PHY201 Part A_B

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Introduction

The first theory in physics was mechanics developed by Newton and so is called Classical or
Newtonian Mechanics (the Physics developed before the advent of 20th century is called
Classical Physics). Newtonian mechanics was formulated to describe the motion of objects,
and its formalism is quite successful in describing a wide range of phenomena that occur at low
speeds. Thus, most of human everyday experiences and observations have to do with objects
that move at speeds much less than the speed of light, description that Newtonian mechanics
perfectly explained. However, in dealing with very small objects such as electrons or particles
having speed approaching that of light, Newtonian mechanics fails.
The fundamental difference between Newtonian mechanics and quantum mechanics lies in
what they describe. In Newtonian mechanics, the future history of a particle is completely
determined by its initial position and momentum together with the forces that act upon it. In
the macroscopic world these quantities can all be determined with sufficient accuracy for the
predictions of Newtonian mechanics to agree with observation. Quantum mechanics also
arrives at relationship between observable quantities, but the uncertainty principle suggests that
the nature of an observable quantity is different in the atomic realm. Cause and effect are still
related in quantum mechanics, but what they concern needs careful interpretation. In quantum
mechanics the kind of certainty about the future characteristic of Newtonian mechanics is
impossible because the initial position and momentum of a particle cannot be established with
sufficient accuracy: the future is unknowable because the present is unknowable.
Frame of reference
The description of the motion of an object has no meaning unless it is described with respect
to some well-defined coordinate system. For example, when one performs an experiment in a
laboratory, one selects a coordinate system, or frame of reference, that is at rest with respect to
the laboratory. This coordinate system is known as the frame of reference. The frame of
reference is selected in such a way that the laws of nature may become fundamentally simpler
in that frame of reference. There two types of frames of reference:
Inertial frame: A reference frame is called an inertial frame if Newton’s laws (law of inertia
and other laws of Newtonian mechanics) are valid in that frame i. e. the body will maintain its
position or uniform motion without an external force.
Non-inertial frames: this is when a body accelerated without being influenced or acted on by
an external force. Newtons’ laws are not valid for this type of frame.
Galilean Relativity
Relativity: The theory that space and time are relative concepts rather than absolute concepts.
Galilean relativity: the laws of mechanics must be the same in all inertial frames of reference.
That is, if Newton’s laws are valid in one reference frame, then they are also valid in a reference
frame moving at a uniform velocity relative to the first system. This is known as the Newtonian
principle of relativity or Galilean invariance.
Consider an airplane in flight, moving with a constant velocity. If a passenger in the airplane
throws a ball straight up in the air, the passenger observes that the ball moves in a vertical
path. The motion of the ball is precisely the same as it would be if the ball were thrown while
at rest on Earth. The law of gravity and the equations of motion under constant acceleration
are obeyed whether the airplane is at rest or in uniform motion. Now consider the same
experiment when viewed by another observer at rest on Earth. This stationary observer views
the path of the ball in the plane to be a parabola. Further, according to this observer, the ball
has a velocity to the right equal to the velocity of the plane. Although the two observers disagree
on the shape of the ball’s path, but both agree that the motion of the ball obeys the law of
gravity and Newton’s laws of motion, and they even agree on how long the ball is in the air. We
draw the following important conclusion: There is no preferred frame of reference for
describing the laws of mechanics.

The Galilean Transformation


Suppose S, S' are two frames of reference, one at rest and the other moving with uniform
velocity v, then O, O' are two observers at the origin of S and S' respectively, observing the
same at P whose coordinates are (x, y, z, t) with respect to O and (x', y', z', t') with respect to
O'. S, S' being supposed to be parallel to each other and their origins being coincident at t = t'
= 0.

