Chapter 1 – Loads and Load

effects
Part 2: Earthquake Load
 What is an Earth quake
• An earthquake is the vibration of Earth produced by the
rapid release of accumulated energy in elastically
strained rocks.
• It is the earth’s natural means of releasing stress.
• Energy released radiates in all directions from its source,
the focus;
• Energy propagates in the form of seismic waves;
• Sensitive instruments around the world record the
event.
Example
• If you throw stone in a pond of still
water, a series of waves are
produced on the surface of water,
these waves spread out in all
directions from the point where the
stone strikes the water.
• Similarly, any sudden disturbances
in the earth’s crust may produce
vibration in the crust which travel in
all direction from point of
disturbances.
• In March 2011, a magnitude-9.0 quake rocked Japan,
triggering a tsunami that killed an estimated 29,000
people & damaged nuclear reactors.
• Earthquakes don't kill people; buildings do. This is a gross
over simplification, of course, because tsunamis also
take many lives, but not all earthquakes generate
tsunamis.
• They do however cause buildings, bridges and other
structures to experience sudden lateral accelerations
• The dynamic response of the building to earthquake
ground motion is the most important cause of
earthquake-induced damage to buildings.
• Failure of the ground and soil beneath buildings is also a
major cause of damage. However, contrary to popular
belief, buildings are rarely, if ever, damaged because of
fault displacement beneath a building.
To briefly review the basics of earthquake generation:
• Most earthquakes result from rapid movement along the plane of
faults within the earth's crust.
• This sudden movement of the fault releases a great deal of
energy, which then travels through the earth in the form of
seismic waves.
• The seismic waves travel for great distances before finally losing
most of their energy. some of the basic features common not
only to seismic waves but to all forms of wave motion.
• At some time after their generation, these seismic waves will
reach the earth's surface, and set it in motion – Earth quake
ground motion.
fault movement releases energy as seismic
waves radiating from rupture
• Earthquake or seismic load on a building depends upon its
geographical location, lateral stiffness and mass, and is
reversible.
• Its effect should be considered along both axes of a building
taken one at a time. A force is defined as the product of mass
and acceleration.
• During an earthquake, the mass is imparted by the building
whereas the acceleration is imparted by the ground
disturbance.
• In order to have a minimum force, the mass of the building
should be as low as possible.
• There can be no control on the ground
acceleration being an act of the
Nature! The point of application of
internal force is the center of gravity
of the mass on each floor of the
building.
• Once there is a force, there has to be
an equal and opposite reaction to
balance this force.
• The internal force is resisted by the
building and the resisting force acts at
the center of rigidity at each floor of
the building.
Types of Earthquakes
• Tectonic Earthquakes : occur when rocks in the
earth's crust break due to geological forces created by
movement of tectonic plates.
• Volcanic Earthquakes: occur in conjunction with
volcanic activity.
• Collapse Earthquakes :are small earthquakes in
underground mines,
• Explosion Earthquakes: result from the explosion of
nuclear and chemical devices.
About 90% of all earthquakes result from tectonic
events, primarily movements on the faults events
What are the causes of an earthquake?
• Movement of Tectonic Plates
Earth is divided into sections called Tectonic plates that float on the
fluid-like interior of the earth. Earthquakes are usually caused by
sudden movement of earth’s plates
• Rupture of rocks along a fault
Faults are localized areas of weakness in the surface of the earth,
sometimes the plate boundary itself.
Where do earthquakes occur?
How can we measure earthquake magnitude and
location
Earthquake Waves & Seismographs
• Modern Seismograph can measure the intensity and duration of
these waves in different directions.
• Seismogram is visual record of arrival time and magnitude of
shaking associated with seismic wave, generated by a
seismograph
• Seismographs are instruments that record seismic waves
• Records the movement of Earth in relation to a stationary
mass on a rotating drum or magnetic tape
• More than one type of seismograph is needed to record both
vertical and horizontal ground motion
• The time, location, and magnitude of an earthquake can be
determined from the data recorded by seismograph
stations.
Earthquake measurement
• Measurement of earthquake
• Earthquakes are complex multi-dimensional phenomena
• The size of earthquakes (intensity and magnitude)
• Engineering design however requires measurement of EQ phenomena
in units such as force or displacement.
1. Rosi-Forel (RF) scale 1888 – (I – X)
2. Modified Mercalli (MM) scale (1931) – (I - XII)
3. Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) scale – (I - VII)
4. Medvedev Spoonheuer Karnik (MSK) scale (I - XII)
Comparison of intensity values of the different
scales
 Earthquake magnitude: scales based on
seismograms
o Surface wave magnitude (Ms)
A – is the max ground displacement in micrometer
∆ - is the epicenteral distance of the seismometer in degrees (M𝑎𝑥. 3600 )
Used for shallow, distant and moderate to large EQ
o Richter Local magnitude (ML)
A is the max trace amplitude (micrometers) recorded on a Wood-Anderson
seismometer located 100 km from the epicenter of the earthquake.
𝐴𝑜 is a standard value as a function of distance, for instruments located at
distances other than 100 km and less than 600 km.
 Cont’d
o Body wave magnitude (Mb)
A – is the P wave amplitude in micrometer
T- is the period of the P-wave (~ 1 sec)
 Used for deep focused EQ
o Moment magnitude (Mw)
Mo - is the seismic moment in dyne-cm
μ - is the rupture strength of the material along the fault
A is the rupture area
D - is the average amount of slip
N.B. moment scales do not saturate
 The Richter scale
• Steps:
1. Measure the interval (in seconds) between the arrival
of the first P and S waves.
2. Measure the amplitude of the largest S waves.
3. Use nomogram to estimate distance from earthquake
(S-P interval) and magnitude (join points on S-P
interval scale and S amplitude scale).
4. Use seismograms from at least three geographic
locations to locate epicenter by triangulation.
 Building should be able to resist

