Chapter two: Fundamentals of metal forming

Introduction
• Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing

processes in which plastic deformation is used to change the

shape of metal to workpieces.

• Deformation results from the use of a tool, usually called a

die, which applies stresses that exceed the yield strength

of the metal.

• The metal therefore deforms to take a shape determined by

the geometry of the die.

1
• Stresses applied to plastically deform the

metal are usually compressive.

• However, some forming processes are there,

such as stretch of the metal, bend of the

metal, and shearing of the metal

2
• Metal forming processes can be classified into two
basic categories:
 bulk deformation processes and
 sheet metalworking processes

• Bulk deformation processes are generally characterized

by significant deformations and massive shape changes,
and the surface area-to-volume of the work is relatively
small.
• The term bulk describes the workparts that have this low
area to volume ratio

3
 • Starting work shapes for these processes
include cylindrical billets and rectangular
bars.
• Figure 2.1 illustrates the following basic operations in bulk
deformation.

FIGURE 2.1 Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling, (b) forging, (c) extrusion,
and (d) drawing.

4
• Sheet metal working or press working is the term often
applied to sheet metal operations because the press
machines used to perform these operations
• A part produced in a sheet metal operation is often called
a stamping.
• Sheet metal operations are always performed as cold
working processes and are usually accomplished using a
set of tools called a punch and die.
• The punch is the positive portion and the die is the
negative portion of the tool set. The basic sheet metal
operations are sketched in Figure 2.2.
5
FIGURE 2.2 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending,
(b) drawing, and (c) shearing: (1) as punch first contacts sheet,
and (2) after cutting. Force and relative motion in these
operations are indicated by F and v.
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Mechanics of metal working
 Metal working occurs due to plastic deformation
which is associated with analysis of complex stress
distribution.
 require simplification.

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Example: Determine the engineering strain, true strain,
and reduction for (a) a bar which is doubled in length
and (b) a bar which is halved in length.
 Solution:
(a) For a bar which is double
in length, L2 = 2L1

(b) For a bar which is halved

in length, L2 = L1/2

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• In the forming process we are more interested in the plastic
deformation region

Plastic
deformation
region

14
• The stress-strain relationship in the plastic deformation region is described by

Called FLOW

  K
CURVE
n

Where
K= the strength coefficient, (MPa)
 = the true strain, σ=the true stress
n= the strain hardening exponent,

The flow stress (Yf ) is used for the above stress (which is the stress
beyond yield)

15
• As deformation occurs, increasing STRESS is required to
continue deformation (shown in curve)

• Flow Stress: Instantaneous value of stress required to

continue deforming the material (to keep metal “flowing”)

Yf  K n

•The above Equation is known as Hollomon’s Equation

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AVERAGE FLOW STRESS

• For many bulk deforming processes, rather than instantaneous stress, average
stress is used (extrusion)

• The average flow stress can be obtained by integrating the flow stress along the
trajectory of straining, from zero to the final strain value defining the range of
interest

Strength

k n Coefficient
Average flow Yf  Max. strain during
deformation
stress
1 n
Strain hardening
exponent
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18
 Hot working
 Hot working involves deformation at temperatures
where recrystallisation can occur (0.6-0.8 Tm).

Examples of hot working temperatures for each metal

19
Effects of temperature on metal forming
processes

Annealing mechanisms in cold worked metals 20

Advantages and disadvantages of
hot working
Advantages
 Higher ductility – more deformation without cracking.
 Lower flow stress – less mechanical energy required
for deformation.
 Pores seal up.
 Smaller grain size.
 Microsegregation is much reduced or removed due to
atomic diffusion, which is higher at high temperatures.
 Stronger, tougher and more ductile than as-cast metals
due to breaking down and refinement of coarse
columnar grains in the cast ingot.
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Disadvantages
 Surface reactions between the metal and the furnace
atmosphere, i.e., oxidation (oxide scales),
decaburisation in steels.
 Hot shortness, when the working temperature exceeds
the melting temperature of constituent at grain
boundaries such as FeS.
 Dimension tolerance is poor due to thermal expansion
at high temperatures.
 Handling is more difficult (from furnace to machine).

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 Cold working

 Normally performed at room temperature but in general <

0.3Tm, where recovery is limited and recrystallisation
does not occur.

 Work hardening occurs (strength and hardness increase

but ductility decreases).

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 The extent of deformation is rather limited if cracks
are to be avoid, therefore intermediate anneals that
enable recrystallisation are frequently used afterwards.

 The materials suitable for cold working should have a

relatively low yield stress and a relatively high work
hardening rate (determined primarily by its tensile
properties).

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Advantages and disadvantages of
cold working

Advantages
 Provide work hardening, materials are stronger.
 Provide fine grain size and good surface finish.
 Dimension tolerance is better than in hot working.
 Easier handling (low operating temperatures).

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Disdvantages
 Use high amount of deformation due to low operating
temperatures, therefore, require soft materials.

 Equipment (rolls, dies, presses) is big and expensive.

 Reduced ductility, therefore, require subsequent

annealing treatments.

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 Bulk deformation processes
1. Rolling
 Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness
of the work is reduced by compressive forces exerted by
two opposing rolls.
 The rolls rotate as illustrated in Figure 2.3 to pull and
simultaneously squeeze the work between them.

FIGURE 2.3 the rolling process (specifically, flat rolling).

 Rolling is the most widely used forming process, which
provides high production and close control of final
product.
 The metal is subjected to high compressive stresses as
a result of the friction between the rolls and the metal
surface.

 The rotating rolls perform two main functions:

 Pull the work into the gap between them by friction
between workpart and rolls
 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross
section

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Types of Rolling
1. By geometric considerations :
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross-section
Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed into a shape
such as an I-beam, rails, channels,etc.
2. By the temprature of work:
Hot Rolling –is a rolling operation carried out at a
temperature just below the metal melting point(above the
recrystallisation temperature), permitting large amount of
deformation.
Cold rolling – is a rolling operation carried out below
recrystallisation temperature. Cold rolling is commonly
conducted after hot rolling when good surface quality and
low thickness tolerance are needed. Cold rolling causes
material strengthening.