O O’ P

Events
In a given frame of reference, an event is an occurrence that has a definite position and time.
Galilean Coordinate transformation
Let the frame S' have the velocity v with respect to S in the direction of x' only, then O' will
have velocity v along x'-axis only so that both x and x' axis coincide and consequently the two
systems can by combined to each other by the equations:
𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣; 𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑧𝑧, 𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑡𝑡 (1)

Note that 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑡𝑡 shows that time is absolute as asserted by Newtonian mechanics. Equation (1)
is known as the Galilean Coordinate transformation.
The velocity of the particle (Ux, Uy, Uz) with respect to (Ux’, Uy’, Uz’) for observer O and O’
is obtained from the time differentiation of (1)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ 𝑑𝑑
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) =≫ 𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥′ = 𝑈𝑈𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= =≫ 𝑈𝑈𝑦𝑦′ = 𝑈𝑈𝑦𝑦 (2)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =≫ 𝑈𝑈𝑧𝑧′ = 𝑈𝑈𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′
Equation (2) is called the Galilean velocity transformation
In addition, the time derivative of the (2) on the assumption that t’ = t and v = constant gives
the acceleration of the particle. This is known as the Galilean acceleration transformation and
it is given by

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= − 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =≫ 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥′ = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦
= =≫ 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦′ = 𝑎𝑎𝑦𝑦 (3)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧′
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧
= =≫ 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧′ = 𝑎𝑎𝑧𝑧
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ′𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Equation (3) shows that the measured acceleration components are the same for all the
observers moving with uniform relative velocity.
Speed of Light
It is natural to ask whether the concept of Galilean relativity in mechanics also applies to
experiments in electricity, magnetism, optics, and other areas. Experiments indicate that the
answer is no. Further, if one assumes the laws of electricity and magnetism are the same in all
inertial frames, a paradox concerning the speed of light immediately arises. According to
electromagnetic theory, the speed of light always has the fixed value of 2.99792458 x 108 m/s
in free space. According to Galilean relativity, however, the speed of the pulse relative to the
stationary observer S outside the boxcar in the figure below should be c + v. Hence, Galilean
relativity is inconsistent with Maxwell’s well-tested theory of electromagnetism.

Electromagnetic theory predicts that light waves must propagate through free space with a
speed equal to the speed of light. The theory does not require the presence of a medium for
wave propagation. This is in contrast to other types of waves, such as water and sound waves,
that do require a medium to support the disturbances. In the 19th century, physicists thought
that electromagnetic waves also required a medium to propagate. They proposed that such a
medium existed and gave it the name luminiferous ether. The ether was assumed to be present
everywhere, even in empty space, and light waves were viewed as ether oscillations.
Further, the ether would have to be a massless but rigid medium with no effect on the motion
of planets or other objects. These concepts are indeed strange. In addition, it was found that the
troublesome laws of electricity and magnetism would take on their simplest forms in a special
frame of reference at rest with respect to the ether. This frame was called the absolute frame.
The laws of electricity and magnetism would be valid in this absolute frame, but they would
have to be modified in any reference frame moving with respect to the absolute frame.
As a result of the importance attached to the ether and the absolute frame, it became of
considerable interest in physics to prove by experiment that they existed. The most famous
experiment designed to detect these small changes in the speed of light was first performed in
1881 by Albert A. Michelson (1852–1931) and later repeated under various conditions by
Michelson and Edward W. Morley (1838–1923). The experiment was designed to determine
the velocity of Earth relative to the hypothetical ether. In the experiment, it was the fringe
pattern shift slightly but measurable, while the measurements failed to show any change in the
interference pattern. The experiment was repeated at different times and places but all the times
no change was observed. It was therefore concluded that the relative velocity between ether
and earth is zero.
The negative results of the Michelson–Morley experiment not only contradicted the ether
hypothesis, but also showed that it was impossible to measure the absolute velocity of Earth
with respect to the ether frame. In addition, the velocity of light is invariable and remains
constant in all directions and that the effects of ether are undetectable. Thus, all attempts to
make ether as a fixed frame of reference failed and the idea of an ether that permeates all space
was discarded. Light is now understood to be an electromagnetic wave that requires no medium
for its propagation.
Einstein’s Special theory of relativity
The development of theory of relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905 revolutionized the old
concepts by explaining the result of the Michelson–Morley experiment and completely altered
our notions of space and time. The theory describes the absolute motion through space and
deals with objects or observer moving with relative velocities with respect to each other. This
theory is divided into special theory (proposed in 1905) and general theory (proposed in 1915).
The special theory deals with objects and systems which are either moving at a constant speed
with respect to one another or are at rest while the general theory deals with objects or system
which are speeding up or slowing down with respect to one another. Einstein assumed that all
observers will notice that their motion in space will make no difference in the velocity of light
with respect to them. He assumed that a fixed frame of reference cannot be located, as all laws
must be stated and they are applicable in any frame of reference. He based his special theory
of relativity on two postulates:
1. The principle of relativity: All the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames.
There is no way to detect absolute motion, and no preferred inertial system exists.
2. The constancy of the speed of light: The speed of light in a vacuum has the same
value, c = 2.99792458 x 108 m/s, in all inertial reference frames, regardless of the
velocity of the observer or the velocity of the source emitting the light.
The first postulate asserts that all the laws of physics are the same in all coordinate systems or
frame of references moving with constant velocity relative to each other. This postulate is a
sweeping generalization of the principle of Galilean relativity, which refers only to the laws of
mechanics. Experimentally, Einstein’s principle of relativity means that any kind of experiment
such as mechanical, thermal, optical, or electrical, performed in a laboratory at rest must give
the same result when performed in a laboratory moving at a constant speed past the first one.
Hence, no preferred inertial reference frame exists, and it is impossible to detect absolute
motion.
The second postulate actually follows from the first one and aligned with the principle of
relativity as proposed by Newton. Although Newton’s principle referred only to the laws of
mechanics, Einstein expanded it to include all laws of physics—including those of
electromagnetism. Inertial frames of reference can now be defined as the frames of reference
in which all the laws of physics are valid.
Lorentz transformation
Without making any particular postulates, Hendrick Lorentz in 1895, algebraically tried
transformation equations which may replace the Galilean transformations to give results in
agreement with Michelson-Morley experiment. Thus, Lorentz transformation is a
mathematical formulation that relates the measurements of space and time coordinates
between two reference frames that are moving relative to each other. The transformation
applies Einstein’s two postulates to find a transformation between inertial frames of reference
such that all the physical laws, including Newton’s laws of mechanics and Maxwell’s
electrodynamics equations will have the same form.
Consider two inertial system K and K’ as shown in the figure below. The system K’ is moving
with a velocity v with respect to K in the positive direction of x-axis. Assuming that the axes
of the two systems coincide at t = t’ = 0.

