MODULE – 2

 Understanding Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System, Brain

Hemisphere Organization and Biology of Consciousness, The Brain Plasticity
Understanding Structure of The Neuron, Communication With Neuron, Communication
Between Neuron.
Understanding the structure of neuron
Neuron
In 1887, Santiago Ramón y Cajal, a doctor studying slides of brain tissue, first theorized
that the nervous system was made up of individual cells, later named neurons. The neuron is
the specialized cell and basic unit of our nervous system that receives and sends messages
within that system. Neurons are cells that are specialized for the reception, conduction, and
transmission of electrochemical signals.

Neurons are responsible for converting various forms of stimuli into electrical impulses.
They receive information from sense organs or from other adjacent neurons, carry them to the
central nervous system (brain and the spinal cord), and bring motor information from the
central nervous system to the motor organs (muscles and glands).

Neurons are one of the messengers of the body, and that means that they have a very special
structure. They are of many types and vary in shapes, size, form, or another, the following
four structures or regions:
1. Cell Body (Soma)
2. Dendrites
3. Axons
4. Terminal Buttons (axon terminal)

Cell body: The soma contains the nucleus. The cell body contains genetic information,
maintains the neuron’s structure, and provides energy to drive activities. Its shape varies
considerably in different kinds of neurons.
Dendrites: Dendron is the Greek word for tree, and the dendrites of the neuron look very
much like trees. Dendrites are branch-like specialized structures attached to the soma. They
are the receiving ends of a neuron. Their function is to receive the incoming neural impulses
from adjacent neurons or directly from the sense organs. Dendrites branch as they move
towards their tips, just like tree branches do, and they even have leaf-like structures on them
called spines. Spines are small protrusions on dendrites that are (for many synapses) the
post-synaptic contact site.
Axon: the axon is a long slender fiber attached to the soma, and its job is to carry messages
out to other cells. It carries information from the cell body to the terminal buttons. The axon
arises from the soma at a region called the axon hillock, or initial segment. Axon hillock is
the cone-shaped region at the junction between the soma and the axon.

Axon Terminals: The end of the axon branches out into several shorter fibers that have
swellings or little knobs on the ends called axon terminals (may also be called presynaptic
terminals, terminal buttons, or synaptic knobs), which are responsible for communicating
with other nerve cells. These presynaptic terminals are not empty, but has a number of little
sac-like structures in it called synaptic vesicles. The word vesicle is Latin and means “a little
blister” or “fluid-filled sac”. These synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitters suspended in
the fluid.
There are other cells besides neurons in the brain. The other primary cells are called glia, or
glial cells, which serve a variety of functions. They help maintain a state of homeostasis, or
sense of balance in the nervous system, but they are increasingly being better understood as
partner cells, not just support cells.
- Glial cells surround neurons and hold them in place, controlling their supply of
nutrients and some of the chemicals they need to exchange messages with other
neurons.
- They insulate neurons
- They break down the dead and dying neurons.
There are following types of glial cells:
1. Astrocytes (astroglia): Astrocyte means “star-shaped cell”.
It provides physical support to neurons. They also surround and isolate synapses,
limiting the dispersion of neurotransmitters released by the terminal buttons. They
also provide nourishment to the neurons
- Phagocytosis (phagein - to eat; kutos - cell): when neurons die, certain kinds
of astrocytes take up the task of cleaning up the debris. When they contact a
piece of debris from a dead neuron, they push themselves against it, finally
engulfing and digesting it. This process is called phagicytosis.

2. Oligodendrocytes: They provide support to the axons and produce myelin, which
insulates the neuron. Oligodendrocytes produce myelin for the neurons in the brain
and spinal cord (the central nervous system).
 3. Microglia: they are the smallest of glial cells. They also act as phagocytes, breaking
down the dead and dying neurons. They are the primary immune cells of the CNS,
destroying pathogens and remove damaged cells.