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30
fig Flat and Shape Rolling Processes

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Terminology
Bloom: is the product of first breakdown of ingot
(150x150 to 150x300mm) rolled into structural shapes
(I-beams, rails).
Billet: is the product obtained from a further reduction
by hot rolling (50x50 to 125x125mm) rolled into bars,
rods, pipes, wires.
Slab: is the hot rolled ingot (600 to 1500mm wide to
150mm thick) rolled into sheets, plates,& welded pipes.
Plate: is the product with a thickness > 6 mm.
Sheet: is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width
> 600 mm.
Strip: is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width
< 600 mm.

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 Rolling mills
 Rolling mill is a machine or a factory for shaping metal
by passing it through rolls

 A rolling mill basically consists of

 rolls

 bearings

a housing for containing these parts

a drive (motor) for applying power to the rolls and

controlling the speed
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Typical arrangement of rolls for rolling mills

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In cluster (Sendzimir) mill……….cont.
 The thinner the strip to be rolled, the smaller is the required
roll diameter.
 If a four-high rolling mill is used with working rolls of very
small diameter and too large backup rolls (say more than
twice the diameter of the working rolls), the working rolls
may start to deflect horizontally.
 To prevent the horizontal deflection the cluster, rolling mills
were introduced, using working rolls of very small diameter
with a train of supporting rolls of progressively increasing
diameter.

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 Each roll is supported by two larger-diameter rolls.
Thus the working roll is supported by two rolls, while
the two support rolls are supported in turn by three
backup rolls, as Fig. 2.2 shows. The mill of Fig. 2.2 is
called a 1-2-3 cluster rolling mill.

 When another line of four larger rolls supports the

previous three, the mill is called a 1-2-3-4 cluster
rolling mill. Today, 1-2-3-4-5 cluster rolling mills are
available.

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Figure 2.4 cluster (Sendzimir) mill.
39
 f) Tandem Rolling Mills.
 After the blooming mill has reduced the ingot into a plate,
many more rolling passes may be required before the strip
reaches the required thinness.

 For efficient production the strip is rolled on a continuous

production line, passing from one mill station to another
at high speed without stopping or reeling between
stations.

 Use a series of rolling mill and each set is called a stand.

40
The strip will be moving at different velocities at each stage
in the mill.
The speed of each set of rolls is synchronised so that the
input speed of each stand is equal to the output speed of
preceding stand.

Figure 2.5: A four stand continuous mill or tandem mil.

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 g) Planetary mill

 Consist of a pair of heavy backing rolls surrounded by a

large number of planetary rolls.
 Each planetary roll gives an almost constant reduction
to the slab as it sweeps out a circular path between the
backing rolls and the slab.
 As each pair of planetary rolls ceases to have contact
with the work piece, another pair of rolls makes contact
and repeat that reduction.

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 The overall reduction is the summation of a series of
small reductions by each pair of rolls. Therefore, the
planetary mill can hot reduces a slab directly to strip in
one pass through the mill.

 The operation requires feed rolls to introduce the slab

into the mill, and a pair of planishing rolls on the exit
to improve the surface finish.

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figure 2.6 Planetary rolling mills.

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45
Arc of contact: The arc along which the roll is in
contact with the strip is called the arc of contact.

Angle of bite: The angle subtended by the arc of contact

at the center is called the angle of bite.

Draft: The reduction in thickness in one single pass

(initial thickness final thickness) is called draft .

Neutral point: The point where the strip velocity

becomes equal to the roll peripheral velocity .

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Simplified analysis of rolling load
 The main variables in rolling are:
• The roll diameter.

• The deformation resistance of the metal as influenced by

metallurgy, temperature and strain rate.
• The friction between the rolls and the workpiece.

• The presence of the front tension and/or back tension in the

plane of the sheet.

We consider in three conditions:

1) No friction condition
2) Normal friction condition
3) Sticky friction condition
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1) No friction situation
 In the case of no friction situation, the rolling load
(Pv) is given by the roll pressure (p) times the area of
contact between the metal and the rolls (bLp).

Where the roll pressure (p) is the yield stress in plane

strain when there is no change in the width (b) of the
sheet.

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57
58
We have

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 Torque and power
 Torque is the measure of the force applied to a member to produce
rotational motion.

 Power is applied to a rolling mill by applying a torque to the rolls and by

means of strip tension.

 The power is spent principally in four ways

1) The energy needed to deform the metal.

2) The energy needed to overcome the frictional force.

3) The power lost in the pinions and power-transmission system.

4) Electrical losses in the various motors and generators.

Remarks: Losses in the windup reel and uncoiler must also be considered.
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 Examples
1. A strip with a cross section of 150mmx 6mm is being
cold rolled with 20% reduction of thickness, using
400mm diameter steel rolls. If the average uniaxial
yield stress is 325MPa and the rolls rotate at 24 rpm,
calculate.
a. final strip thickness,
b. angle of bite,
c. projected length of arc of contact,
d. rolling load,
e. torque
f. power required and
g. the minimum exit thickness of the strip that can be
produced. Assume coefft. of friction to be 0.1.
h. what is the minimum value of μ required for rolling to
occur in this case ?
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2. Determine the maximum possible draft for cold
rolling a 300mm thick slab when μ=0.08 and the roll
diameter is 600mm. What is the maximum draft on
the same mill for hot rolling when μ =0.5.

3. A 300mm wide annealed Al alloy strip is cold rolled to

reduce thickness from 20mm to 15mm. These rolls are
1m in diameter and operate at 100 rpm. The uniaxial
flow stress of the alloy can be expressed as σ = 140ε0.2
(MPa). Determine rolling load, torque and power
required for this reduction if μ = 0.1. If a front tension
of 25 MPa is applied, what will be the % change in
rolling load?

