causes excessive shoot growth, small fruits,
and reduced fruit quality in apple trees.
Insect Vectors: Phytoplasmas are transmitted from plant to plant by
phloem-feeding insects, primarily leafhoppers, planthoppers, and
psyllids. These insects acquire the phytoplasma when feeding on
infected plants and then spread it to healthy plants.
Symptomatology of Phytoplasma
Infections
• Witches’ Broom: One of the most characteristic symptoms of
phytoplasma infection, where the plant produces numerous,
small, bushy shoots resembling a broom.
• Phyllody: The abnormal development of floral organs into leaf-like
structures, often leading to sterile flowers.
• Yellowing and Stunting: General symptoms include chlorosis
(yellowing) of leaves, reduced plant growth, and overall stunting of
the plant.
• Virescence and Sterility: Flowers may turn green (Virescence), and
infected plants often exhibit reduced fertility, leading to decreased
crop yield.
Molecular Biology and Pathogenicity
• Effector Proteins: Phytoplasmas produce effector proteins that
manipulate the host plant's biology to the pathogen's advantage. These
proteins can alter plant hormone levels, suppress plant defenses, and
modify plant morphology.
• Genomic Plasticity: Despite their reduced genome size, phytoplasmas
exhibit significant genomic plasticity, which allows them to adapt to
different hosts and environmental conditions. Horizontal gene transfer
and genomic rearrangements contribute to their diversity.
• Host Manipulation: Phytoplasmas can alter the physiology of their host
plants to enhance their own survival and spread. For example, they
may suppress the plant’s immune responses or change the plant’s
growth patterns to attract insect vectors.
Challenges and Research Directions
• Disease Management: Managing phytoplasma diseases is
challenging due to the inability to culture the pathogen and the
wide range of insect vectors. Current strategies focus on vector
control, breeding resistant plant varieties, and using antibiotics or
other chemical treatments in specific cases.
• Molecular Diagnostics: Advances in molecular techniques, such
as PCR, real-time PCR, and next-generation sequencing, have
improved the detection and identification of phytoplasmas.
However, further research is needed to understand the full
spectrum of phytoplasma diversity and their interactions with
hosts and vectors.
Conclusion
• Phytoplasmas represent a fascinating and diverse group of plant
pathogens with significant impacts on agriculture and ecosystems
worldwide. Their unique biology, including their reduced genome
and obligate parasitism, challenges researchers but also provides
insights into host-pathogen interactions. Understanding the
diversity of phytoplasmas, their transmission mechanisms, and
their effects on plant hosts is essential for developing effective
disease management strategies.
 Diversity of Rickettsia
Introduction to Rickettsia
Rickettsia is a genus of obligate
intracellular bacteria that primarily infect
eukaryotic cells, particularly those of
arthropods and mammals. These bacteria
are known for causing various vector-
borne diseases in humans, such as
typhus and spotted fever. Rickettsia
species have a unique lifestyle, residing
within the cytoplasm of host cells, and
are transmitted by arthropod vectors like
ticks, fleas, and lice.
Rocky Mountain spotted fever
Also called: RMSF, tick fever, black measles
Unique Characteristics of Rickettsia
• Intracellular Lifestyle: Rickettsia are obligate intracellular parasites,
meaning they can only replicate within the host cells. They invade and
multiply in the cytoplasm or nucleus of the host cell, escaping the
host’s immune defenses.
• Small Genome: Rickettsia species have a reduced genome, typically
around 1.1 to 1.5 megabase pairs (Mbp). This reduction reflects their
adaptation to an intracellular lifestyle, relying on the host cell for many
essential functions.
• Cell Wall Composition: Rickettsia bacteria have a Gram-negative cell
wall structure, with a thin peptidoglycan layer sandwiched between an
inner and outer membrane. The outer membrane contains
lipopolysaccharides (LPS), but some species have a reduced or absent
LPS, which is unusual for Gram-negative bacteria.
