Unit THE SELF IN THE LEARNING

1
PROCESS

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Lesson 1:
Learning, Memory, and Intelligence

LEARNING
Learning is defined as relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of prior
experience.

It is a process in which the person interacts with the effective environment to produce a stable
change in behavior.

Basically, a change in behavior is a product of learning. Learning could therefore be

simply defined as “profiting” from experience. However, some learning does not really result to “profit”
for the learner, since useless and harmful habits are learned just as well as the useful ones.

Basic Elements of Learning

Learning involves changing one’s behavior under the influence of one’s environment. There
are four important prerequisites to learning:

1. Learning involves a person. Learning is a continuous process which is influenced by traits

carried by one’s genes which emerge through the process of maturation.

2. Learning involves an environment. A person’s environment is neither constant nor stable. It

is changing from moment to moment. The environment may consist of a person, an object, an
event, or situation to which the individual is responding.

3. Learning involves interaction. We interact with our environment to promote learning. We

develop through a process of interaction with our family and friends. We react to the social
and physical stimuli around us.

4. Learning involves behavior change. If the behavior is repeated under more or less similar
environmental conditions, we may say that the behavior change is stable and that the
behavior has been learned. Changes in behavior due to fatigue or drugs, however are not
considered as learned behavior.

Theories of Learning
Three popular psychologists made experiments with animals as subjects; they were able to
postulate three theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and cognitive
learning.
1. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING. This is the simplest form of learning. It is a type of learning in
which an originally neutral stimulus evokes a new response after having been paired with another
stimulus that reflexively evokes the same response.

Ivan Pavlov conducted an experiment with dogs. Normally, a dog salivates when presented some
food. In his experiment, Pavlov rang a bell and presented a piece of meat to the dog. After several
repetitions of the pairings of the sound of the bell and dog, the dog’s salivation response became
conditioned not only by the food but also by the sound of the bell, with or without the presence of the
food. The sound of the bell is called conditioned stimulus or CS and the salivation produced by the CS
is conditioned response or CR. The meat is called unconditioned stimulus (US). The US is a stimulus
which can naturally produce a response without training. The response to the US is called
unconditioned response (UR).

2. OPERANT CONDITIONING. It is also called instrumental learning. Operant conditioning is a

type of learning in which organism learns through consequences of its behavior. Operant conditioning
is divided into two categories: reinforcement and punishment

a. Reinforcement refers to anything that increases the likelihood of a response to occur.

Positive Reinforcement – To increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in
the future, an operant response is followed by the presentation or addition of a
pleasant or rewarding stimulus.

example: Your mom will buy you an Iphone 16 if you get a perfect score in your
midterm exams.

Negative Reinforcement – To increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring in

the future, an operant response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant or
aversive stimulus.

Negative reinforcement is not a negative thing. Instead, it's about removing an

aversive thing. Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment or a negative
consequence for an action.

example: A teacher will exempt a student from taking the final exam if he/she gets a
perfect score in the midterm exam.

b. Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which

decreases the future frequency of that behavior. Punishment is used to reduce a behavior.

Positive Punishment – Presentation or addition of an unpleasant stimulus after an

undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the
future.

example: A mother assigns additional household chores to her son after he failed his
Math class.

Negative Punishment – Removal of a pleasant or rewarding stimulus after a

particular undesired behavior is exhibited, resulting in the behavior happening less
often in the future.

example: A mother confiscates her son’s gadgets because he failed his Math class.

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3. COGNITIVE LEARNING. This is a form of
learning which involves organizing information,
making comparison, and forming association
resulting to new information.

This form of learning gives importance to

the roles of perception and knowledge. This is
demonstrated in an experiment conducted by
Kohler.

Kohler used a chimpanzee as the subject in his experiment on cognitive learning. The
chimpanzee was kept in a cage. He placed a fruit beyond the chimpanzee’s reach outside its cage
and sticks of varying length. Upon seeing a fruit, the chimpanzee tried to reach for it but failed. Then
he picked the shorter stick near the cage and tried to get the fruit with stick. He failed again. After
some pauses, he reached for the longer stick using the short stick. With the longer stick, the
chimpanzee finally got the fruit. The chimpanzee’s learning and satisfaction was dependent on its
ability to discover the uses and relationship of the objects around it. He was able to solve the problem
by understanding the relationship between the sticks and the fruit. Learning occurs when the situation
is taken as a whole, not in parts.

