Chapter one: - Cardiovascular System

Introduction
The vascular system includes all the duct systems of the body that carries blood or lymph.
Cardiovascular system is a system, which is studied under Angiology that originally means the
study of vessels, but for convenience its scope is widened and included the study of the heart,
spleen and the various lymphatic organs in addition to the vessels. The blood circulatory system
is composed of the heart, arteries, veins and capillaries. The circulatory system can also be
subdivided into pulmonary circulation (circulation that involves the lungs), systemic circulation
(involves the general body area), and portal circulation (involves the intestine and the liver and is
entirely venous; beginning as capillaries in the intestines and ending in sinusoids of the liver).

Circulatory system
The circulatory system consists of
 The heart – which acts as suction and force pump
 Arteries – vessels which convey blood from the heart to the various body parts
 Capillaries – which are microscopic lumps within the tissue
 Veins – which carry blood back to the heart

Circulatory system is further subdivided in to three

 Pulmonary circulation
 Systemic circulation
 Portal circulation:- Convey blood from the venules of small intestine to the sinusoids of
liver (veins to vein)

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Heart: - is a pumping organ which acts as suction and force pump. The wall of the heart is
composed of or made up three layers and the heart also has four chambers. The chambers are two
auricles (right and left), two ventricles (right and left). The heart is composed of a base, apex,
two auricles, two ventricles and a system valves located and constructed to assist the flow of
blood through the heart. The valves are the right and left atrio-ventricular valves, the pulmonary
and aortic valves. The atrio-ventricular valves (right = has three cusps/valves and thus, are
tricuspid valve and left =has two cusps or valves and thus, are known as bicuspid valves) are
located between the atria and ventricles and regulate the passage of blood from auricles to
ventricles. The aortic and pulmonary valves have three cusps each and are located at the origin of
aorta and pulmonary artery, respectively. They prevent back flow of blood from these vessels
into the heart. The large veins that enter the heart have no valves. The heart is divided into four
chambers by septum. Inter-atrial septum separates two atria or auricles (left and right), atrio-
ventricular septa and atrio-ventricular valves separate the auricles from the ventricles, and the
inter-ventricular septum separates the two ventricles. The right ventricle of the adult heart is
larger and thinner walled than the left. The right side of the heart pumps venous (deoxygenated)
blood while the left side pumps arterial blood (oxygenated blood). The heart is provided with its
own circulation composed of the coronary arteries which branch from the aorta and the coronary
veins which empty into the right atrium.

The construction, the form and the position of the heart are similar in all mammals. The heart is
found in the thoracic cavity almost completely enclosed in the pericardial sac (pericardium)
particularly within the middle mediastinum making an impression; called Cardiac notch on the
two lungs by its right and left surfaces. The cardiac notch in the ventral border of each lung
allows the heart a restricted contact with the chest wall. On the left the cardiac notch is larger and
allows apposition of the heart to the left lateral face of thorax. This area is called superficial
cardiac area and it is the area where we put stethoscope in order to hear the heart sounds
(auscultation).

The heart is enclosed within a completely closed sac of serous membrane structure known as
pericardium. The lumen of the pericardium is very narrow which contains a small amount of
serous fluid used or important to reduce friction by lubricating and allow easy movement of the
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heart wall against its covering; pericardium. The pericardium consists of two layers; the inner
(visceral = epicardium) and the outer (parietal) pericardium. The space between the two is called
pericardial space.
The three tissue layers of the heart consist of the epicardium (that serves as the outer covering of
the heart), myocardium (heart muscle and forms the bulk of the heart that is responsible for heart
contraction) and endocardium (the inner lining of the heart and is composed of squamous
epithelium which is continuous with the endothelium by a layer of elastic connective tissue).

