Mathematics Unit

College Department

COURSE CONTENT

Course Title: Abstract Algebra

Course Code: SPMA 292
Faculty: Marie Antoinette C. Cadeliña
Course Credit: 3 units, 3 hours/week
Pre-requisite Subject: None

Week TOPICS
1–4 Preliminary Concepts
a. Modular Arithmetic
b. Functions
c. Equivalence Relations
d. Binary operations
5–6 Subgroups
a. Order of a Group and Order of an Element
b. Subgroups
c. Cyclic Subgroups
7 Definition and Properties of Cyclic Groups
8 Finite Cyclic Groups
9 – 10 Permutation Groups
a. Permutations and the Symmetric Groups
b. Orbits and Cycles
c. Properties of Permutations
11 Cosets
12 Lagrange’s Theorem
13 Isomorphisms
a. Isomorphisms
b. Automorphisms
14 Normal Subgroup
15 Factor Groups
16 Group Homorphisms
a. Group Homorphisms
b. Properties of Homomorphisms
17 – 18 Introduction to Rings
a. Definition and Examples of Rings
b. Properties of Rings
c. Subrings
Week 1 – 4
I. PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS

1.1 Modular Arithmetic

This section aims to illustrate and construct tables of congruences; and find the identity for sets of
modulo and inverses of the elements.

We will be constructing tables using modulo. For example, in modulo 3, we have the set 𝑍3 =
{0, 1, 2} and in modulo 5, 𝑍5 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}. Performing the operations of addition ⊕ and multiplication
⊙, we have the following examples:

In 𝑍3 :
a) 2 ⊕ 2 = 1 b) 2 ⊕ 1 = 0 c) 2 ⊙ 2 = 1
In 𝑍5 :
a) 2 ⊕ 3 = 0 b) 2 ⊕ 2 = 4 c) 3 ⊕ 3 = 1
d) 1 ⊕ 4 = 0 e) 3 ⊕ 4 = 2 f) 4 ⊕ 4 = 3
g) 4 ⊙ 4 = 1 h) 3 ⊙ 4 = 2 i) 2 ⊕ 4 = 1
In 𝑍7 :
a) 4 ⊙ 3 = 5 b) 3 ⊕ 6 = 2 c) 4 ⊙ 5 = 6
d) 5 ⊕ 4 = 2 e) 4 ⊙ 4 = 2 f) 4 ⊕ 6 = 3
g) 6 ⊙ 5 = 2 h) 6 ⊕ 6 = 5 i) 6 ⊙ 6 = 1

Definition of Identity Element. The element e is an identity element with respect to the operation
* on the set M if and only if x ∗ e = e ∗ x = x for every x in the set M.

Two Kinds of Identity Element Commonly Used

1. The additive identity e of operation ⊕ is defined as x ⊕ e = e ⊕ x = x.
2. The multiplicative identity of operation ⊙ is defined as x ⊙ e = e ⊙ x = x.
For example in 𝑍3 , the identity element is 0 since x ⊕ 0 = 0 ⊕ x = x, ∀ x ∈ 𝑍3 :
1⊕0=0⊕1=1
2⊕0=0⊕2=2
Definition of inverse. The element x’ is the inverse of x relative to the operation ∗ on a set M if
and only if x ∗ x’ = x’ ∗ x = e, where e is the identity element relative to the operation ∗ in M.

Two Kinds of Inverses

a) The negative or additive inverse of x is obtained as x ⊕ (-x) = (-x) ⊕ x = identity in ⊕
b) The reciprocal or multiplicative inverse of an element x is defined as
x ⊙ x-1 = x-1 ⊙ x = identity in ⊙
Fr example in 𝑍3 , we have the additive inverses or negatives of the elements of 𝑍3 as follows:
The additive inverse of 1 is 2, since 1 ⊕ 2 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The additive inverse of 2 is 1, since 2 ⊕ 1 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The additive inverse of 0 is 0, since 0 ⊕ 0 = 0, the identity under ⊕

The multiplicative identity is 1, i.e, x ⊙ 1 = 1 ⊙ x = x, ∀ x ∈ 𝑍3 :

For the multiplicative inverses of elements of 𝑍3 , we have:

 The multiplicative inverse of 1 is 1, since 1 ⊙ 1 = 1, the identity under ⊙
The multiplicative inverse of 2 is 2, since 2 ⊙ 2 = 1, the identity under ⊙

Note that 0 has no multiplicative inverse, so we would rather omit 0 in the multiplication table.