4. Schwann Cells: they are found in the peripheral nervous system, producing myelin to
insulate the neurons. Each segment of myelin sheath consists of a single schwann cell,
wrapped many times around the axon.

Myelin Sheath: Myelin sheath is largely composed of an insulating fatty substance called
myelin. Myelin wraps around the shaft of the axons, forming an insulating and protective
sheath. Bundles of myelin-coated axons travel together as “cables” in the central nervous
system called tracts, and in the peripheral nervous system bundles of axons are called
nerves.
It allows the electrical impulses to travel quickly and efficiently. Myelin is made by
oligodendrocytes in our CNS, and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system.
Myelin from Schwann cells has a unique feature that can serve as a tunnel through which
damaged nerve fibers can reconnect and repair themselves. That’s why a severed toe might
actually regain some function and feeling if sewn back on in time. Unfortunately, myelin
from oligodendrocytes covering axons in the brain and spinal cord does not have this feature,
and these axons are more likely to be permanently damaged.
The myelin sheath isn’t one solid covering, it is a lineup of individual sections of myelin
(internode), each separated by a tiny gap.
Each gap in the myelin sheath is called the nodes of Ranvier.
Nodes of Ranvier: They are rich in positive sodium ions. When the electrical impulse that is
the neural message travels down an axon coated with myelin, the electrical impulse is
regenerated at each node and appears to “jump” or skip rapidly from node to node down the
axon. That makes the message go much faster down the coated axon than it would down an
uncoated axon of a neuron in the brain.
There are three kinds of neurons:

1. Sensory neurons carry information from the sense organs (such as the eyes
and ears) to the brain.
2. Motor neurons control voluntary muscle activity, such as walking and talking,
and carry messages from nerve cells in the brain to the muscles.
3. Other neurons, all of which are called interneurons.

Or - Multipolar, bipolar , unipolar , interneuron

Communication within Neuron
Neurons communicate through a combination of electrical and chemical signals, a process
essential for transmitting information across the nervous system. This communication occurs
in several stages:

1. Electrical Signaling – Action Potentials:

- At the heart of neural communication lies the action potential, an electrical impulse that
travels along the neuron's axon.

- Initially, the neuron is in a resting state with a negative internal charge, maintained by the
differential distribution of ions across its membrane. This resting potential is primarily due to
the selective permeability of the membrane and the action of ion pumps.

- When a neuron receives a stimulus, ion channels in the membrane open, allowing
positively charged sodium ions to flow inside, leading to depolarization. If this depolarization
reaches a certain threshold, it triggers an action potential.

- During the action potential, the neuron undergoes a rapid change in charge: the inside of
the neuron becomes positive relative to the outside. This is followed by repolarization, where
the neuron returns to its resting state, primarily through the outflow of potassium ions.This
propagation of the action potential along the axon is a key mechanism for the transmission of
information within the nervous system.

2. Chemical Signaling – Synaptic Transmission:

- The action potential travels down the axon to the axon terminals, leading to the release of
neurotransmitters, chemicals stored in synaptic vesicles.

- These neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft, the gap between the axon
terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of another.

- The neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. This binding
can either stimulate or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron, depending on the type of
neurotransmitter and receptor involved.For instance, excitatory neurotransmitters like
glutamate will increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential,
while inhibitory neurotransmitters like GABA will decrease this likelihood.

3. Reuptake and Degradation:

- To ensure that signals are not continuously transmitted, the neurotransmitters must be
removed from the synaptic cleft. This is achieved either through reuptake, where the
neurotransmitter is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron, or through enzymatic degradation,
where enzymes in the synaptic cleft break down the neurotransmitters.
4. Integration of Signals:

- Neurons often receive multiple signals at their dendrites, originating from various
presynaptic neurons.

- These signals can be excitatory or inhibitory and the neuron integrates these incoming
signals. If the cumulative effect of these signals reaches the threshold, the neuron will fire an
action potential, continuing the process of communication.