A person’s behavior is dependent on his perceptions of the environment or situation he finds

himself in. For example, if you consider a book relevant and useful to your studies, you will learn from
it faster than a useless material. One’s knowledge or previous experience also influences one’s
behavior.

Cognitive learning is learning through insights. Learning is therefore considered as a process,

whereby problems are solved through a series of discoveries facilitated by our experience.

The Learning Process

There are several factors that can help or hinder the learning process. Defective senses,
illness, fatigue, and lack of sleep are some of the factors that can hinder learning. Among those that
facilitate learning are: (1) feedback, (2) transfer of learning, (3) practice, and (4) motivation.

1. Feedback. This enables you to know the results of your action or performance, and
thereby avoid repeating the same mistakes. The feedback serves as a reinforcement for
continuing the action that you know is right or satisfying (e.g., knowing your grades serves
as a basis whether or not you need to study harder).

2. Transfer of Learning. This occurs when your learning in one situation influences your
learning and performance in other situations. There are two types of transfer:

Positive Transfer – when a previously learned response helps you to learn a new
task. For example, if you know how to ride a bicycle, it will be easier for you to learn
how to drive a motorcycle.
Negative Transfer – when a previously learned task hinders present learning. For
example, an expert driver in the Philippines may find it difficult to drive a car in Japan
since there are steering wheel is on the car’s right side while here, it is on the left
side.

3. Practice. The repetition of a task binds responses together. Psychologists have found
out that it is better to space out practice (distributive practice) rather than do it all at once

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 (massed learning). It is better to study one chapter at a time rather than to study two or
more chapters at one time.

Preschoolers learn to read and write the letters of the alphabet through frequent practice.
The children learn a few letters over a period of time before learning the succeeding
letters.

4. Motivation. The driving force that enables a person to achieve goals and progress. The
sources of motivation may be internal or external.

Intrinsic Motivation. The self-motivated person sets realistic goals, takes concrete
steps to meet those goals, and evaluates progress accordingly (Worell and Stilwell
1981). The desire and the interest to learn comes from the person himself. If you
really want to learn, you don’t need your parent or teacher to push you to study hard.

Extrinsic Motivation is a motivation provided by others. It is provided by the

situation, the tasks on which the person is working, and the consequences of his
efforts. If you go to school because you want to be with your friends, most likely you
will quit school when your friends stop studying.

5. Learning Styles. Drs. Kenneth and Rita Dunn developed the Learning Styles Model.
They believe that each person has a unique learning style. Learning is situational and one
may prefer different styles of learning in different situations.

Visual Learning Style. Visual learners make use of visual imaging to picture what
they are trying to learn. They use visual words to describe shape, form, color, or size.

Auditory Learning Style. Auditory learners learn by listening and prefers to read
aloud while studying.

Kinesthetic (Manipulative) Learning Style. Kinesthetic learners learn best through

movement and manipulation of object. They are interested to know how things work.
These types of students want involvement in experiments, field works and other
similar activities.

MEMORY
Stored knowledge or information in the mind that may be consciously retrieved and recalled.

Learning and memory are closely related. We cannot reproduce from memory what has not been
learned and we cannot assess what has been learned without tapping memory (Schnieder, 1980).
Learning always implies memory. If we cannot remember anything from our experiences, we learn
nothing.

Stages of Memory
The intellectual ability of an individual to organize materials in his memory is one factor that
contributes to a well-rounded personality.

Memory passes through three stages: (1) encoding, (2) storing, and (3) retrieval.

Encoding. The information brought about by an object, person, experience, or environment is

transformed. Illustration: on the bus to school, you met a friend. He asked you to call him; he gave you
his telephone number. You deposited these numbers into your memory so you can call him later.

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 Storage. The information can be stored and retrieve in your nervous system for a span of
time. To continue with the illustration: the telephone number your friend gave you stayed in your mind
while you were in school until you reach home.