• Minor earthquakes-without damage

• Moderate earthquakes -with out structural damage but
possibly with some non-structural damage
• Major earthquakes -without collapse but possibly with some
structural damage as well as non structural damage. This is
achieved through an appropriate dynamic analysis.
 Actual Load depend on the following
1. Intensity of the general acceleration (including soil/rock
properties)
2. Dynamic properties of the building, such as its mode
shapes and periods of vibration and damping
characteristics.
3. Mass of the building
 The complexity of earthquake ground motion
is due to three factors:
• The three factors are source effects, path effects, and local site
effects.
• The seismic waves generated at the time of earthquake fault
movement were not all of a uniform character.
• As these waves pass through the earth on their way from the
fault to the building site, they are modified by the soil and rock
media through which they pass.
• Once the seismic waves reach the building site they undergo
further modifications that are dependent upon the
characteristics of the ground and soil beneath the building.
 Ground motion frequency
• The characteristics of earthquake ground motions
which have the greatest importance for buildings are
the
• Duration,
• Amplitude and
• Frequency of the ground motion.
• Frequency is defined as the number of complete
cycles of vibration made by the wave per second.
• Period – the time required to complete one cycle.
Typical periods of vibration
Resonant Frequencies
• When the frequency contents of the ground motion are centered on
the building's natural frequency, we say that the building and the
ground motion are in resonance with one another.
• Resonance tends to increase or amplify the building's response
Because of this, buildings suffer the greatest damage from ground
motion at a frequency close or equal to their own natural frequency.
 Effect of Resonance
 1985 earthquake in Mexico City, the
strong ground shaking lasted for
approximately 60 seconds with peak
acceleration of 10 to 15% of gravity.
 179 buildings had collapsed and an
additional 85 were in danger of collapse.