If a flashbulb goes off at the origins when t = t’ = 0. According to postulate 2, the speed of light
will be c in both systems, and the wavefronts observed in both systems must be spherical and
described by
𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 = 𝑐𝑐 2 𝑡𝑡 2 (4)
′2 ′2 ′2 2 ′2
𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑡
These two equations are inconsistent with a Galilean transformation because a wavefront can
be spherical in only one system when the second is moving at speed v with respect to the first.
The Lorentz transformation requires both systems to have a spherical wavefront centred on
each system’s origin.
Another clear break with Galilean and Newtonian physics is that one does not assume that t =
t’. Each system must have its own clocks and metersticks as indicated in a two-dimensional
system. Because the systems move only along their x-axes, observers in both systems agree by
direct observation that
𝑦𝑦 ′ = 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧 ′ = 𝑧𝑧
We know that the Galilean transformation 𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 is incorrect, but what is the correct
transformation? We require a linear transformation so that each event in system K corresponds
to one, and only one, event in system K’. The simplest linear transformation is of the form
𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣) (5)
The parameter k, called the relativistic factor, cannot depend on x or t because the
transformation must be linear and it must be close to 1 for v << c in order for Newton’s laws
of mechanics to be valid for most of our measurements. We can use similar arguments from
the standpoint of an observer stationed in system K’ to obtain an equation similar to (5).
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑘𝑘 ′ (𝑥𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣′) (6)
Because postulate 1 requires that the laws of physics be the same in both reference systems,
we demand that k’ = k. Note that, the only difference between Equations (5) and (6) other than
the primed and unprimed quantities being switched is that v → -v, which is reasonable because
according to the observer in each system, the other observer is moving either forward or
backward.
According to postulate 2, the speed of light is c in both systems. Therefore, in each system the
wavefront of the flashbulb light pulse along the respective x axes must be described by x = ct
and x’ = ct’, which when substituted into Equations (5) and (6) gives
c𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣)
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑘𝑘(c𝑡𝑡 ′ + 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 ′ )
Dividing each of the equation by c gives
𝑣𝑣
𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 �1 − 𝑐𝑐 � (7)
𝑣𝑣
𝑡𝑡 = 𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 ′ �1 + �
𝑐𝑐
By substituting for t in t’, gives
𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣
𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑘 �𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 ′ �1 + �� �1 − �
𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
By solving the equation, we have
1
𝑘𝑘 2 =
𝑣𝑣 2
1− 2
𝑐𝑐
1
𝑘𝑘 =
2
�1 − 𝑣𝑣2
𝑐𝑐
In order to find a transformation for time t’, we rewrite Equation (7) as
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑘 �𝑡𝑡 − �
𝑐𝑐
From x = ct, we substitute t = x/c for the light pulse and find
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡− 2
𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑘 �𝑡𝑡 − 𝑐𝑐 2
�= 𝑐𝑐
�1−𝛽𝛽 2
where,
𝑣𝑣 2
𝛽𝛽 2 =
𝑐𝑐 2
We are now able to write the complete Lorentz transformations as
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑥𝑥−𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡− 2
′ ′ ′ ′
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐𝑐
(8)
�1−𝛽𝛽 2 �1−𝛽𝛽2
The inverse transformation equations are obtained by replacing v by -v as discussed previously
and by exchanging the primed and unprimed quantities
𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥′
𝑥𝑥 ′ + 𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡 ′ 𝑡𝑡 ′ + 2
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦′ 𝑧𝑧 = 𝑧𝑧′ 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐𝑐
(9)
�1−𝛽𝛽 2 �1− 𝛽𝛽2
So, the measurement of position and time are found to depend upon the frame of reference of
the observer. It should be noted that Lorentz equations reduce to the Galilean transformations
when the relative velocity v is very small in comparison with velocity of light (v << c). It is
only for speeds that approach the speed of light that the Lorentz transformation equations
become significantly different from the Galilean equations.
Consequences of Special relativity
Some of the startling predictions that arise because of Einstein’s approach to relative motion
did not align with some of human basic notions of space and time. Thus, the concepts of time,
simultaneity and length are quite different in relativistic mechanics from what they are in
Newtonian mechanics. In relativistic mechanics, the distance between two points and the time
interval between two events depend on the frame of reference in which they are measured.
Thus, there is no such thing as absolute length or time. Further, events at different locations
that are observed to occur simultaneously in one frame are not observed to be simultaneous in
another frame moving uniformly past the first.
Relativity of Simultaneity
Measuring times and time intervals involves the concept of simultaneity. However, two events
that are simultaneous in one reference frame are in general not simultaneous in a second frame
moving relative to the first, even if both are initial frames. Newtonian mechanics simply took
simultaneity for granted on the premise that a universal time scale exists that is the same for all
observers. In his special theory of relativity, Einstein abandoned that assumption. Thus,
simultaneity depends on the state of motion of the observer and is therefore not an absolute
concept.
Time dilation
The analysis of simultaneity shows that Einstein’s postulates imply an important effect, which
is, the time intervals which have different values when measured in diverse inertial frames.
This lengthening of the time interval between two events for an observer in an inertial frame
that is moving with respect to an observer in a rest frame of the events (in which the events
occur at the same location) is known as the time dilation. This implies that time runs more
slowly for an object moving relative toward a fixed object.
Consider a simple vertical clock consisting of two mirrors A and B, between which a light
pulse is bouncing. The separation of the mirrors is L and the clock ticks once each time the
light pulse hits mirror A.