Retrieval. The information stored can be retrieved or recalled later from your memory. In the
illustration: you decided to call up your friend. You get from storage the phone numbers needed. You
dialed the numbers correctly and you were able to call and talk to your friend.

Memory can fail at any of these three stages. Memory failure may be due to your limitations in
acquiring the materials (encoding and storage), or it can be due to difficulty in retrieving information
from storage, or both. Mental operations are not the same in all three stages. Some situations ay
require you to store materials and information for a matter of seconds and some for longer periods of
time.

Forgetting
When information stored in Long-term Memory cannot be retrieved, it is said to be forgotten. Some
theories indicate that out inability to remember involves (1) decay, (2) interference or (3) repression.

Decay. Some inputs may fade away or decay over time. Information stored in memory, if not
used, will eventually die or fade away from memory. However, the ability of old people to recall their
childhood days shows that memories persist over a relatively long period of time.

Interference. This refers to a memory being blocked or erased by precious or subsequent

memories. The blocking of a memory by an experience that occurred after we learned the materials is
called retroactive inhibition. If the memory is blocked by an experience that occurred before we
learned the materials, the process is called proactive inhibition .

Repression. A person may intentionally block memories of an embarrassing or frightening

experience. The material is still in the person’s memory somewhere, but it has been unconsciously
made inaccessible because it is disturbing. This kind of forgetting is called repression.

INTELLIGENCE
What makes an individual capable of reasoning, judging and comprehending events in life?
Events and occurrences in our daily life demand from us a lot of mental activities. This is manifested
in our ability to comprehend, to judge, to reason, to evaluate, to choose and do many other things.

Mental activities take place in one of the main divisions of the human brain called cerebrum.
Behavior is influenced by these mental activities which are essentially the functions of intelligence.

The Nature of Intelligence

Intelligence is manifested in many ways within and across cultures. Different circumstances
demand different types of coping and resourcefulness. People can behave intelligently in so many
different situations. This diversity in intelligent behavior is even more complicated when we consider
what different societies value as intelligent. In the Philippines, we tend to judge a person who is fluent
in English as intelligent. Similarly, North Americans consider one who exhibits verbal fluency as
intelligent. In certain African countries, intelligence means expert hunting. It is clear that people value
different behaviors as intelligent.

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Intelligence, Heredity, Environment
One extreme view of intelligence is that it is hereditary, transmitted from parents to offspring
through the genes. Most scientist conclude that IQ has a substantial heritability. One comparison
made is between similarities of IQ scores for pairs of identical twins and for pairs of fraternal twins. If
IQ is heritable then we would expect the IQs of identical twins to be more highly correlated than the
IQs of fraternal twins. A study by Arthur Jensen showed that identical twins manifested similar
intelligence than the fraternal twins. This result established the fact that heredity plays a great role in
the determination of IQ.

Another extreme view is that intelligence is totally a function of the environment and
experience. In a study of H.M. Skeels, he indicated the influence of environment on the development
of intelligence. Skeels was working at an orphanage where children lived in cramped quarters. They
ate, slept, and plays according to a rigid schedule. Skeels notice in particular two baby girls who were
underweight, sad, and inactive. Sometime later, he was surprised to find the two girls active, smiling,
and healthy. He learned that each of girls been “adopted” by an older retired woman in the institution
who devoted many hours each day caring for the children.

If the genes determine the raw material for intelligence, the environment provides the
opportunities to develop the raw material to the fullest. Therefore, it can be safely stated that
intelligence is a product of both hereditary and the environment.

Lesson 2:
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

The social learning theory of Albert Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes and emotional reactions of others.

The Bobo Doll Experiment

Figure 1.
The actual footage of Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

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In 1950’s, Dr. Bandura has a study known as Bobo doll experiment. In this
experiment, the sample children were presented with new social models of
violent and nonviolent behavior toward an inflatable redounding bobo doll.

The results were: the group of children who saw the violent behavior model
became violent to the doll, while the control group who was presented with the
nonviolent behavior rarely violent to the doll.

This experiment has proven right the hypothesis that social modelling is a very
effective way of learning. Dr. Bandura introduced the social learning theory
that focuses on what people learn from observing and interacting with other
people. Bandura’s social cognitive theory states that people are active
participants in their environment and are not simply shaped by that
environment.