 The major damage in the heavy

damaged area occurred to
structures with story heights
ranging from about 6 to 18 stories
 <6 and >18 stories, less damage
 Response Spectra
• Any given building will act differently during different
earthquakes, which gives rise to the need of concisely
representing the building's range of responses to ground
motion of different frequency contents.
• Such a representation is known as a response spectrum.
• A response spectrum is a kind of graph which plots the
maximum response values of acceleration, velocity and
displacement against period and frequency.
 Earthquake induced failures in structures

1. Structural component failure

2. Non Structural component failure
• Falling of plaster from walls and ceiling.
• Cracking and overturning of parapets, chimneys, etc.
• Cracking and overturning of partition walls.
• Cracking of glasses.
• Falling of loosely placed objects
Walls tend to tear apart
Walls tend to shear off diagonally
Failure at corners of walls
Walls tend to collapse
Failure at corners of openings
Seismic induced- Hammering/pounding-between two
adjacent buildings
 << <<Soft first story failure

Soft first story failure>> >>

Upper floor topple over as a unit, Chi-Chi earthquake
(magnitude 7.7) in Taiwan (1999)
Building collapse as a result of soil liquefaction,
Niigata, Japan, 1964
Collapsed school building, Ying Xiu, Sichuan, China (May 12,
2008);
 << <<pancaking of ‘ soft-storey ’
buildings near Algiers
(May, 2003);