The heart has a base, apex, 2 borders (cranial and caudal) and 2 surfaces (right/atrial) &
left/auricular. The base of the heart is directed cranio-dorsally and reaches approximately the
horizontal (dorsal) plane that bisects the first rib (about 2/3s of the distance toward the vertebral
column). It is formed by R & L auricles/ atria. Attached to different structures by large vessels
and pericardium. The apex is directed caudo-ventrally inclining to and placed close to the
sternum, opposite to the 6th costal cartilage. The cranial border is strongly convex and its major
portion is almost parallel to the sternum. The Caudal border (left border) is much shorter than the
cranial border and it is nearly vertical. The atrial surface (right surface also called
diaphragmatic surface), is marked by inter-ventricular subsinosal groove. It is said atrial
because most of the atrium is in the right side. The auricular surface (sterno-costal/ left surface)
is marked by inter-ventricular paraconal groove. Underlying the interventricular subsinosal
groove and interventricular paraconal grooves we find the interventricular septum that
separate the two ventricular acuities. Coronary groove – separate the ventricles from the
mauricles. Except in the regions of the origin of pulmonary trunk it almost encircles the heart.
All the grooves contain vessels and a variable quantity of adipose tissue. The vessels in the
grooves are coronary vessels.
Right atrium/auricle: - Forms the right cranial part of the base of the heart and is found just
above the right ventricles. Atrium is the part in to which large vessels open and it is found
between the two venacava (caudal and cranial). There are 5 chief openings in to the right atrium
included are caudal vena cava, cranial vena cava, azygous vein, coronary vein and atrio-
ventricular opening.

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Right ventricle: - Constitutes the right cranial part of the ventricular mass, which almost forms
the cranial border, but doesn’t reach the apex which is formed entirely by the left ventricle. The
atrio-ventricular orifice is guarded by tricuspid valve (Right ventricular valve). The R.V. valve is
composed of three flage/ cusps which protects the reflux of the blood and their location. The
valves are folds of the endocardium strengthened by fibrous tissues. There are two openings on
the Right ventricle namely right atrio-ventricular orifice and pulmonary orifice. Pulmonary
orifice guarded by semilunar valves which contain 3 cusps one on the right, the other on the left
and one intermediate.

Left atrium: - Forms the caudal part of the base of the heart. It lies just dorsal to the left
ventricle behind the aorta and pulmonary trunk. It is larger than the right atrium in size,
particularly the auricular position is larger than that of the right one. The pulmonary veins which
are 7 or 8 in no. open to the left atrium separately or in groups at two or 3 sites in caudo-medial
position. The atrio-ventricular opening is situated ventral and cranial.
The left ventricle: - It forms the left caudal part of the ventricular mass. Its wall is almost 3
times thicker than the right ventricular wall except in the region of the apex & except in the
fetus/neonates. The whole part of the apex is formed by the left ventricle. On cross section it is
circular. It has two openings – aortic orifice and left ventricular valve orifice. The aortic orifice is
guarded by three valves that protect the reflux of blood to the ventricles. The aortic semilunar
valves are thicker and stronger than the pulmonary semilunar valves. The left atrio-ventricular
orifice is guarded by bicuspid/mitral or left aterio-ventricular valves. They are two in number
and are much thicker and stronger than the tricuspid values.
Blood flow to the heart
The heart receives blood through: -
1. caudal vena cava – brings blood from the abdomen and pelvic limbs and from pelvic
cavity
2. Cranial vena cava – brings blood from the head, neck, chest and from the fore limbs
3. Coronary sinus brings blood from the myocardium
4. Right and left azygous veins – drain the dorsal and lateral thoracic walls
Blood supply to the heart: - Arteries that irrigate the heart are the right and left coronary arteries,
which are located in the inter-ventricular and coronary grooves.
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Blood vessels
A/ The Arterial system/Arteries
The arterial system begins with the aorta, which is the largest artery in the body. It leaves the
heart as the thoracic aorta and curves upward and backward to lie just below the thoracic
vertebrae. The thoracic aorta passes through the diaphragm at the hiatus aorticus and is continued
caudally as the abdominal aorta. Structurally, arteries are thick-walled with a small lumen. They
contain considerable amount of elastic tissue, maintain their shape without collapsing when
empty, have no valves, and are deeply located. The walls of arteries are composed of three coats
of layers:
1. Tunica adventitia/tunica externa – the external coat of arteries which is continuous with
the fibrous portion of pericardium and mainly composed of fibrous tissue
2. Tunica media/middle coat – Which is composed of circularly arranged smooth muscle
cells interspersed with elastic connection tissue/elastic fiber the proportion of which
depends on the type/size of arteries (in the largest arteries it is almost entirely composed
of elastic fiber, while in arterioles the tissue is virtually absent).
3. Tunica internal/inner coat:- composed of endothelial cells on the elastic membranes
Because of their structures, arteries are distensible and elastic, which allows them to
accommodate their size to the increased pressure and volume of blood forced into them by each
contraction of the heart. This ability also helps them to assist pumping of blood. The largest
(about 2 inch in diameter in larger horses) arteries (pulmonary artery and aorta) are quite
impressive in their shape. The larger vessels decrease in size as they give off branches and the
branches continue to divide and subdivide until they became the capillary bed. The smallest
arteries are called arterioles (about 0.2mm or smaller in diameter). The walls of the arterioles are
composed of almost entirely of smooth muscles, which by contraction, change the caliber of the
lumen and thus, regulate the flow of blood into the capillary network which the arterioles supply.
Generally, arteries can be classified into three based on their size and structure:
1. Larger arteries – are larger in size originating either directly form the heart or from aorta
near its origin and composed of large amount of elastic fibers in the tunica media of their
wall.