In the frame in which the clock is at rest (left diagram), the light pulse traces out a path of
length 2L and the time period between the ticks of the clock ∆t is
2𝐿𝐿
∆𝑡𝑡 = 𝑐𝑐 (10)
From the frame of reference of a moving observer traveling at the speed v relative to the resting
frame of the clock (right diagram), the light pulse is seen as tracing out a longer, angled
path 2D. Keeping the speed of light constant for all inertial observers requires a lengthening of
the time period between the ticks of this clock ∆t’ from the moving observer's perspective. That
is to say, as measured in a frame moving relative to the local clock, this clock will be ticking
more slowly, since tick rate equals one over the time period between ticks 1/∆t’.
The total time for the light pulse to trace its path is given by:
2𝐷𝐷
∆𝑡𝑡 ′ =
𝑐𝑐
Applying Pythagoras’s theorem gives
𝑣𝑣∆𝑡𝑡 2
D2 = � 2 � + L2 (11)
Elimination of the variables D and L results in:
∆𝑡𝑡 ∆𝑡𝑡
∆𝑡𝑡 ′ = 2
= 2
= 𝑘𝑘∆𝑡𝑡 (12)
�1−𝑣𝑣2 �1−𝛽𝛽
𝑐𝑐
the time interval ∆t’ between two events measured by an observer moving with respect to a
clock is longer than the time interval ∆t between the same two events measured by an observer
at rest with respect to the clock. Consequently, ∆t’ > ∆t and the proper time interval is expanded
or dilated by the factor k. The time interval ∆t is called the proper time (define as the time
interval between two events as measured by an observer who sees the events occur at the same
position).
An intriguing consequence of time dilation is the so-called twin paradox, where a traveller into
space will be younger than it twins when he returns to Earth. By the time the traveller reaches
the space, he will have age by some number of years, while it partners back on Earth will have
age a larger number of years, the exact ratio depending on the speed of the spacecraft.