Table of Modulo
a) Table and computation of 𝒁𝟑
We form the table in modulo 3 for 𝑍3 under the operations of addition ⊕ and multiplication ⊙.
The additive identity 0 can be verified in the first table on the left. For the negatives or
additive inverse of the elements, we use the table on the left. The multiplicative inverses of
each element can be verified from the second table on the right.

⊕ 0 1 2
⊙ 1 2
0 0 1 2
𝑍3 : 1 1 2
1 1 2 0
2 2 1
2 2 0 1

b) Table and computations of 𝒁𝟓

In 𝑍5 , we have the following tables under the operations of addition and multiplication.
i) The identity element base on the table on the left is 0, i.e.
x ⊕ 0 = 0 ⊕ x = x, ∀ x ∈ 𝑍5 :

ii) For the negatives or additive inverses, we use the addition table on the left:
The negative of 1 is 4, since 1 ⊕ 4 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The negative of 2 is 3, since 2 ⊕ 3 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The negative of 3 is 2, since 3 ⊕ 2 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The negative of 4 is 1, since 4 ⊕ 1 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The multiplicative identity is 1, i.e. x ⊙ 1 = 1 ⊙ x = x , ∀ x ∈ 𝑍5 :

iii) For the multiplicative inverses, we use the multiplication table on the right:

iv) The inverse of 1 is 1, since 1 ⊙ 1 = 1, the identity under ⊙

The inverse of 2 is 3, since 2 ⊙ 3 = 1, the identity under ⊙
The inverse of 3 is 2, since 3 ⊙ 2 = 1, the identity under ⊙
The inverse of 4 is 4, since 4 ⊙ 4 = 1, the identity under ⊙

⊕ 0 1 2 3 4 ⊙ 1 2 3 4
𝑍5 : 0 0 1 2 3 4 1 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0 2 2 4 1 3
2 2 3 4 0 1 3 3 1 4 2
3 3 4 0 1 2 4 4 3 2 1
4 4 0 1 2 3
 From the table 𝒁𝟓 :
i) The additive inverse in 𝑍5 is 0; and this can be verified from the table on the left, i.e.
x ⊕ 0 = 0 ⊕ x = x, ∀ x ∈ 𝑍5

ii) The negatives of every element in 𝑍5 can be taken from the table on the left.

iii) The multiplicative identity in 𝑍5 is 1, and this can be verified from the table on the right,
i.e.
1 ⊙ x = x ⊙ 1= x, ∀ x ∈ 𝑍5

iv) The multiplicative inverses of every element in 𝑍5 can be taken from the table on the
right.

c) Table and computations of 𝒁𝟕

In 𝑍7 , we have the following tables:
⊕ 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 ⊙ 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝑍7 : 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 2 2 4 6 1 3 5
2 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 3 3 6 2 5 1 4
3 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 4 4 1 5 2 6 3
4 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 5 5 3 1 6 4 2
5 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 6 6 5 4 3 2 1
6 6 0 1 2 3 4 5

Note that the 0 element was omitted in the table of multiplication. The elements will require
the multiplicative inverses which will be taken from the multiplicative table on the right but 0 has
no inverse.

i) The additive identity in Z7 is 0, and this can be verified from the table on the left, i.e.
x ⊕ 0 = 0 ⊕ x = x, ∀ x ∈ 𝑍7