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 2. Muscular arteries – arteries with tunica media consisting largely of smooth muscles
arranged in may closely spiraled layers – most named arteries belong to these
3. Arterioles – Their muscle is reduced to a few layers which gradually fallen off.
B/ Cappillaries and sinosoides
1. Capillaries are networks of small tubes whose wall consisting of a single layer of
endothelium. Supported by a very delicate connective tissue membrane. They are
exchange vessels where nutrient & 02 is delivered to tissue at the arterial end and waste is
re-sorted toward the venous end.
2. Sinusoids: - are types of special capillaries found in the liver, spleen and bone marrow.
They are composed of single layer of endothelium, they are wider than capillaries and
less regular
VEINS
Although they are thinner walled vessels the large veins are similar to arteries in construction.
The middle tunic of veins is thin and consists of two elastic fibers being mainly muscular. As the
venues have very thin wall they collapse more or less completely when they are empty. The
unique structure of views is that their endothelial cells are developed in to valves repeatedly at
different length, this assumes unidirectional flow of blood preventing the reflex of blood. The
valves are most numerous in veins exposed to intermittent external pressure change.

Systemic circulation
Pulmonary circulation: - Pulmonary trunk arises from the pulmonary orifice of the right
ventricle. It is slightly expanded at its origin just above the cusps where it presents small sinuses.
- It passes between the two auricles and bends caudally over the base of the heart,
where it is joined to the aorta on its right face by the ligament arteriosum
(fibrosed remnant of DA.)
After penetrating pericardium it branches in to right and left pulmonary artery each of which is
directed towards the hilus of corresponding lung. The pulmonary arteries generally follow the
bronchus but the pulmonary vein may sometimes take separate routes.

The right pulmonary artery is larger and longer then the left and it enters the lung ventral to the
right principal bronchi while the left pulmonary artery is smaller and shorter and enter the lung
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ventral to the left principal bronchus. The left pulmonary artery is shortest because it is nearer to
the heart.

Lung has a lot of capillary bed. It acts as an efficient filter which leads to the frequent occurrence
of pus in the lung. The pulmonary veins open variously in to the roof of left atrium. They form
two clusters (R and L) in dog, where as there is one additional 3rd cluster in large species. This
3rd cluster arises from the diaphragmatic lobe draining the caudal lobe of the lung. No value is
present in veins.
Systemic Circulation

Arteries
Aorta and its branches
The aorta is the parent vessel of all of the systemic arteries. The aorta is divided in to three
segments:
1- the ascending aorta
2- aortic arch
3- descending aorta
The thoracic aorta gives off important branches; the coronary arteries (supply blood to the heart),
brachiocephalic trunk (the main trunk to the head, neck and shoulder region), the subclavian
(brachial) artery (supply the fore limbs), the intercostals arteries, and the diaphragmatic artery.
The brachiocephalic artery also gives off major branches such as the dorsal artery (supply the
first three ribs and deep shoulder region), the left subclavian (supply left fore leg and shoulder
region) and common carotid which gives of the right subclavian which supply the right foreleg.
The common carotid then branches into right and left carotid arteries which supply the neck,
cervical vertebrae, face, and head, and the deep cervical artery which supply the deep muscles of
the neck.

The thoracic aorta, after giving off the brachiocephlic artery, curves dorsally and backward to lie
under the thoracic vertebrae. It gives off a number of paired intercostals arteries (the number
varies with the species and number of ribs) and the diaphragmatic artery, which supplies the
diaphragm at the hiatus aorticus, and becomes the abdominal aorta.