wall collapse, Pakistan, 2005>> >>

 << <<Short column

Torsion, eccentricity>> >>

 Basic principles of conceptual design
The guiding principle in conceptual design against seismic
hazard are:
• structural simplicity
• uniformity and symmetry
• bidirectional resistance and stiffness
• torsional resistance and stiffness
• diaphragmatic action at storey level
• adequate foundation
 Earthquake Loading
o A common dynamic loading that structures
must resist is that associated with earthquake
motions.
o Here, loads are not applied to the structure in
the normal fashion. Instead, the base of the
structure is subjected to a sudden movement.
o The upper portion of the structure resists
motion because of its inertia, a deformation
is induced in the structure.
o This deformation, in turn, induces a
horizontal vibration that causes horizontal
shear forces through out the structure.
Cont’d
• The ground motions created
by major earthquake forces
cause buildings to sway back
and forth.
• Assuming the building is
fixed at its base, the
displacement of floors will
vary from zero at the base to
Displacement of floors as Inertia forces produced by
a maximum at the roof. building sways motion of floors
 Methods of structural analysis for seismic
assessments
There are four methods of analysis
Equivalent Static analysis (or Seismic coefficient method):
• This type of analysis can be applied to buildings whose response is not
significantly affected by contributions from higher modes of vibration.
• Regular elevation
• Fundamental period of vibration (T1<2sec, T1<4*Tc)
Modal Response of spectrum analysis (Linear, Dynamic):
• Applied to buildings which do not satisfy the conditions given in
equivalent static analysis.
• Plot of response spectra (a, v, s) vs its time period is used
Cont’d
Time history analysis (nonlinear, Dynamic):
• Carried out when the input is in form of specified time history of
ground motion
• Mathematical model of the building is subjected to accelerations from
earthquake records at the base of the structure
Non linear static analysis (pushover analysis):
• For newly designed and existing structure
• Used to estimate force and displacement capacities of the structure
• Lateral load increased monotonically by maintaining a predefined
distribution along building height.
• Building displaced until target displacement or building collapse.
Cont’d
 CES 160- 2015
DESIGN OF STRUCTURES FOR EARTHQUAKE
RESISTANCE : Using Equivalent static analysis
 1. Ground Conditions and Seismic Action
o Ground Conditions
• Appropriate investigation shall be carried out to identify the
ground condition
• Depending on the importance class of the structure and particular
condition of the project, ground investigation and/or geological
studies to be performed to determine the seismic action
• Ground types A, B, C, D and E given table 3.1 (next slide) may be
used to account for the influence of local ground conditions on the
seismic action.
• CES – 160: 2015 uses standard penetration test blow-count and
unconfined compression strength in addition to a representative
average shear wave velocity to classify the ground type.
 Parameters
Ground type Description of stratigraphic profile NSPT
vs,30 (m/s) (blows/30cm)
cu (kPa)
Rock or other rock-like geological
A formation, including at most 5 m of weaker > 800 _ _
material at the surface.
Deposits of very dense sand, gravel, or very
stiff clay, at least several tens of meters in
B 360 – 800 > 50 > 250
thickness, characterized by a gradual
increase of mechanical properties with depth.
Deep deposits of dense or medium-dense
C sand, gravel or stiff clay with thickness from 180 – 360 15 - 50 70 - 250
several tens to many hundreds of meters.
Deposits of loose-to-medium cohesionless
soil (with or without some soft cohesive
D < 180 < 15 < 70
layers), or of predominantly soft-to-firm
cohesive soil.
A soil profile consisting of a surface
alluvium layer with vs values of type C or D
E and thickness varying between about 5 m
and 20 m, underlain by stiffer material with
vs > 800 m/s.
Deposits consisting, or containing a layer at
least 10 m thick, of soft clays/silts with a < 100
S1 _ 10 - 20
high plasticity index (PI > 40) and high (indicative)
water content
Deposits of liquefiable soils, of sensitive
S2 clays, or any other soil profile not included
in types A – E or S1
o Seismic Actions
• National territories shall be subdivided into seismic zones
depending on the local hazard
• The hazard is described by the reference peak ground
acceleration (PGA) on type A ground(rock or rock like other
geological formation, including at most 5m of weaker material
at the surface, Vs,30>800m/s),agr
• The seismic hazard map of the Ethiopia is shown in the next
slide
• Design ground acceleration:
 multiplied by importance factor
• Effective design ground acceleration
 multiplied by soil factor
Seismic Hazard Map of Ethiopia (1995)
Seismic Hazard Map of Ethiopia (2015)
 Seismic Hazard Map of Ethiopia (2015)
Town Longitude Latitude [E] Zone PGA (ao/g) Zone PGA (ao/g)
[N] EBCS 1995 EBCS 1995 ES EN 2015 ES EN 2015
Addis Ababa 38.7645 8.9757 2 0.05 3 0.1
Adama 39.2682 8.5386 4 0.1 4 0.15
Ankober 39.7710 9.5573 4 0.1 5 0.2
Arba Minch 37.5474 6.0030 4 0.1 3 0.1
Assaita 41.4713 11.5849 4 0.1 5 0.2
Bishoftu 38.9883 8.7468 4 0.1 4 0.15
Debre Birhan 39.5565 9.6235 4 0.1 4 0.1
Dessie 39.6707 11.0474 4 0.1 3 0.1
Dire Dawa 41.8389 9.5034 2 0.05 3 0.1
Hawassa 38.4741 7.0080 4 0.1 4 0.15
Jigjiga 42.7537 9.2426 1 0.03 3 0.1
Mekele 39.5515 13.4056 4 0.1 4 0.15
semera 41.1321 11.7297 4 0.1 5 0.2
 2. Elastic response spectrum
• Tool which can help to interpret the effects of an Earthquake on
the structures to be designed
• EQ wide range of effect on structures depends on _dynamic
characteristics of the structure, local site effect & frequency
content of seismic ground motion
• Response spectrum depends on peak ground acceleration,
ground types and damping correction factor with a reference
value of viscous damping.
• For the horizontal components of the seismic action, the elastic
response spectrum Se(T) is defined by the following expressions
 Horizontal Elastic response spectrum
o Elastic Response Spectrum o Horizontal elastic Response Spectrum