Length contraction
The measured distance between two points also depends on the frame of reference. The proper
length Lp of an object is the length of the object as measured by an observer at rest relative to
the object. The length of an object measured in a reference frame that is moving with respect
to the object is always less than the proper length. This effect is known as length contraction.

To understand length contraction quantitatively, consider a spaceship traveling with a speed v


from one star to another as seen by two observers, one on Earth and the other in the spaceship.
The observer at rest on Earth (and also assumed to be at rest with respect to the two stars)
measures the distance between the stars to be Lp. According to this observer, the time it takes
the spaceship to complete the voyage is ∆t’ = Lp/v. Because of time dilation, the space traveller,
using his spaceship clock, measures a smaller time of travel: ∆t = ∆t’/k. The space traveller
claims to be at rest and sees the destination star moving toward the spaceship with speed v.
Because the space traveller reaches the star in time t, he concludes that the distance L between
the stars is shorter than Lp. The distance measured by the space traveller is

𝑣𝑣∆𝑡𝑡 ′
𝐿𝐿 = 𝑣𝑣∆𝑡𝑡 =
𝑘𝑘
Because Lp = v∆t’, it follows that
𝐿𝐿𝑃𝑃 𝑣𝑣 2
𝐿𝐿 = = 𝐿𝐿𝑃𝑃 �1 − 𝑐𝑐 2 (13)
𝑘𝑘
If an observer at rest with respect to an object measures its length to be Lp, an observer moving
at a speed v relative to the object will find it to be shorter than its proper length by the factor
𝑣𝑣 2
�1 − . Note that length contraction takes place only along the direction of motion.
𝑐𝑐 2

Transformation of velocities
Consider two frames K and K′, in the normal configuration. Let u and u’ represent the velocity
of a particle in K and K’ respectively. To determine the particle's velocity in K’. As we known
the components of u are;
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑢𝑢1 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ; 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ; 𝑢𝑢3 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (14)
Similarly, the components of u’ are
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′
𝑢𝑢′1 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ ; 𝑢𝑢′2 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ ; 𝑢𝑢′3 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ (15)
From Lorentz transformation equations, we have
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣), 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑′ = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 , and 𝑑𝑑𝑡𝑡 ′ = 𝑘𝑘(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐 2 ), and k remain as earlier
defined.
Substituting these differentials into equations (14) and making use of equations (15), the
transformation rules become
𝑢𝑢 −𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢 𝑢𝑢
𝑢𝑢′1 = 1−𝑢𝑢1 𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐 2 ; 𝑢𝑢′2 = 𝑘𝑘(1−𝑢𝑢 2𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐 2) ; 𝑢𝑢′3 = 𝑘𝑘(1−𝑢𝑢 3𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐 2) (16)
1 1 1
As in the transformation of coordinates, one can obtain the inverse transform by interchanging
primed and unprimed symbols which gives:
𝑢𝑢′ + 𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢′ 𝑢𝑢′
𝑢𝑢1 = 1+ 𝑢𝑢′1 𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐 2 ; 𝑢𝑢2 = 𝑘𝑘(1+ 𝑢𝑢′2𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐 2) ; 𝑢𝑢3 = 𝑘𝑘(1+ 𝑢𝑢′3 𝑣𝑣/𝑐𝑐 2) (17)
1 1 1
Equations (16) can be called the resultant, 𝑢𝑢 = (𝑢𝑢1 , 𝑢𝑢2 , 𝑢𝑢3 ), of two velocities, and v = (𝑣𝑣, 0,0),
and these are usually referred to as the relativistic velocity addition formulae.
The following relation between the magnitudes 𝑢𝑢 = �(𝑢𝑢12 + 𝑢𝑢22 + 𝑢𝑢32 ) and 𝑢𝑢′ =
�(𝑢𝑢′12 + 𝑢𝑢2′2 + 𝑢𝑢3′2 ) of the velocities is easily demonstrated:
2
𝑐𝑐 2 �𝑐𝑐 2 −𝑢𝑢′ ��𝑐𝑐 2 −𝑣𝑣 2 �
𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑢𝑢2 = (𝑐𝑐 2 +𝑢𝑢′1 𝑣𝑣)2
(18)
If 𝑢𝑢′1 < 𝑐𝑐 and 𝑣𝑣 < 𝑐𝑐 then the right-hand side is positive, implying that 𝑣𝑣 < 𝑐𝑐. In other words,
the resultant of two subluminal velocities is another subluminal velocity. It is evident that a
particle can never attain the velocity of light relative to a given inertial frame, no matter how
many subluminal velocities increments it is given. It follows that no inertial frame can ever
appear to propagate with a superluminal velocity with respect to any other inertial frame
(because we can track a given inertial frame using a particle which remains at rest at the origin
of that frame).