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4. Calculate the rolling load if steel is hot rolled with 30 percent reduction in
thickness from a 40mm thick and 760mm wide plate using 900mm-
diameter rolls. Assume no change in width and μ = 0.3. The mean uniaxial
flow stress of steel under these conditions is given by σ = 200 ε 0.2 (MPa)
where ε is strain rate in per sec. If the rolls rotate at 65rpm, what are the
torque and power required for this rolling?

5. The thickness of a 600mm wide steel sheet is reduced from 4mm to 3.5mm
with 500mm diameter rolls having a coefft. of friction equal to 0.05. The
mean flow stress in uniaxial tension is 205 MPa.
a. Calculate the rolling load.

b. If the rolls rotate at 150 rpm, what are the torque and power?

c. If a back tension of 15 MPa is applied, what will be the change in rolling

load?
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Shape rolling

In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a contoured cross

section.

Products made by shape rolling include construction shapes

such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-channels; rails for railroad
tracks; and round rods and square bars

The process is accomplished by passing the work through

rolls that have the reverse of the desired shape.
Shaping rolls are more complicated; and the work,
usually starting as a square shape, requires a gradual
transformation through several rolls in order to
achieve the final cross section.

Designing the sequence of intermediate shapes and

corresponding rolls is called roll-pass design.
Example: rolls pass design for I- beam
Roll passes to get a 12 mm rod from 100 x 100 mm
billet
Its goal is to achieve uniform deformation
throughout the cross section in each reduction.

Otherwise, certain portions of the work are

reduced more than others, causing greater
elongation in these sections.

The consequence of non uniform reduction can be

warping and cracking of the rolled product.
 2. FORGING
 Forging is a deformation process in which the work is
compressed between two dies, using either impact or gradual
pressure to form the part.
 It is an important industrial process used to make a variety of
high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and
other applications.
 These components include engine crankshafts and connecting
rods, gears, aircraft structural components, and jet engine
turbine parts.
 Forging can be classified in to many different ways.
 One way to classify the operations is by working temperature.
 Most forging operations are performed hot or warm, owing to
the significant deformation demanded by the process and the
need to reduce strength and increase ductility of the work
metal.
 However, cold forging is also very common for certain
products.
 The advantage of cold forging is the increased strength that
results from strain hardening of the component.
 Either impact or gradual pressure is used in forging.
 The distinction derives more from the type of equipment
used than differences in process technology.
 A forging machine that applies an impact load is called a
forging hammer, while one that applies gradual pressure is
called a forging press.
 Another difference among forging operations is the degree to
which the flow of the work metal is constrained by the dies.
 By this classification, there are three types of forging
operations, shown in Figure below: (a) open-die forging, (b)
impression-die forging, and (c) flashless forging.
FIGURE : Three types of forging operation illustrated by cross
sectional sketches: (a) open-die forging, (b) impression-die
forging, and (c) flashless forging.
Open-die forging
 In open-die forging, the work is compressed between
two flat (or almost flat) dies, thus allowing the metal to
flow without constraint in a lateral direction relative to
the die surfaces.
 This forging operation, known as upsetting or upset
forging, reduces the height of the work and increases its
diameter.
 Shapes generated by open-die operations are simple;
examples include shafts, disks, and rings.
 An example of open-die forging in the steel industry is
the shaping of a large square cast ingot into a round cross
section.
 An important contribution of open-die hot-forging is
that it creates a favorable grain flow and metallurgical
 Operations classified as open-die forging or related
operations include fullering, edging, and cogging, illustrated
in Figure below.

FIGURE : several open-die forging operations: (a) fullering, (b)

edging, and (c) cogging.
 Fullering is a forging operation performed to reduce the
cross section and redistribute the metal in a workpart in
preparation for subsequent shape forging.
 It is accomplished by dies with convex surfaces
 Edging is similar to fullering, except that the dies have
concave surfaces.
 A cogging operation consists of a sequence of forging
compressions along the length of a workpiece to reduce
cross section and increase length.
 It is used in the steel industry to produce blooms and
slabs from cast ingots.
 The term incremental forging is sometimes used for this
process.
Analysis of Open-Die Forging
If open-die forging is carried out under ideal
conditions of no friction between works and die
surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs,
and the radial flow of the material is uniform
throughout its height, as pictured in Figure shown
The above figure, Homogeneous deformation of a
cylindrical workpart under ideal conditions in an
open-die forging operation: (1) start of process with
workpiece at its original length and diameter, (2)
partial compression, and (3) final size.
Under these ideal conditions, the true strain
experienced by the work during the process can be
determined by

Where, ho = starting height of the work, mm; and h =

the height at some intermediate point in the process,
mm.
At the end of the compression stroke, h = its final
value hf, and the true strain reaches its max value.
The true strain can be used to determine the
average flow stress Yf as follow

The force required to continue the

compression at any given height “h” during the
process can be obtained by multiplying the
corresponding cross-sectional area by the
flow stress:

Where, F=force, (N); A = cross-sectional area of the

part, mm2; and Yf = flow stress, MPa.
Force reaches a maximum value at the end of the
forging stroke, when both area and flow stress are at
their highest values.
An actual upsetting operation does not occur quite
as shown in previous Figure, because friction
opposes the flow of work metal at the die surfaces.
This creates the barreling effect shown below.

FIGURE : Actual deformation of a cylindrical workpart

in open-die forging, showing pronounced barreling
The hotter metal in the middle of the part flows more
readily than the cooler metal at the ends.
All of these factors cause the actual upsetting force to
be greater than what is predicted by Eq. (15).
As an approximation, we can apply a shape factor to
Eq. (15) to account for effects of the D/h ratio and
friction:

Where F, Yf, and A have the same definitions as in the previous

equation; and Kf is the forging shape factor, defined as

Where µ = coefficient of friction; D = workpart diameter, mm;

and h = workpart height, mm.
Example 2
A cylindrical workpiece is subjected to a cold
upset forging operation. The starting piece is
75 mm in height and 50 mm in diameter. It is
reduced in the operation to a height of
36mm.The work material has a flow curve
defined by K = 350MPa and n = 0.17.Assume a
coefficient of friction of 0.1. Determine the
force as the process begins, at intermediate
heights of 62 mm, 49 mm, and at the final
height of 36 mm.
Solution:
Workpiece volume V = 75ᴫ (502/4) = 147,262
mm3. At the moment contact is made by the
upper die, h = 75mm and the force F = 0. At
the start of yielding, his slightly less than 75
mm, and we assume that strain = 0.002, at
which the flow stress is

The diameter is still approximately D = 50 mm

and area A = ᴫ (502/4) = 1963.5mm2. For these
conditions, the adjustment factor Kf is
computed as
The forging force is

At h = 62 mm,

Assuming constant volume, and neglecting

barreling,
Similarly, at h = 49 mm, F = 955,642 N; and at
h = 36 mm, F = 1,467,422 N. The load stroke
curve in Figure below was developed from the
values in this example.