 T 
0  T  TB : Se T   ag  S  1     2.5  1 
 TB 
TB  T  TC : Se T   ag  S   2.5

T 
TC  T  TD : Se T   ag  S   2.5  C 
T 
T T 
TD  T  4 s : Se T   ag  S   2.5  C 2D 
 T 

damping correction   10  5     0.55

factor
 Horizontal Elastic response spectrum
where
• Se(T) is the elastic response spectrum;
•T is the vibration period of a linear single-degree-of-freedom system;
• ag is the design ground acceleration on type A ground (ag = γIagR);
• TB is the lower limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration
branch;
• TC is the upper limit of the period of the constant spectral acceleration
branch;
• TD is the value defining the beginning of the constant displacement
response range of the spectrum;
•S is the soil factor;
• is the damping correction factor with a reference value of η = 1 for 5%
viscous damping
• 𝜉 is the viscous damping ratio of the structure, expressed as a percentage.
 Horizontal Elastic response spectrum
• If deep geology is not accounted for, the recommended choice is to
use two types of spectra: type 1 and type 2.
Design spectrum parameters: Type 1
High and moderate seismicity region Ms > 5.5

Ground type S TB(s) TC(s) TD(s)

A (rock) 1.0 0.15 0.4 2.0
B (Very stiff soil) 1.2 0.15 0.5 2.0
C (medium stiff) 1.15 0.20 0.6 2.0
D (soft soil) 1.35 0.20 0.8 2.0
E (thin soft soil over rock) 1.4 0.15 0.5 2.0
Horizontal Elastic response spectrum

• Elastic response spectra for 5% damping for Type 1

Horizontal Elastic response spectrum
Design spectrum parameters: Type 2
Low seismicity region Ms ≤ 5.5; near field earthquakes

Ground type S TB(s) TC(s) TD(s)

A (rock) 1.0 0.05 0.25 1.2

B (Very stiff soil) 1.35 0.05 0.25 1.2

C (medium stiff) 1.5 0.10 0.25 1.2

D (soft soil) 1.8 0.10 0.30 1.2

E (thin soft soil over rock) 1.6 0.05 0.25 1.2

Horizontal Elastic response spectrum

• Elastic response spectra for 5% damping for Type 2

 Vertical Elastic response spectrum
o Elastic Response Spectrum o Vertical elastic Response Spectrum
 T 
0  T  TB : S ve T   avg  1     3.0  1 
 TB 
TB  T  TC : Sve T   avg   3.0
T 
TC  T  TD : S ve T   avg   3.0  C 
T 
T T 
TD  T  4 s : S ve T   avg   3.0  C 2 D 
 T 

Spectrum avg/ag TB (s) TC (s) TD (s)

Type 1 0.90 0.05 0.15 1.0

Type 2 0.45 0.05 0.15 1.0

 Design response spectrum
o Design Response Spectrum o Design Response Spectrum
 2 T  2.5 2 
0  T  TB : Sd T   ag  S       
 3 TB  q 3 
2.5
TB  T  TC : Sd T   ag  S  
q
 2.5  TC 
  ag  S   
TB  T  TC : Sd T    q T 
   a
 g

 2.5  TC  TD 

 g a  S  
TD  T : Sd T    q  T 2 
   a
 g

 q varies from 1.5 to 6

 Design response spectrum
where
• ag, S, TB, TC and TD are as defined in previous slides;
• Sd(T) is the design spectrum;
•q is the behaviour factor;
•β is the lower bound factor for the horizontal design spectrum.
(The recommended value for β is 0,2. )
 Vertical elastic response spectrum

• If avg is greater than 0.25 g (2.5 m/s2), the vertical component of the
seismic action, should be taken into account in the cases listed below:
− for horizontal or nearly horizontal structural members spanning 20
m or more;
− for horizontal or nearly horizontal cantilever components longer
than 5 m;
− for horizontal or nearly horizontal pre-stressed components;
− for beams supporting columns;
− in base-isolated structures.
 Cont’d
o Elastic Response Spectrum o Vertical elastic Response Spectrum
 T 
0  T  TB : S ve T   avg  1     3.0  1 
 TB 
TB  T  TC : Sve T   avg   3.0
T 
TC  T  TD : S ve T   avg   3.0  C 
T 
T T 
TD  T  4 s : S ve T   avg   3.0  C 2 D 
 T 