Classification and Taxonomy
Rickettsia is part of the order Rickettsiales and the family Rickettsiaceae. The
genus is divided into several groups based on their genetic characteristics and
the diseases they cause:
• Spotted Fever Group (SFG): Includes species like Rickettsia rickettsii (causing
Rocky Mountain spotted fever) and Rickettsia conorii (causing Mediterranean
spotted fever). These bacteria are primarily transmitted by ticks and are
known for causing rashes and fever.
• Typhus Group (TG): Includes Rickettsia prowazekii (causing epidemic typhus)
and Rickettsia typhi (causing murine typhus). These species are transmitted
by lice and fleas, respectively, and can cause severe, sometimes fatal,
infections.
• Transitional Group: This group includes species like Rickettsia akari (causing
rickettsialpox) and Rickettsia felis (causing flea-borne spotted fever). They
exhibit characteristics of both the spotted fever and typhus groups.
Transmission and Life Cycle
• Rickettsia species are transmitted to vertebrate hosts by arthropod
vectors, which include ticks, lice, fleas, and mites. The bacteria are
maintained in nature through a cycle involving these vectors and their
animal hosts:
• Vector Transmission: Rickettsia are typically transmitted during the
feeding process of the arthropod on a host. For example, Rickettsia
rickettsii is transmitted to humans through the bite of an infected tick.
• Transovarial Transmission: In some arthropods, Rickettsia can be
passed from the adult female to her offspring through the eggs. This
allows the bacteria to persist in the vector population even in the
absence of a vertebrate host.
• Infection of Vertebrate Hosts: Once inside the host, Rickettsia
invades endothelial cells (cells lining blood vessels), leading to
vasculitis (inflammation of blood vessels). This can cause
symptoms ranging from mild fever to severe, life-threatening
conditions depending on the Rickettsia species.
Diseases Caused by Rickettsia
• Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever (RMSF): Caused by Rickettsia
rickettsii, RMSF is a serious illness characterized by fever, rash,
and potential damage to internal organs. It is prevalent in the
Americas, especially in the United States.
• Epidemic Typhus: Caused by Rickettsia prowazekii, epidemic
typhus is transmitted by the human body louse. It has caused
significant mortality during wartime and in refugee camps due to
its association with overcrowded and unsanitary conditions.
• Murine Typhus: Caused by Rickettsia typhi, this disease is
transmitted by fleas and is typically less severe than epidemic
typhus. It occurs worldwide, particularly in regions with high
rodent populations.
• Mediterranean Spotted Fever: Caused by Rickettsia conorii, this
disease is prevalent in Mediterranean countries and Africa. It
presents with fever, rash, and an eschar (a dark scab at the site of
the tick bite).
Molecular Biology and Pathogenesis
• Virulence Factors: Rickettsia species produce several virulence factors
that allow them to invade host cells, evade immune responses, and
cause disease. These include outer membrane proteins that mediate
adhesion and invasion, and phospholipase enzymes that help in
escaping the host’s phagosomes.
• Actin-Based Motility: Some Rickettsia species can hijack the host cell's
actin cytoskeleton to move within and between cells, similar to the
mechanism used by Listeria and Shigella.
• Host Immune Response: The immune response to Rickettsia involves
both the innate and adaptive immune systems. The bacteria can inhibit
apoptosis (programmed cell death) of the infected host cells, ensuring
their survival and replication.
Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention
• Diagnosis: Diagnosing Rickettsial infections typically involves clinical
evaluation and laboratory tests. Serology (detection of antibodies) is
the most common method, though PCR-based methods are
increasingly used for early detection.
• Treatment: Doxycycline is the first-line treatment for most Rickettsial
infections. Early treatment is crucial to prevent severe complications
and reduce mortality.
• Prevention: Prevention focuses on avoiding vector exposure through
the use of insect repellents, protective clothing, and controlling vector
populations. In areas prone to outbreaks, public health measures to
improve sanitation and reduce vector habitats are important.