FIGURE : Upsetting force as a function of

height h. This plot is sometimes called the
load stroke curve.
 Impression-die forging
In impression-die forging, the die surfaces contain a
shape or impression that is imparted to the work
during compression, thus constraining metal flow to
a significant degree.
In this type of operation a portion of the work metal
flows beyond the die impression to form flash.
Flash is excess metal that must be trimmed off later.
Impression-die forging, sometimes called closed-
die forging.
The process is illustrated in a three-step sequence as
shown below.
FIGURE: Sequence in impression-die forging: (1) just prior to
initial contact with raw workpiece, (2) partial compression, and
(3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap between die
plates.

 The raw workpiece is shown as a cylindrical part similar to that

used in the previous open-die operation.

 As the die closes to its final position, flash is formed by metal

that flows beyond the die cavity and into the small gap between
Although this flash must be cut away from the part in
a subsequent trimming operation, it actually serves an
important function during impression-die forging.
As the flash begins to form in the die gap, friction
resists continued flow of metal into the gap, thus
constraining the bulk of the work material to remain
in the die cavity.
Metal flow is further restricted because the thin flash
cools quickly against the die plates, thereby increasing
its resistance to deformation.
Restricting metal flow in the gap causes the
compression pressures on the part to increase
significantly, thus forcing the material to fill the
details cavities to ensure a high-quality product.
 Several forming steps are often required in impression-die
forging to transform the starting blank into the desired
final geometry.

 Separate cavities in the die are needed for each step.

 The beginning steps are designed to redistribute the metal

in the workpart to achieve a uniform deformation and
desired metallurgical structure in the subsequent steps.

 The final steps bring the part to its final geometry.

 Impression-die forging is not capable of close tolerance
work, and machining is often required to achieve the
accuracies needed.
 The basic geometry of the part is obtained from the
forging process, with machining performed on those
portions of the part that require precision finishing (e.g.,
holes, threads, and surfaces that mate with other
components).

 The advantages of forging, compared to machining are

higher production rates, conservation of metal, greater
strength, and favorable grain orientation of the metal that
results from forging.
 A comparison of the grain flow in forging and machining
is illustrated in Figure.

FIGURE : Comparison of metal grain flow in a part that is: (a) hot
forged with finish machining, and (b) machined complete.
 Flashless forging

 In flashless forging, the work is completely constrained

within the die and no excess flash is produced.

 The volume of the starting workpiece must be controlled

very closely so that it matches the volume of the die
cavity.

 The process sequence is illustrated in Figure below.

FIGURE : Flashless forging: (1) just before initial contact with
workpiece, (2) partial compression, and (3) final punch and die
closure. Symbols v and F indicate motion (v = velocity) and
applied force, respectively.
Most important is that the work volume must equal the
space in the die cavity within a very close tolerance.
If the starting blank is too large, excessive pressures may
cause damage to the die or press.
If the blank is too small, the cavity will not be filled.
Flashless forging is often classified as a precision
forging process.
Coining is a special application of flashless forging
A common application of coining is, of course, in the minting
of coins, shown in Figure below.
The process is also used to provide good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy on workparts made by other operations.

FIGURE : Coining operations: (1) start of cycle, (2) compression

stroke, and (3) ejection of finished part.
 Forging hammers, presses, and dies

 Equipment used in forging consists of forging machines,

classified as hammers or presses, and forging dies
 In addition, auxiliary equipment is needed, such as furnaces
to heat the work, mechanical devices to load and unload the
work, and trimming stations to cut away the flash in
impression-die forging.

Forging Hammers
 Forging hammers operate by applying an impact loading
against the work.
 The term drop hammer is often used for these machines,
owing to the means of delivering impact energy (see Figures
below).
FIGURE: Drop forging hammer,
FIGURE : Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for
impression-die forging.

 Drop hammers are most frequently used for impression-die

forging.
 The upper portion of the forging die is attached to the ram,
and the lower portion is attached to the anvil.
 In the operation, the work is placed on the lower die, and the
ram is lifted and then dropped.

 Several blows of the hammer are often required to achieve the

desired change in shape.

 Drop hammers can be classified as gravity drop hammers and

power drop hammers.
 Gravity drop hammers achieve their energy by the falling
weight of a heavy ram.

 Power drop hammers accelerate the ram by pressurized air or

steam.
 One of the disadvantages of drop hammers is that a large
amount of the impact energy is transmitted through the anvil
and into the floor of the building.
Forging Presses
 Presses apply gradual pressure, rather than sudden
impact, to accomplish the forging operation.
 Forging presses include mechanical presses, hydraulic
presses, and screw presses.
 Mechanical presses operate by means of eccentrics,
cranks, or knuckle joints, which convert the rotating
motion of a drive motor into the translation motion of
the ram.
 Mechanical presses typically achieve very high forces at
the bottom of the forging stroke.
 Hydraulic presses use a hydraulically driven piston to
actuate the ram.
 Screw presses apply force by a screw mechanism that
drives the vertical ram.
 Forging Dies
Proper die design is important in the success of a
forging operation.
Parts to be forged must be designed based on
knowledge of the principles and limitations of this
process
Design of open dies is generally straightforward
because the dies are relatively simple in shape.
Our comments apply to impression dies and closed
dies. Figure below defines some of the terminology
in an impression die.