Spectrum avg/ag TB (s) TC (s) TD (s)

Type 1 0.90 0.05 0.15 1.0

Type 2 0.45 0.05 0.15 1.0

 3. Peak ground acceleration
• For structural design, the intensity of earthquake is usually
described in terms of the ground acceleration as a fraction of the
acceleration due to gravity, i.e. 0.1g, 0.2g, 0.3g etc.
• The static analysis procedure provides for the calculation of the
total lateral force, defined as the design base shear which is then
distributed over height of the building.
• Probabilistic seismic hazard zonation of Ethiopia was classified into
five zone based on CES 160 - 2015. Peak ground acceleration
depends on the zone type (location) and return period.
4. Importance Category and Importance Factor
• Buildings are classified in two codes in 4 importance classes,
depending on the -consequences of collapse for human life, on their
importance for public safety and civil protection in the immediate
post-earthquake period, and on the social and economic
consequences of collapse.
• Important category classification and Impotence factor (γI) value
according to CES 160: 2015
 Importance classes and importance factors
Importance Buildings Importance
class factor
I Buildings of minor importance for public safety, e.g.
agricultural buildings, etc. 0.8
II Ordinary buildings, not belonging in the other categories. 1.0
III
Buildings whose seismic resistance is of importance in view
of the consequences associated with a collapse, e.g. schools,
assembly halls, cultural institutions etc. 1.2
IV Buildings whose integrity during earthquakes is of vital
importance for civil protection, e.g. hospitals, fire stations,
power plants, etc. 1.4
 5. Base shear force:
• Earthquakes produce lateral forces proportional to the weight of the
structure and its fixed contents; the resultant of seismic force is known as
‘base shear’
• The seismic base shear force Fb, for each horizontal direction in which the
building is analyzed, shall be determined using the following expression:
o Fb = Sd (T1) m 
• Fundamental period T1 = Ct ⋅H ¾ or 𝑇1 = 2 × 𝑑
For height of the building < 40 m
Cont’d
Where
T1 is the fundamental period of vibration of the building for lateral
motion in the direction considered;
m is the total mass of the building, above the foundation or above
the top of a rigid basement, computed in accordance with 3.2.4(2)
λ is the correction factor, the value of which is equal to: λ= 0.85 if
T1 < 2 TC and the building has more than two storeys, or λ = 1.0
otherwise.
 6. Fundamental period of vibration (T1)
• For buildings with heights of up to 40 m the value of T1 (in s) may be
approximated by the following expression:
• T1 = Ct ⋅H ¾
where
• Ct - is 0.085 for moment resistant space steel frames, 0.075 for
moment resistant space concrete frames and for eccentrically braced
steel frames and 0.050 for all other structures;
• H - is the height of the building, in m, from the foundation or from the
top of a rigid basement.
• Alternatively, for structures with concrete or masonry shear walls the
value Ct may be taken as being
Cont’d

where
-Ac - is the total effective area of the shear walls in the first
storey of the building, in m2;
-Ai - is the effective cross-sectional area of the shear wall i in the
first storey of the building, in m2;
-lwi - is the length of the shear wall i in the first storey in the
direction parallel to the applied forces, in m, with the restriction
that lwi/H should not exceed 0.9.
 7. Design spectrum (Sd(T))
• For the horizontal components of the seismic action the design
spectrum, Sd(T), shall be defined by the following expressions.
Where,

Sd(T) - is the design spectrum;

q - is the behavior factor;
β - is the lower bound factor for the
horizontal design spectrum.