Lesson 3:
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

In our day-to-day life, different people are likely to agree

fairly well on who the bright people in their class or work group or
social circle are. However, there are wide variations in lay man’s
definitions of the concept. We come across the concept of
‘intelligence’ very often in our lives.

Every individual is unique with their own individual

differences. Our schools with the rigid curriculum and teaching
methods, are strictly standardized. It doesn’t fit into the myriad
intelligences of the students, instead, the students have to struggle
to fit into the burden of the curriculum that is heavily based on the
verbal-linguistic and spatial intelligence.

Gardner’s gift to the classroom is in his conceptualization

of intelligence as multifaceted and multidimensional (1983). He
defines human potential in terms of the ability to solve problems in a culturally valued setting. In light
of this broad perspective, Gardner identified eight realms of intelligence: verbal, logical, visual,
musical, bodily, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. As seen in countless classrooms, these
multiple intelligences work in various combinations as students interact and connect in the execution
of complex tasks.

Multiple Intelligences Theory focuses on human’s real-life circumstances, and emphasizes

the training of students to solve problems. This connects to the real world, rather than abstract class
room learning, places it close to the true reason humans learn, for this reason, it has caught wide
spread attention from various international circles.

According to Howard Gardner, Intelligence is a biopsychological potential to process information

that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are of value in a
culture. Relevance, cultural setting=shared belongingness.

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The Multiple Intelligences Theory is a psychological and educational theory which suggests that
there is an array of different kinds of intelligences that are present in human beings.

We may all have these intelligences, but our profile of these intelligences may differ individually based
on genetics or experience.

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence
(word smart or book smart)

This intelligence involves knowing which comes through language; through reading, writing,
and speaking. It involves understanding the order and meaning of words in both speech and writing
and how to properly use the language. It involves understanding the sociocultural nuances of a
language, including idioms, plays on words, and linguistically-based humor.

If this is a strong intelligence for you, you have highly developed skills for reading, speaking,
and writing and you tend to think in words. You probably like various kinds of literature, playing word
games, making up poetry and stories, engaging in discussions with other people, debating, formal
speaking, creative writing, and telling jokes. You are likely precise in expressing yourself and irritated
when others are not! You love learning new words, you do well with written assignments, and your
comprehension of anything you read is high.

Mathematical-Logical Intelligence
(math smart or logic smart)

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 This intelligence uses numbers, math, and logic to find and understand the various patterns
that occur in our lives: thought patterns, number patterns, visual patterns, color patterns, and so on. It
begins with concrete patterns in the real world but gets increasingly abstract as we try to understand
the relationships of patterns we have seen.

If you happen to be a logical-mathematically inclined person, you tend to think more

conceptually and abstractly and are often able to see patterns and relationships that others miss. You
probably like to conduct experiments, solve puzzles and other problems, ask cosmic questions, and
analyze circumstances and people’s behavior. You most likely enjoy working with numbers and
mathematical formulas and operations, and you love the challenge of a complex problem to solve.
You are probably systematic and organized, and you likely always have a logical rationale or
argument for what you are doing or thinking at any given time.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence
(art smart or picture smart)

We often say, “a picture is worth a thousand words” or “seeing is believing”. This intelligence
represents the knowing that occurs through the shapes, images, patterns, designs, and textures we
see with our external eyes, but also includes all of the images we are able to conjure inside our
heads. If you are strong in this intelligence, you tend to think in images and pictures. You are likely
very aware of objects, shapes, colors, textures, and patterns in the environment around you. You
probably like to draw, paint, and make interesting designs and patterns, and work with clay, colored
markers, construction paper, and fabric.

Many who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence love to work jigsaw puzzles, read maps and
find their way around new places. You probably have definite opinions about colors that go together
well, textures that are appropriate and pleasing, and how a room should be decorated. And, you are
likely excellent at performing tasks that require “seeing with the mind’s eyes,” such as visualizing,
pretending, imagining, and forming mental images.