FIGURE : Terminology for a conventional impression

die in forging.
 We indicate some of the principles and limitations that
must be considered in the part design or in the selection
of forging as the manufacturing process to make the part
in the following discussion of forging die terminology:

Parting line: The parting line is the plane that divides

the upper die from the lower die.

 Called the flash line in impression-die forging. Its

selection by the designer affects grain flow in the part,
required load, and flash formation.
Draft: Draft is the amount of taper on the sides of the part
required to remove it from the die.

 Typical draft angles are 3° on aluminum and magnesium

parts and 5° to 7° on steel parts.

Webs and ribs: A web is a thin portion of the forging that

is parallel to the parting line, while a rib is a thin portion
that is perpendicular to the parting line.

 These part features cause difficulty in metal flow as well

as the life of the die.
Fillet and corner radii: Fillets and corners are curved
surface connecting ribs, bosses and webs, and are
defined by their transverse section.

 A corner is a convex arc, which joins two intersecting

sides at an external angle of more than 180°, whereas
fillet is a concave arc, which joins two intersecting sides
at an external angle of less than 180°.

 Design of fillet and corner affect grain flow, forging

pressure requirement, die wear, amount of metal to be
removed during machining, and cost of dies and
forgings.
 Flash:
Flash formation plays a critical role in impression-
die forging by causing pressure buildup inside the
die to promote filling of the cavity. This pressure
buildup is controlled by designing a flash land and
gutter into the die.

The land determines the surface area along which

lateral flow of metal occurs, thereby controlling the
pressure increase inside the die.

The flash produced during closed-die forging is

scrap material
 The amount of flash produced increases with the
complexity of the part.

 However, the production of flash is a necessary part of

the process, and its design and control is essential to
ensure good die filling, particularly for tall, thin shape
features.

 While designing for flash land, care must be taken in

selecting flash thickness and width, as thickness and
width being small will necessitate greater energy or extra
blows to bring forging to size, on the other hand
thickness being more may cause inadequate die filling.
 The gutter permits excess metal to escape without
causing the forging load to reach extreme values.

 The dimensions of the flash gutter should be

accommodate all the excess material flowing beyond the
flash land.

 If inadequate, the material would flow beyond the flash

gutter and prevent the closure of the dies and it leading
to oversized forgings.
 3. EXTRUSION
 Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal is
forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired
cross-sectional shape.

 There are several advantages of the modern process:

(1) a variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot extrusion;
(2) Good grain structure and strength properties would be
enhanced in cold and warm extrusion;
(3) fairly close tolerances are possible, especially in cold
extrusion; and
(4) in some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is
created.
 However, a limitation is that the cross section of the
extruded part must be uniform throughout its length.

Types of Extrusion

 One important distinction is between direct extrusion

and indirect extrusion.
 Another classification is by working temperature: cold,
warm, or hot extrusion.
 Finally, extrusion is performed as either a continuous
process or a discrete process.
Direct versus Indirect Extrusion
 Direct extrusion (also called forward extrusion) is
illustrated in Figure below.

FIGURE : Direct extrusions.

A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram
compresses the material, forcing it to flow through
one or more openings in a die at the opposite end of
the container.
As the ram approaches the die, a small portion of the
billet remains that cannot be forced through the die
opening.
This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from
the product by cutting it just beyond the exit of the
die.
One of the problems in direct extrusion is the
significant friction that exists between the work
surface and the walls of the container as the billet is
forced to slide toward the die opening.
 This friction causes a substantial increase of ram force
required
 In hot extrusion, the friction problem is aggravated by
the presence of an oxide layer on the surface of the billet.
 This oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded product.
 To address these problems, a dummy block is often used
between the ram and the billet.
 The diameter of the dummy block is slightly smaller than
the billet diameter, so that a narrow ring of work metal
(mostly the oxide layer) is left in the container, leaving the
final product free of oxides.
 Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct
extrusion by the process setup in Figure below.
FIGURE (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or
semi-hollow cross section; (b) hollow and (c) semi-
hollow cross sections.
The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to
its axis.
This allows passage of a mandrel that is attached to
the dummy block.
As the billet is compressed, the material is forced to
flow through the clearance between the mandrel and
the die opening.
The starting billet in direct extrusion is usually round
in cross section, but the final shape is determined by
the shape of the die opening.
Obviously, the largest dimension of the die opening
must be smaller than the diameter of the billet.
In indirect extrusion, also called backward extrusion
and reverse extrusion, Figure (a), the die is mounted
to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the
container.

FIGURE Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross

section and (b) a hollow cross section.
As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is
forced to flow through the clearance in a direction
opposite to the motion of the ram.
Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
the lower rigidity of the hollow ram and the
difficulty in supporting the extruded product as it
exits the die.
Indirect extrusion can produce hollow (tubular)
cross sections, as shown in the Figure above.
There are practical limitations on the length of the
extruded part that can be made by this method.
Support of the ram becomes a problem as work
length increases
Hot versus Cold Extrusion
Hot extrusion involves prior heating of the billet
to a temperature above its recrystallization
temperature.
This reduces strength and increases ductility of
the metal, permitting more extreme size
reductions and more complex shapes to be
achieved in the process.
Additional advantages include reduction of ram
force, increased ram speed, and reduction of grain
flow characteristics in the final product.
Cooling of the billet as it contacts the container
walls is a problem
Lubrication is critical in hot extrusion for certain
metals (e.g., steels), and special lubricants have
been developed that are effective under the harsh
conditions in hot extrusion.
Cold extrusion and warm extrusion are generally
used to produce discrete parts, often in finished
(or near finished) form.
Some important advantages of cold extrusion
include increased strength due to strain
hardening, close tolerances, improved surface
finish, and absence of oxide layers.
Metals that are typically extruded hot include
aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc, tin, and
their alloys.
Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the
softer, more ductile grades are sometimes cold
extruded (e.g., low carbon steels and stainless
steel).
Aluminum is probably the most ideal metal for
extrusion (hot and cold), and many commercial
aluminum products are made by this process
(structural shapes, door and window frames, etc.).
ANALYSIS OF EXTRUSION
Let us use Figure below as a reference in discussing
some of the parameters in extrusion.
The diagram assumes that both billet and extrudate
are round in cross section.

