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NEURAL STRUCTURE
Psychologists striving to understand the human mind may study the nervous system. Learning how the body's
cells and organs function can help us understand the biological basis of human psychology.
The nervous system is composed of two basic cell types: glial cells (also known as glia) and neurons.

Glial cells:
Glial cells are traditionally thought to play a supportive role to neurons, both physically and metabolically. Glial
cells provide essential support and maintenance functions for neurons. Glial cells provide scaffolding on which
the nervous system is built, help neurons line up closely with each other to allow neuronal communication,
provide insulation to neurons, transport nutrients and waste products, and mediate immune responses.
Dysfunction or damage to glial cells has been implicated in various neurological disorders, such as multiple
sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease.

Researchers believed:
Researchers believed that there were many more glial cells than neurons; however, more recent work from
Suzanna. Herculano-Houzel's laboratory has called this long-standing assumption into question and has
provided important evidence that there may be a nearly 1:1 ratio of glia cells to neurons. This is important
because it suggests that human brains are more similar to other primate brains than previously thought.
Neurons, on the other hand, serve as interconnected information processors that are essential for all of the tasks
of the nervous system.

Neurons:
This section briefly describes the structure and function of neurons. Neurons are the central building blocks of
the nervous system, 86 billion strong at birth. Like all cells, neurons consist of several different parts, each
serving a specialized function. They transmit and process information through electrical and chemical signals. A
neuron's outer surface is made up of a semipermeable membrane. This membrane allows smaller molecules and
molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules.
 Structure of a Neuron
A typical neuron consists of:
 Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.
 Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles.
 Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body.
 Axon Terminals: Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.

1. Dendrites:
Dendrites are branching extensions of a neuron's cell body (soma) that receive signals from other neurons. They
are tree-like structures that increase the surface area of the neuron, allowing it to receive and process more
information.
2. Cell Body (Soma):
The nucleus of the neuron is located in the soma, or cell body. The soma has branching extensions known as
dendrites. The neuron is a small information processor, and dendrites serve as input sites where signals are
received from other neurons. These signals are transmitted electrically across the soma and down a major
extension from the soma known as the axon, which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The terminal buttons
contain synaptic vesicles that house neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system
3. Axons:
Axons range in length from a fraction of an inch to several feet. In some axons, glial cells form a fatty substance
known as the myelin sheath. which coats the axon and acts as an insulator, increasing the speed at which the
signal travels. The myelin sheath is not continuous and there are small gaps that occur down the length of the
axon. These gaps in the myelin sheath are known as the Nodes of Ranvier. The myelin sheath is crucial for the
normal operation of the neurons within the nervous system: the loss of the insulation it provides can be
detrimental to normal function.
4. Axon Terminals:
Signals are transmitted electrically across the soma and down a major extension from the soma known as the
axon, which ends at multiple terminal buttons. The terminal buttons contain synaptic vesicles that house
neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers of the nervous system

Important Notes
1. Neurons are specialized cells that play a crucial role in the nervous system.
2. The structure and function of neurons enable them to transmit and process information.
3. Understanding neurons is essential for understanding the nervous system and its functions.

SYNAPTIC TRANSMISSION
Definition:
The transmission of neural messages across the synaptic gap, via the release of transmitter from a pre-synaptic
neuron onto post-synaptic receptor sites on a post-synaptic neuron, is called synaptic transmission or
neurotransmission.

Working of Synaptic Transmission:

Synaptic transmission is central to the brain's capacity to process information, to generate mental states, and to
generate adaptive behavior. Synaptic transmission is the process by which neurons communicate with each
other through the release and binding of chemical messengers. Some synapses are purely electrical and make
direct electrical connections between neurons (for example, between basket cells in the cerebellum). However,
most synapses are chemical synapses, involving neurotransmitters. The transmission of neural signals across
chemical synapses is more complex than at electrical synapses and involves many steps.