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The abdominal aorta is the direct continuation of the thoracic aorta. It gives off important
branches celiac artery (supply stomach, liver, spleen, and pancreas), the cranial mesenteric artery
(supply small intestine), right and left renal arteries (supply kidneys), the caudal mesenteric
artery (supply cecum, colon, and part of small intestine), two internal spermatic (or utero-
ovarian) arteries (supply testes in male and uterus and ovaries in females), and a pair of lumbar
arteries, which go to the lumbar vertebrae.

The abdominal aorta ends at the pelvic region where it branches into five vessels; the internal
iliac arteries (right and left) which supply the thigh muscles and genital, the external iliac arteries
(right and left) which supply the hind legs and external parts of the abdomen and mammary
glands in some animals, the caudal arteries, which supplies the tail. The internal iliac and caudal
arteries have several branches of minor importance. The external iliac artery gives off major
branches; the femoral artery (goes to the hind legs) and the prepubic artery which supplies the
abdomen. The femoral artery subdivides into several vessels which the lower portion of the hind
limbs.

The venous system

The vessels of the venous system are generally named the same as the arteries in the same area.
There are some exceptions to this rule. E.g. the saphenous vein in the hind leg, the cephalic vein
in the fore leg, the jugular vein in the neck, the azygos vein in the thorax, the portal vein in the
abdomen and caudal and cranial vena cava, subcutaneous abdominal vein/milk vein (in cattle).
Veins arise from capillaries and proceed toward the ward the heart, becoming larger (in size) and
fewer (in number) as they near the heart. Structurally, veins are thin-walled, collapse readily,
possess valves, and in general are located more superficially than arteries. The large veins that
enter the heart (the caudal and cranial vena cava and the pulmonary veins) do not have valves.
Veins return blood from the capillary beds to the heart.

Some common/principal venous trunks

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Head, neck, and fore limbs: - the jugular veins (right and left) drain the head and the neck, and
join together to form the common jugular vein. The common jugular vein also receives the
cephalic vein (drain the fore limbs). The subclavian veins (right and left) drain fore limbs and
join the common jugular and form the cranial vena cava, which empties into the heart at the right
atrium.
Thorax: - the intercostals veins drain the ribs and the wall of the thorax, and empty into the
azygos vein (in some species of animals) or caudal vena cava both of which empty into the right
atrium.
Hind limb and abdomen: - the hepatic vein from liver, the renal vein from the kidneys, the
spermatic (in male) or utero-ovarian (female) veins from from the gonads or uterus, the internal
iliac veins from the thigh and pelvic regions, the caudal vein from the tail, and the external iliac
veins from the hind limbs empties blood into caudal vena cava. The external iliac veins receive
the femoral and external pudic veins. The external pudics drain the mammary gland via the
mammary veins. the caudal vena cava is the ultimate collecting vessel for all abdominal and
caudal structures and empties into the right atrium of the heart. In cattle, the subcutaneous
abdominal vein drain the cranial quarters of the udder and passes forward along the ventral part
of the abdomen and empties into the cranial vena cava.

The portal system

The portal circulatory system is entirely venous (venous only) and arises in capillaries which are
located in the stomach, spleen, pancreas and intestinal tract. Veins pass from these organs toward
the liver and coalesce into a single vessel (the hepatic portal vein). The portal vein enters the
liver at the hilus and immediately branches into progressively smaller vessels that ultimately
become sinusoids. The blood from the portal sinusoids then picked up by the sinusoids of the
hepatic vein and emptied into caudal vena cava. The hepatic portal system functions to
transport nutrients and other substances from the digestive tract to the liver to the site
where several activities take place.

Capillaries
Are an anastomosing (interlocking) network of tiny vessels that are large enough to permit the
passage of molecules or substances such as nutrients, red and white blood cells. The capillary
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endothelium is quite permeable to gasses and certain amount of fluid cellular elements of the
blood to and from the tissues. This movement is responsible nutrition of cells, transport of
cellular product and metabolic wastes, transport of oxygen to maintain cellular reactions and for
the delivery of substances such as hormones and antibodies to places where they are needed.
Capillaries connect the smallest arteries (arterioles) and the smallest veins (venules). Capillary
walls consist of a single layer of endothelial cells that is continuous with the endothelium of the
arteries, veins and heart and such continuation makes the vascular system a closed circulation.

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