FIGURE: Pressure and other variables in direct

extrusion.
One important parameter is the extrusion ratio, also
called the reduction ratio. The ratio is defined:

Where rx = extrusion ratio; Ao = cross-sectional area of

the starting billet, mm2; and Af = final cross-sectional
area of the extruded section, mm2.
The ratio applies for both direct and indirect
extrusion.
The value of rx can be used to determine true strain in
extrusion, given that ideal deformation occurs with no
friction and no redundant work:
Under the assumption of ideal deformation (no
friction and no redundant work), the pressure
applied by the ram to compress the billet through the
die opening depicted in our figure can be computed as
follows:
Where Yf = average flow stress during deformation, Mpa
and can be calculated using the following Eq.

In fact, extrusion is not a frictionless process, and the

previous equations grossly underestimate the strain and
pressure in an extrusion operation.
Friction exists between the die and the work as the
billet squeezes down and passes through the die
In direct extrusion, friction also exists between the
container wall and the billet surface.
The effect of friction is to increase the strain
experienced by the metal.
Thus, the actual pressure is greater than that given by
Eq. (21), which assumes no friction.
Various methods have been suggested to calculate the
actual true strain and associated ram pressure
The following empirical equation proposed by
Johnson for estimating extrusion strain:

Where ex = extrusion strain; and a and b are empirical

constants for a given die angle.
Typical values of these constants are: a = 0.8 and b =
1.2 to 1.5.
Values of a and b tend to increase with increasing die
angle.
The ram pressure to perform indirect extrusion can be
estimated based on Johnson’s extrusion strain formula
as follows:

Where Yf is calculated based on ideal strain from Eq.

(20), rather than extrusion strain in Eq. (22).
In direct extrusion, the effect of friction between the
container walls and the billet causes the ram pressure
to be greater than for indirect extrusion.
The following formula can be used to compute ram
pressure in direct extrusion:

Where the term 2L/Do accounts for the additional

pressure due to friction at the container-billet
interface. L is the portion of the billet length
remaining to be extruded, and Do is the original
diameter of the billet.
Note that p is reduced as the remaining billet
length decreases during the process.
Ram force in indirect or direct extrusion is simply
pressure p from Eqs. (23a) or (23b), respectively,
multiplied by billet area Ao:

Where F = ram force in extrusion, N (lb).

Power required to carry out the extrusion operation is
simply

Where P = power, J/s; F = ram force, N; and v = ram

velocity, m/s.
Example 3
A billet 75mm long and 25mm in diameter is to
be extruded in a direct extrusion operation
with extrusion ratio rx = 4.0. The extrudate has
a round cross section. The work metal has a
strength coefficient = 415 MPa, and strain-
hardening exponent = 0.18. Use the Johnson
formula with a = 0.8 and b = 1.5 to estimate
extrusion strain. Determine the pressure
applied to the end of the billet as the ram
moves forward.
Solution
Let us examine the ram pressure at billet
lengths of L = 75mm (starting value), L = 50
mm, L = 25 mm, and L = 0.We compute the
ideal true strain, extrusion strain using
Johnson’s formula, and average flow stress:
L = 0: Zero length is a hypothetical value in
direct extrusion. In reality, it is impossible to
squeeze all of the metal through the die
opening. Calculated below is the hypothetical
minimum value of ram pressure that would
result at L = 0.
4. WIRE AND BAR DRAWING
 In the context of bulk deformation, drawing is an
operation in which the cross section of a bar, rod, or
wire is reduced by pulling it through a die opening, as
in Figure below.

FIGURE: Drawing of bar, rod, or wire.

 The general features of the process are similar to those of
extrusion.
 The difference is that the work is pulled through the die in
drawing, whereas it is pushed through the die in
extrusion.
 Although the presence of tensile stresses is obvious in
drawing, compression also plays a significant role because
the metal is squeezed down as it passes through the die
opening.
 For this reason, the deformation that occurs in drawing is
sometimes referred to as indirect compression.
 The basic difference between bar drawing and wire
drawing is the stock size that is processed.
 Bar drawing is the term used for large diameter bar and
rod stock, while wire drawing applies to small diameter
stock.
 Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm are possible in wire drawing.
 Although the mechanics of the process are the same for
the two cases, the methods, equipment, and even the
terminology are somewhat different.
 Bar drawing is generally accomplished as a single-draft
operation the stock is pulled through one die opening.
 Because the beginning stock has a large diameter, it is in
the form of a straight cylindrical piece rather than coiled.
 This limits the length of the work that can be drawn,
necessitating a batch type operation.
 By contrast, wire is drawn from coils consisting of several
hundred (or even several thousand) feet of wire and is
passed through a series of draw dies.
 In a drawing operation, the change in size of
the work is usually given by the area reduction,
defined as follows:

Where r = area reduction in drawing; Ao = original

area of work,mm2 and Af = final area, mm2.
Area reduction is often expressed as a percentage.
In bar drawing and rod drawing the term draft is
used to denote the before and after difference in
size of the processed work.
 The draft is simply the difference between original and
final diameter

where d = draft, mm; Do = original diameter of

work, mm; and Df = final work
diameter, mm.
ANALYSIS OF DRAWING
If no friction or redundant work occurred in drawing,
true strain could be determined as follows:

where Ao and Af are the original and final cross-

sectional areas of the work, as previously defined; and
r = drawing reduction as given by Eq. (26).
The stress that results from this ideal deformation is
given by
where

Where Yf = average flow stress

Because friction is present in drawing and the work

metal experiences inhomogeneous deformation, the
actual stress is larger than provided by Eq. (29).
In addition to the ratio Ao/Af, other variables that
influence draw stress are die angle and coefficient of
friction at the work–die interface.
A number of methods have been proposed for
predicting draw stress based on values of these
parameters
We present the equation suggested by Schey:
where σd = draw stress, Mpa; µ = die-work coefficient
of friction; α = die angle (half-angle) as defined in
Figure above; and ϕ is a factor that accounts for
inhomogeneous deformation which is determined as
follows for a round cross section:

Where D = average diameter of work during drawing,

mm(in); and Lc = contact length of the work with the
draw die in Figure above,mm. Values of D and Lc can
be determined from the following:
The corresponding draw force is then the area of
the drawn cross section multiplied by the draw stress:

where F = draw force, N; and the other terms are

defined above.
The power required in a drawing operation is the
draw force multiplied by exit velocity of the work.
Example 4
Wire is drawn through a draw die with
entrance angle =15°. Starting diameter is
2.5mm and final diameter = 2.0 mm. The
coefficient of friction at the work-die interface
= 0.07. The
metal has a strength coefficient K = 205 MPa
and a strain-hardening exponent n = 0.20.
Determine the draw stress and draw force in
this operation.
Solution:
D = 2.25 mm and Lc = 0.966 mm. Thus,

The areas before and after drawing are

computed as Ao = 4.91mm2 and Af = 3.14mm2.
The
resulting true strain e = ln(4.91/3.14) = 0.446,
and the average flow stress in the operation is
computed:
Draw stress is given by:

Finally, the draw force is this stress multiplied

by the cross-sectional area of the exiting wire:
Sheet Metal
Working

146
Introduction
 A sheet-metal part produced in presses is called a stamping
 Low-carbon steel has low cost and good strength and
formability characteristics
 Manufacturing processes involving sheet metal are
performed at room temperature
Sheet Metalworking Defined
 Cutting and forming operations performed on relatively thin
sheets of metal
 Thickness of sheet metal = 0.4 mm (1/64 in) to 6 mm (1/4 in)

3/19/2019 147
 Sheet and plate metal parts for consumer and industrial
products such as
 Automobiles and trucks  Small and large appliances
 Airplanes  Office furniture
 Railway cars and locomotives  Computers and office equp.
 Farm and construction equipment

Sheet Metal working Terminology

 Punch-and-Die: tooling to perform cutting, bending, and
drawing
 Stamping press: machine tool that performs most sheet
metal operations
 Stampings: sheet metal products 148
 Three Basic Types of Sheet Metal Processes
1.Cutting (Shearing)
 Shearing to separate large sheets
 Blanking to cut part perimeters out of sheet metal
 Punching to make holes in sheet metal
2.Bending: Straining sheet around a straight axis
3.Drawing: Forming of sheet into convex or concave shapes
1.Cutting (Shearing)
 Shearing is a sheet-metal cutting operation along a straight
line between two cutting edges.
 Shearing is typically used to cut large sheets into smaller
sections for subsequent press working operations. 149
 Blanking(a) involves cutting of the sheet metal along a closed
outline in a single step to separate the piece from the surrounding
stock. The part that is cut out is the desired product in the
operation and is called the blank.
 Punching(b) is similar to blanking except that it produces a
hole, and the separated piece is scrap.
150
 Clearance in sheet metal cutting is the distance between
punch cutting edge and die cutting edge
 Typical values range between 4% and 8% of stock thickness
 If too small, fracture lines pass each other, causing double
burnishing and larger force
151
 If too large, metal is pinched between cutting edges and
excessive burr results
 Recommended clearance is calculated by:
c = at
where: c = clearance;
a = allowance; and
t = stock thickness
 Allowance a is determined according to type of metal

152
 punch and die sizes for a round blank of diameter Db are
determined as:

 Punch and die sizes for a round hole of diameter Dh are

determined as:

 In order for the slug or blank to drop through the die, the die
opening must have an angular clearance of 0.25 to 1.5 degree on
each side.

153
 Cutting force F in sheet metalworking can be determined by

Where: S: shear strength of the sheet metal ,MPa ; t: stock

thickness, mm and L: length of the cut edge, mm.
OTHER SHEET-METAL-CUTTING OPERATIONS
 Cutoff
It is a shearing operation in which blanks are separated from
a sheet-metal strip by cutting the opposite sides of the part in
sequence
With each cut, a new part is produced
the blanks can be nested on the strip in such a way that
scrap 154
 Parting
It involves cutting a sheet-metal strip by a punch with two
cutting edges that match the opposite sides of the blank.
 Parting is less efficient than cutoff in the sense that it results
in some wasted material.

155
 Slotting
 Slotting is the term sometimes used for a punching
operation that cuts out an elongated or rectangular hole

156
 Perforating:
 involves the simultaneous punching of a pattern of holes in
sheet metal

157
Notching: involves cutting out a portion of metal from the side
of the sheet or strip.

2. BENDING OPERATIONS
 Bending in sheet-metalwork is defined as the straining of the
metal around a straight axis.
 During the bending operation, the metal on the inside of the
neutral plane is compressed, while the metal on the outside of the
neutral plane is stretched. 158
 The two common bending methods and associated tooling are:
 V-bending:
 the sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die.
 Included angles ranging from very obtuse to very acute can
be made with V-dies.
 V-bending is generally used for low-production operations.
 It is often performed on a press brake 159
 Edge bending
 involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal.
A pressure pad is used to apply a force Fh to hold the base
of the part against the die, while the punch forces the part to
yield and bend over the edge of the die.
 edge bending is limited to bends of 90 degrees or less.

sheet metal forming\Operations of shearing and bending160

 Bending Analysis
 bend allowance: it’s the pre bent length of material that must
be included in a blank to allow for any deformation that occurs
due to bending operation. It can be estimated as:
BA = 2  A( R + Kbat ) / 360
Where: BA = bending allowance, A = bend angle, R = bend radius,
t = stock thickness, Kba = stretch factor.
 For R< 2t, Kba= 0.33 ; for R 2t, Kba= 0.5.
 Spring back: defined as the increase in included angle of the bent
part relative to the included angle of the forming tool after the tool is
removed.