Key Players in Synaptic Transmission

1. Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit the signal.
2. Receptors: Proteins on the surface of the postsynaptic neuron that bind to neurotransmitters.
3. Synaptic Vesicles: Small vesicles that store and release neurotransmitters.
Importance of Synaptic Transmission
1. Neural Communication: Synaptic transmission enables neurons to communicate with each other.
2. Learning and Memory: Synaptic transmission plays a crucial role in learning and memory.
3. Neurological Disorders: Dysregulation of synaptic transmission has been implicated in various neurological
disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

1. ELECTRICAL SYNAPSES
Electrical synapses are much less common than chemical synapses, but they are nevertheless distributed
throughout the brain. In chemical synapses neurotransmitter is needed for communication between neurons, but
for electrical synapses this is not the case. In electrical synapses current, ions, and molecules can flow between
two neurons through direct physical connections that allow cytoplasm to flow between them. The physical
connection between neurons with electrical synapses is in the form of large pore structures, called connexons, at
gap junctions between such neurons. Communication between neurons with electrical synapses is faster than at
chemical synapses which must go through more steps to transmit signals to another neuron.
Therefore, electrical synapses are often found in neural systems that require rapid response such as defensive
reflexes. Electrical synapses can communicate signals in both directions between neurons in contrast to
chemical synapses which transmit messages in one direction, from pre-synaptic by transmitter release to post-
synaptic neuron.

Electrical synapses are formed by:

1. Gap Junctions: Specialized channels that connect the cytoplasm of two adjacent neurons.
2. Connexins: Proteins that form the gap junctions.
2. CHEMICAL SYNAPSES
Polarization: The resting state of a neuron, with a negative charge inside and a positive charge outside. In the
context of neurons, polarization refers to the difference in electrical charge between the inside and outside of a
neuron.
Depolarization: The reduction of the negative charge inside the neuron, moving towards a positive charge.
This happens when:
Excitatory neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, causing an influx of positively
charged ions (e.g., sodium). The influx of positively charged ions reduces the negative charge inside the neuron,
depolarizing it.
Repolarization: The return of the electrical charge inside the neuron to its resting state.
Threshold Potential: If the depolarization is strong enough, the neuron reaches its threshold potential (-55mV).
At this point: An action potential is generated, and the neuron fires. The action potential travels down the length
of the neuron, transmitting the signal.
Hyperpolarization is a state where the electrical charge inside a neuron becomes even more negative than its
resting potential (-70mV). This occurs when: Inhibitory neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic
neuron, causing an influx of negatively charged ions (e.g., chloride) or an efflux of positively charged ions (e.g.,
potassium). The increased negative charge inside the neuron makes it more difficult for the neuron to generate
an action potential.
 Ionotropic and Metabotropic Synapses
There are two major categories of post-synaptic receptors:
1. ionotropic receptors
2. metabotropic receptors.

Ionotropic Synapses:
Ionotropic synapses, also known as ionotropic receptors, are a type of synapse that directly controls the flow of
ions across the neuronal membrane.
Lonotropic receptors, when activated by transmitter from a pre-synaptic neuron, cause ion channels to open,
allowing ions, with their electrical charges, to move across the cell membrane of the receiving (post-synaptic)
neuron, causing an EPSP or an IPSP. These are fast acting receptors and are involved in the kind of neural
transmission we have been describing above. lonotropic receptors are receptors on ion channels that open,
allowing some ions to enter or exit the cell, depending upon the presence of a particular neurotransmitter

Characteristics:
 Fast Transmission: Ionotropic synapses transmit signals rapidly, often in milliseconds.
 Direct Ion Flow: Ionotropic receptors directly control the flow of ions (e.g., sodium, potassium, chloride)
across the neuronal membrane.
 Ligand-Gated Ion Channels: Ionotropic receptors are ligand-gated ion channels that open or close in
response to binding of neurotransmitters.

Metabotropic Synapses:
Metabotropic synapses, also known as metabotropic receptors, are a type of synapse that indirectly controls the
flow of ions across the neuronal membrane through secondary messenger systems.
Metabotropic receptors (usually coupled with G-proteins; i.e. guanine nucleotide-binding proteins), when
activated by transmitter from a pre-synaptic neuron, act indirectly and more slowly, using second messengers to
produce a variety of metabolic effects to modulate cell activity. These effects include changes in gene
transcription, regulation of proteins in the cell, release of Ca+ (calcium ions) within the cell, and effects on ion
channels on the neuron's cell membrane.

Characteristics:
 Slow Transmission: Metabotropic synapses transmit signals more slowly, often in seconds or minutes.
 Indirect Ion Flow: Metabotropic receptors indirectly control the flow of ions by activating secondary
messenger systems.
 G-Protein Coupled Receptors: Metabotropic receptors are G-protein coupled receptors that activate
secondary messenger systems.