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 Intrapersonal Intelligence
(self-smart or introspection smart)

At the heart of this intelligence are our human self-reflective abilities by which we can step
outside of ourselves and think about our own lives. This is the introspective intelligence. It involves our
uniquely human propensity to want to know the meaning, purpose, and significance of things. It
involves our awareness of the inner world of the self, emotions, values, beliefs, and our various
quests for genuine spirituality.

If this intelligence is one of your strong points you may like to work alone and sometimes you
may shy away from others. You are probably self-reflective and self-aware and thus you tend to be in
tune with your inner feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes. You are frequently bearers of
creative wisdom and insight, are highly intuitive, and you are inwardly motivated rather than needing
external rewards to keep you going. You are often strong-willed, self-confident, and have definite,
well-thought-out opinions on almost any issue. Other people will often come to you for advice and
counsel.

Interpersonal Intelligence
(people smart or group smart)

This is the person-to-person way of knowing. It is the knowing that happens when we work
with and relate to other people, often as part of a team. This way of knowing also asks you to develop
a whole range of social skills that are needed for effective person-to-person communication and
relating.

If this person-to-person way of knowing is more developed in you, you learn through personal
interactions. You probably have lots of friends, show a great deal of empathy for other people and
exhibit a deep understanding of other points of view. You probably love team activities of all kinds and
are a good team member--you “pull your own weight” and often much more! You are sensitive to other
people’s feelings and ideas, and are good at piggybacking your ideas on others’ thoughts. And you
are likely skilled at drawing others out in a discussion. You are also probably skilled in conflict
resolution, mediation, and finding compromise when people are in radical opposition to each other.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence
(body smart or movement smart)

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 We often talk about “learning by doing.” This way of knowing happens through physical
movement and through knowing of our physical body. The body “knows” many things that are not
necessarily known by the conscious, logical mind, such as how to ride a bike, how to parallel park a
car, dance the waltz, catch a thrown object, maintain balance while walking, and where the keys are
on a computer keyboard.

If you have strength in this intelligence area you tend to have a keen sense of body
awareness. You like physical movement, dancing, making and inventing things with your hands, and
roleplaying. You probably communicate well through body language and other physical gestures. You
can often perform a task much better after seeing someone else do it first and then mimicking their
actions. You probably like physical games of all kinds and you like to demonstrate how to do
something for someone else. You may find it difficult to sit still for long periods of time and are easily
bored or distracted if you are not actively involved in what is going on around you.

Naturalistic Intelligence
(nature smart or environment smart)

The naturalistic intelligence involves the full range of knowing that occurs in and through our
encounters with the natural world including our recognition, appreciation, and understanding of the
natural environment. It involves such capacities as species discernment, communion with the natural
world and its phenomena, and the ability to recognize and classify various flora and fauna.

If the naturalistic intelligence is one of your strengths you have a profound love for the
outdoors, animals, plants, and almost any natural object. You are probably fascinated by and
noticeably affected by such things as the weather, changing leaves in the fall, the sound of the wind,
the warm sun or lack thereof, or an insect in the room. At a young age you were likely nature
collectors, adding such things as bugs, rocks leaves, seashells, sticks, and so on to your collections.
You probably brought home all manner and kinds of stray animals and today you may have several
pets and want more. You tend to have an affinity with and respect for all living beings.

Musical-Rhythmic Intelligence
(music smart or sound smart)

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 This is the knowing that happens through sound and vibration. In the original research on the
theory of multiple intelligences, this intelligence was called musical-rhythmic intelligence. However, it
is not limited to music and rhythm or auditory-vibrational, for it further deals with the whole realm of
sound, tones, beats, and vibrational patterns as well as music.

If you are strong in this intelligence area you likely have a love of music and rhythmic
patterns. You are probably very sensitive to sounds in the environment; the chirp of cricket, rain on
the roof, varying traffic patterns. You may study and work better with music in the background. You
can often reproduce a melody or rhythmic pattern after hearing it only once. Various sounds, tones,
and rhythms may have a visible effect on you, others can often see a change in facial expressions,
body movement, or emotional responses. You probably like to create music and you enjoy listening to
a wide variety of music. You may be skilled at mimicking sounds, language accents, and others’
speech patterns, and you can probably readily recognize different musical instruments in a
composition.

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