3/19/2019 161
 It can be estimated by:
A  Ab
SB 
Ab

 where: A’ = include angle of sheet-metal part A’b = include

angle of bending tool
 Compensation for spring back can be accomplished by several
methods. Two common methods are overbending and bottoming.
 In overbending, the punch angle and radius are fabricated
slightly smaller than the specified angle on the final part so that
the sheet metal springs back to the desired value.
 Bottoming involves squeezing the part at the end of the stroke,
thus plastically deforming it in the bend region. 162
 bending force can be estimated by means of the following
equation:
K bf Twt 2
F
D
Where: w = width of sheet-metal Kbf = 1.33 V-bending
D = die opening dimension Kbf = 0.33 edge bending
TS = tensile strength of the sheet metal

163
 OTHER BENDING AND FORMING OPERATIONS
 Flanging
 It is a bending operation in which the edge of a sheet-metal
part is bent at a 90 angle (usually) to form a rim or flange.
 It is often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal.
 Flanging: (a) straight flanging, (b) stretch flanging, and (c)
shrink flanging

164
 Hemming(a)
 involves bending the edge of the sheet over on itself, in
more than one Bending step.
This is often done to eliminate the sharp edge on the piece,
to increase stiffness, and to improve appearance.
Seaming(b)
 it is a related operation in which two sheet-metal edges are
assembled.
Curling(c)
 Its also called beading, forms the edges of the part in to a roll or
curl. As in hemming, it is done for purposes of safety, strength, and
aesthetics. Examples of products: hinges, pots and pans.
165
166
 3. DRAWING
 Drawing is a sheet-metal-forming operation used to make cup
shaped, box-shaped, or other complex-curved and concave parts.
 It is performed by placing a piece of sheet metal over a die
cavity and then pushing the metal into the opening with a punch.
 Common parts made by drawing include beverage cans,
ammunition shells, sinks, cooking pots, and automobile body
panels.
sheet metal forming\Deep Drawing
MECHANICS Stamping Process.mp4
OF DRAWING
 A blank of diameter Db is drawn into a die cavity by means of a
punch with diameter Dp.
167
 Drawing steps are shown in the following figure
 Drawing of a cup-shaped part: (1) start of operation before
punch contacts work, and (2) near end of stroke;

168
 corresponding work part:(1) starting blank, and (2) drawn part.

Symbols: c: clearance, Db: blank diameter, Dp: punch diameter,

Rd: die corner radius, Rp: punch corner radius, F: drawing force,
Fh: holding force.
 The sides of the punch and die are separated by a clearance c
which is given by:
c  1.1* t
169
 One of the measures of the severity of a deep drawing
operation is the drawing ratio DR which is given by:

Db
DR 
Dp

 where: Db = blank diameter, Dp = punch diameter and

t = thickness of the starting blank
 The greater the ratio, the more severe the operation.
 An approximate upper limit on the drawing ratio is a value of
2.0.
 Another way to characterize a given drawing operation is by
Db  D p
the reduction r: r
Dp
170
 A third measure in deep drawing is the thickness-to-diameter
ratio t/Db
 Often expressed as a percentage, it is desirable for the t/Db
ratio to be greater than 1%.
 As t/Db decreases, tendency for wrinkling increases.
The drawing force required to perform a given operation can be
estimated roughly by the formula:
Db
F   * D p * t * Ts (  0.7)
Dp
Where:- F:drawing force, N ; t: original blank thickness, mm ; TS:
tensile strength, Mpa)

171
 The holding force can be calculated by:


Fh  0.015Y Db2  ( Dp  2.2t  2 Rd ) 2 
Where:- Fh: holding force in drawing, N ;Y: yield strength of the
sheet metal, Mpa ;Rd: die corner radius, mm

172
Blank Size
It is generally difficult to find the exact size of the blank
needed for drawing a given cup, because of thinning and
thickening of the metal sheet during the drawing operation.
The following simple relations can be used for determine the
blank diameter Dp:

where d = outside diameter of cup

h = height of cup
r = corner radius on punch.
173
 DEFECTS IN DRAWING
 Wrinkling in the flange(a): Wrinkling in a drawn
part consists of a series of ridges that form radially in
the undrawn flange of the work part due to
compressive buckling.

Wrinkling in the wall(b): If and when the wrinkled

flange is drawn into the cup, these ridges appear in
the vertical wall.

174
 Tearing (c):- it is an open crack in the vertical wall, usually near
the base of the drawn cup, due to high tensile stresses that cause
thinning and failure of the metal at this location.
 Earing (d):- This is the formation of irregularities (called ears)
in the upper edge of a deep drawn cup, caused by anisotropy in
the sheet metal.
 Surface scratches (e):- Surface scratches can occur on the
drawn part if the punch and die are not smooth or if lubrication is
insufficient.

175
SHEET-METAL OPERATIONS NOT PERFORMED ON PRESSES
 stretch forming
 it is a sheet-metal deformation process in which the sheet
metal is intentionally stretched and simultaneously bent in
order to achieve shape change.
 The work part is gripped by one or more jaws on each end
and then stretched and bent over a positive die containing the
desired form. 176
 (1) start of (2) form die is Pressed into the
process;
sheet metal forming\Stretch Forming .080work
2024 T3.mp4

 Roll bending and Roll forming

 Roll bending is an operation in

which (usually) large sheet-metal or
plate-metal parts are formed into
curved sections by means of rolls.
177
 Roll forming (also called contour roll forming) is a continuous
bending process in which opposing rolls are used to produce long
sections of formed shapes from coil or strip stock.

Roll forming of a continuous channel section: (1) straight rolls,

(2) partial form, and (3) final form
sheet metal forming\Plate roll - Sheet metal roller - Plate roll bending -
Rundbiegemaschine Motor - HengerÃtÅ‘gép.mp4 178
 SPINNING
 it is a metal-forming process in which an axially symmetric
part is gradually shaped over a mandrel or form by means of a
rounded tool or roller.
 Basic geometric shapes typically produced by spinning
include cups, cones, hemispheres, and tubes.
Conventional spinning

179
Shear spinning -
thinning and
bending occur at
the same time.

g
Tube spinning -
similar to shear
spinning but
working on a tube.

sheet metal forming\Metal Spinning,.mp4 180