Relativistic Doppler effect


Another important consequence of time dilation is the shift in frequency found for light emitted
by atoms in motion as opposed to light emitted by atoms at rest. This phenomenon, known as
the Doppler effect, is peculiar to sound waves. In the case of sound, the motion of the source
with respect to the medium of propagation can be distinguished from the motion of the observer
with respect to the medium. Light waves must be analysed differently, however, because they
require no medium of propagation, and no method exists for distinguishing the motion of a
light source from the motion of the observer. If a light source and an observer approach each
other with a relative speed v, the frequency fobs measured by the observer is
�1+𝑣𝑣⁄𝑐𝑐
𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 = 𝑓𝑓 (19)
�1−𝑣𝑣⁄𝑐𝑐 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
where fsource is the frequency of the source measured in its rest frame. Note that this relativistic
Doppler shift equation, unlike the Doppler shift equation for sound, depends only on the
relative speed v of the source and observer and holds for relative speeds as great as c. As you
might expect, the equation predicts that fobs > fsource when the source and observer approach
each other. We obtain the expression for the case in which the source and observer recede from
each other by substituting negative values for v in Equation (19).
The most spectacular and dramatic use of the relativistic Doppler effect is the measurement of
shifts in the frequency of light emitted by a moving astronomical object such as a galaxy. Light
emitted by atoms and normally found in the extreme violet region of the spectrum is shifted
toward the red end of the spectrum for atoms in other galaxies—indicating that these galaxies
are receding from us.
Relativistic Momentum and Energy
Recall that the law of conservation of linear momentum states that when two particles (or
objects) collide, the total momentum of the isolated system of the two particles remains
constant. Suppose that we observe this collision in a reference frame S and confirm that the
momentum of the system is conserved. Now imagine that the momenta of the particles are
measured by an observer in a second reference frame K’ moving with velocity v relative to the
first frame. Using the Lorentz velocity transformation equation and the classical definition of
linear momentum, p = mv, we find that linear momentum is not measured to be conserved by
the observer in S’.
However, because the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames, linear momentum of
the system must be conserved in all frames, resulting in a contradiction. In view of this
contradiction, and assuming that the Lorentz velocity transformation equation is correct, we
must modify the definition of linear momentum to satisfy the following conditions:
• The linear momentum of an isolated system must be conserved in all collisions.
• The relativistic value calculated for the linear momentum p of a particle must approach the
classical value mv as v approaches zero.
For any particle, the correct relativistic equation for linear momentum that satisfies these
conditions is
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑝𝑝 = 2
= 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 (20)
�1−𝛽𝛽
where v is the velocity of the particle and m is the mass of the particle. When v is much less
than c, k approaches unity and p approaches mv. Therefore, the relativistic equation for p reduce
to the classical expression when v is much smaller than c.
From, Newton second law, and applying the relativistic momentum, the force acting on a
particle whose linear momentum is p gives
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝐹𝐹 = = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘) = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � � (21)
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 �1−𝛽𝛽 2
Recall also that kinetic energy is defined
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐾𝐾. 𝐸𝐸 = 𝑊𝑊 = ∫𝑥𝑥 2 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = ∫𝑥𝑥 2 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (22)
1 1
From
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑚𝑚( )
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 � 2
�= 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3� (23)
�1−𝛽𝛽 2
��1−𝛽𝛽 2 �
𝑣𝑣 2
Substituting for dp/dt, dx = vdt and 𝛽𝛽 2 = 𝑐𝑐 2 , in Equation (22) gives
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑡𝑡 𝑚𝑚()𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣 𝑣𝑣
𝑊𝑊 = ∫𝑡𝑡 1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
3� = 𝑚𝑚 ∫0 3� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (24)
0 2 2
��1−𝛽𝛽 2 � 𝑣𝑣2
��1− 2 �
𝑐𝑐