In summary, communication within neurons involves a sophisticated interplay of electrical

and chemical processes. The action potential allows for rapid signal transmission along the
axon, while synaptic transmission ensures that the signal can be passed efficiently to the next
neuron, enabling the complex functioning of the nervous system.

Communication between Neuron

Neurons communicate through electrical impulses and chemical signals. When an electrical
signal, called an action potential, travels down the axon of one neuron, it reaches the axon
terminals. These terminals release neurotransmitters into the synapse, a tiny gap between
neurons. Neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the dendrites of the next neuron,
transmitting the signal. This process ensures the transmission of information across the
nervous system.
The membrane of a nerve is selectively permeable; that is, some chemicals can pass through
it more freely than others can.Communication within neurons is a highly coordinated and
dynamic process involving various cellular and molecular components. Neurons, the basic
units of the nervous system, consist of the cell body (soma), dendrites, and axon. The cell
body contains the nucleus and other organelles essential for the neuron's metabolic functions.
Dendrites extend from the cell body to receive signals from other neurons, while the axon is a
long, tubular structure responsible for transmitting signals to other neurons or target cells.

The initiation of communication within neurons begins with the generation of electrical

signals. Neurons maintain a resting membrane potential, typically around -65 millivolts, due

to the unequal distribution of ions across the cell membrane. Sodium ions (Na+) and chloride

ions (Cl-) are more abundant outside the cell, while potassium ions (K+) and negatively

charged anions (A-) are more prevalent inside.

Neurotransmitters play a crucial role in neuronal communication. These chemical messengers

transmit signals from one neuron to another or to a target cell. Neurotransmitters are released

from the axon terminals into the synaptic cleft, a tiny gap between neurons. Ligand-gated ion

channels open in response to neurotransmitters, allowing the flow of ions such as sodium and
calcium. This can lead to excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP) or inhibitory postsynaptic

potentials (IPSP), depending on the net charge movement.

The integration of multiple EPSPs or IPSPs across dendrites can reach a threshold value,

typically around -55 millivolts, triggering depolarization. Voltage-gated sodium channels

open, leading to a rapid influx of sodium ions and the initiation of an action potential. The

membrane potential becomes more positive, reaching around +40 millivolts.

Repolarization follows as voltage-gated potassium channels open, allowing potassium ions to

leave the cell. This outward movement of positive ions restores the membrane potential

towards its resting state. In some instances, hyperpolarization occurs, making the membrane

potential briefly more negative than the resting state.

The sodium-potassium pump actively transports sodium ions out and potassium ions back

into the cell, restoring the original ion distribution and returning the neuron to its resting

membrane potential. The absolute refractory period ensures that the neuron is less responsive

to new stimuli immediately after an action potential, aiding the unidirectional propagation of

the signal along the axon.If the depolarization is strong enough at the axon hillock, the region

where the axon originates from the cell body, is strong enough, the action potential

successfully propagates down the length of the axon. After the action potential has passed,

the neuron undergoes a brief period of hyperpolarization before returning to its resting state,

ready to respond to another stimulus and generate a new action potential.

The action potential travels along the axon to the axon terminals, triggering the release of

neurotransmitters. These chemical messengers bind to receptors on the dendrites of the

receiving neuron, initiating an excitatory or inhibitory response. The sum of these signals

determines whether the receiving neuron generates its own action potential and passes the

signal along.
Communication within neurons is also facilitated by the myelination of axons. Myelin, a fatty

substance, forms a protective sheath around certain axons, increasing the speed of action

potential conduction. Nodes of Ranvier, small gaps in the myelin sheath, enable the rapid

"jumping" of action potentials, further enhancing signal transmission.

In conclusion, communication within neurons involves a precise interplay of electrical and

chemical signaling mechanisms. From the initiation of action potentials to the release and

reception of neurotransmitters, each step is vital for the proper functioning of the nervous

system. Understanding these intricate processes is crucial for unraveling the complexities of

neurological functions and developing interventions for neurological disorders.