NOTE: The value to be ascribed to β for

use is found in the National Annex. The
recommended value for β is 0.2.
8. Behavior factors for horizontal seismic actions (q)
• Seismic effects cause both horizontal and vertical motion.
• In regular structures the most destructive effect occurs by the horizontal
component of the ground motion.
• Load path of the horizontal component -> horizontal members (beam, slab) ->
Vertical members (column, shear wall or braces ) -> foundation -> soil)
• Structures should have continuous load path to withstand earthquake.
• In case of seismic effects , structures having alternative (spare) load paths are
more reliable (Redundant structures)
• Multi bay structures are more preferable than single bay structure, since
their redundancy is higher
• Redundancy can also be quantified using the number of plastic hinges
(potential failure locations) in structural system.
• If any member fails redistribution of loads will occur and redundancy increases
the capacity of this redistribution.
Cont’d
• In addition, over strength, defines the difference between the actual
and design strength of a member.
• Design strength of a member is generally lower than the actual
strength due to:
Load and safety factors applied on the design
Characteristics of RC and steel members and additional effects
Conservative design procedures
Participation of non structural members etc...
• Behavior factor is a tool to incorporate inelastic behavior to a linear
system
• It represents -> ductility, over strength and overall system properties
such as redundancy, damping and is used to reduce elastic forces to
design force level.
Cont’d
• q= qo kw ≥ 1.5
where
qo - is the basic value of the behavior factor, dependent on the type of the
structural system and on its regularity in elevation
kw - is the factor reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems
with walls
Basic value of the behavior factor, qo, for systems regular in elevation
Cont’d
• ***For buildings which are not regular in elevation, the value of qo
should be reduced by 20%
• α1 is the value by which the horizontal seismic design action is
multiplied in order to first reach the flexural resistance in any
member in the structure, while all other design actions remain
constant;
• αu is the value by which the horizontal seismic design action is
multiplied, in order to form plastic hinges in a number of sections
sufficient for the development of overall structural instability, while
all other design actions remain constant.
Cont’d
• When the multiplication factor αu/α1 has not been evaluated through
an explicit calculation, for buildings which are regular in plan the
following approximate values of αu/α1 may be used.
a) Frames or frame-equivalent dual systems.
→One-storey buildings: αu/α1=1.1;
→multistorey, one-bay frames: αu/α1=1.2;
→multistorey, multi-bay frames or frame-equivalent dual structures:
αu/α1=1.3.
b) Wall- or wall-equivalent dual systems.
→ wall systems with only two uncoupled walls per horizontal direction:
αu/αl =1.0;
→other uncoupled wall systems: αu/α1=1.1;
→wall-equivalent dual, or coupled wall systems: αu/α1=1.2.
Cont’d
• For buildings which are not regular in plan, the approximate value of αu/α1
that may be used when calculations are not performed for its evaluation are
equal to the average of (a) 1,0 and of (b) the value given in above.
• The factor kw reflecting the prevailing failure mode in structural systems
with walls shall be taken as follows:

Where αo is the prevailing aspect ratio of the walls of the structural system.
If the aspect ratios hwi/lwi of all walls i of a structural system do not significantly
differ, the prevailing aspect ratio αo may be determined from the following
expression:
Cont’d

where
• hwi is the height of wall i ; and
• lwi is the length of the section of wall i.
Seismic mass (m): considered as total permanent load and some
factors of live load.
Cont’d
• The coefficient ψE,i is used to estimate a likely value of service loads
and to take into account that some masses do not follow perfectly the
moves of the structure, because they are not rigidly connected to the
structure. ψE,i is computed as:
9. Distribution of the horizontal seismic forces
• When the fundamental mode shape is approximated by
horizontal displacements increasing linearly along the height, the
horizontal forces Fi should be taken as being given by:
si  mi
Fi  Fb  or Fi  Fb  z i  mi
Where
 sj mj  z j mj

Fi is the horizontal force acting on storey i;

si , sjare the displacements of masses mi , mj in the fundamental
mode shape
zi, zj are the heights of the masses mi , mj above the level of
application of the seismic action (foundation or top of a rigid basement).