where the limits 0 and v were used in the integral because the integration variable has been
changed from t to v. We assume that the particle is accelerated from rest to some final speed v.
Evaluating the integral gives
𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2
𝑊𝑊 = − 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 (24)
�1−𝛽𝛽 2
Since the work done by a force acting on a system consisting of a single particle equals the
change in kinetic energy of the particle. It therefore implies that
𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2
𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 = − 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 2 − 𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 = (𝑘𝑘 − 1)𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2 (25)
�1−𝛽𝛽 2
The constant term mc2 is the rest energy and is independent on the speed of the particle, and
kmc2 is the total energy E of the particle, and depend on the object speed.
Substituting for E and re-arranging gives,
𝑚𝑚𝑐𝑐 2
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐾𝐾𝐾𝐾 + 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 = = 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑐𝑐 2 (26)
�1−𝛽𝛽 2
Equation (26) is the Einstein’s famous mass-energy equivalence equation. The relationship E
= KE + mc2 shows that mass is a form of energy, where c2 in the rest energy term is just a
constant conversion factor. This expression also shows that a small mass corresponds to an
enormous amount of energy, a concept fundamental to nuclear and elementary-particle physics.
In many situations, the linear momentum or energy of a particle is measured rather than its
speed. It is therefore useful to have an expression relating the total energy E to the relativistic
linear momentum p.
By squaring Equation (20), multiply by c2 and rearranging gives
𝑝𝑝2 𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑣𝑣 2 𝑐𝑐 2
𝑣𝑣 2
= 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑐𝑐 4 �𝑐𝑐 2 � = 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑐𝑐 4 𝛽𝛽 2
Recall that
1
𝑘𝑘 2 = 𝑣𝑣2
1− 2
𝑐𝑐
Which implies that
1
𝛽𝛽 2 = 1 − 𝑘𝑘 2
Substituting gives
1
𝑝𝑝2 𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑐𝑐 4 �1 − 𝑘𝑘 2 �
= 𝑘𝑘 2 𝑚𝑚2 𝑐𝑐 4 − 𝑚𝑚2 𝑐𝑐 4
This gives
𝑝𝑝2 𝑐𝑐 2 = 𝐸𝐸 2 − (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 )2
𝐸𝐸 2 = 𝑝𝑝2 𝑐𝑐 2 + (𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2 )2 (27)
Equation (27) is a useful result to relate the total energy of a particle with its momentum. The
quantities (E2 - p2c2) and m are invariant quantities. Note that when a particle’s velocity is zero
and it has no momentum, the equation correctly gives (mc2)2 as the particle’s total energy.
Massless particles
Equation (27) can also be used to determine the total energy for particles having zero mass. For
example, the equation predicts that the total energy of a photon is
𝐸𝐸 2 = 𝑝𝑝2 𝑐𝑐 2
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 (28)
The energy of a photon is completely due to its motion. It has no rest energy, because it has no
mass. This equation is an exact expression relating total energy and linear momentum for
photons, which always travel at the speed of light (in vacuum). Finally, note that because the
mass m of a particle is independent of its motion, m must have the same value in all reference
frames. For this reason, m is often called the invariant mass. On the other hand, because the
total energy and linear momentum of a particle both depend on velocity, these quantities depend
on the reference frame in which they are measured.
When dealing with subatomic particles, it is convenient to express the unit of energy in electron
volts (eV) because the particles are usually given this energy by acceleration through a potential
difference. The conversion factor is
1 𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 1.60 × 10−19 𝐽𝐽

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