ii) The negatives or additive inverses of every element in 𝑍7 , can be taken from table on the
left:
For the negatives or additive inverses, we use the addition table on the left:
The negative of 1 is 6, since 1 ⊕ 6 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The negative of 2 is 5, since 2 ⊕ 5 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The negative of 3 is 4, since 3 ⊕ 4 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The negative of 4 is 3, since 4 ⊕ 3 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The negative of 5 is 2, since 5 ⊕ 2 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The negative of 6 is 1, since 6 ⊕ 1 = 0, the identity under ⊕
The multiplicative identity in 𝑍7 is 1, and this can be verified from the table on the right,
i.e.
1 ⊙ x = x ⊙ 1 = x , ∀ x ∈ 𝑍7 :
 iii) For the multiplicative inverses of every element in 𝑍7 , can be taken from table on the
right.
The inverse of 1 is 1, since 1 ⊙ 1 = 1, the identity under ⊙
The inverse of 2 is 4, since 2 ⊙ 4 = 1, the identity under ⊙
The inverse of 3 is 5, since 3 ⊙ 5 = 1, the identity under ⊙
The inverse of 4 is 2, since 4 ⊙ 2 = 1, the identity under ⊙
The inverse of 5 is 3, since 5 ⊙ 3 = 1, the identity under ⊙
The inverse of 6 is 6, since 6 ⊙ 6 = 1, the identity under ⊙
We summarize the discussions of 𝑍5 for inverses as follows:
a) The negative of 1 in 𝑍5 is 4, i.e. -1 = 4
The negative of 2 in 𝑍5 is 3, i.e. -2 = 3
The negative of 3 in 𝑍5 is 2, i.e. -3 = 2
The negative of 4 in 𝑍5 is 1, i.e. -4 = 4
b) The inverse of 1 in 𝑍5 is 4, i.e. 1-1 = 1
The inverse of 2 in 𝑍5 is 3, i.e. 2-1 = 3
The inverse of 3 in 𝑍5 is 2, i.e. 3-1 = 2
The inverse of 4 in 𝑍5 is 1, i.e. 4-1 = 4

Example 1.1.1 Find the following in 𝒁𝟓 .

a) 2-1 – 2 b) 3-1 – 1 c) 4-1 – 4 d) ½ – 3 e) 1 + 4-1 f)-4 – 2

Solutions:
a) 2-1 – 2 = 3 + 3 = 1 b) 3-1 – 1 = 2 + 4 = 1 c) 4-1 – 4 = 4 + 4 = 3
d) ½ – 3 = 3 + 2 = 0 e) 1 + 4-1 = 1 + 4 = 0 f) -4 – 2 = 4 + 3 = 2
We summarize the discussions of 𝑍7 for inverses as follows:
a) The negative of 1 in 𝑍7 is 6, i.e. -1 = 6
The negative of 2 in 𝑍7 is 5, i.e. -2 = 5
The negative of 3 in 𝑍7 is 4, i.e. -3 = 4
The negative of 4 in 𝑍7 is 3, i.e. -4 = 3
The negative of 5 in 𝑍7 is 2, i.e. -5 = 2
The negative of 6 in 𝑍7 is 1, i.e. -6 = 1
b) The inverse of 1 in 𝑍7 is 1, i.e. 1-1 = 1
The inverse of 2 in 𝑍7 is 4, i.e. 2-1 = 4
The inverse of 3 in 𝑍7 is 5, i.e. 3-1 = 5
The inverse of 4 in 𝑍7 is 2, i.e. 4-1 = 2
The inverse of 5 in 𝑍7 is 3, i.e. 5-1 = 3
The inverse of 6 in 𝑍7 is 6, i.e. 6-1 = 6

Example 1.1.1 Find the following in 𝒁𝟕 .

a) 2-1 – 2 b) 3-1 – 1 c) 4-1 – 4 d) ½ – 3
e) 1 + 6-1 f)-4 – 2 g) ½ + 1/3 h) 1 – ¼

Solutions:
a) 2-1 – 2 = 4 + 5 = 2 b) 3-1 – 1 = 5 + 6 = 4 c) 4-1 – 4 = 2 + 3 = 5 d) ½ – 3 = 4 + 4 = 1
e) 1 + 6-1 = 1 + 6 = 0 f) -4 – 2 = 3 + 5 = 1 g) ½ + ⅓= 4 + 5 = 2 h) 1 – ¼ = 1 + 2 = 3
Name: _______________________________________________________________________ Score: _______
Year & Section: ______________________________________ Date: __________________________________

Exercises 1.1
Modular Arithmetic

1. True or False.
a. In 𝑍7 is 4 – 1 = -5? ________
b. In 𝑍5 is 1 – ½ = ½? ________
c. In 𝑍7 is 6 – 1 = 5? ________
d. In 𝑍7 is -6 – 1 = 0? ________
3
e. In 𝑍3 is -1 – ½ = − ? ________
2
1
f. In 𝑍5 is -1 + ½ = − ? ________
2
3
g. In 𝑍5 is -21/2 – 3 = − ? ________
2
1
h. In 𝑍3 is -1 + ½ = − ? ________
2
3 3
i. In 𝑍7 is − = − − 3? ________
2 2
2 1
j. In 𝑍7 is − = −2 − ? ________
3 3
k. is -6 – 1 = 0?
In 𝑍5 ________
l. is -2 – 6 = -1?
In 𝑍5 ________
m. is -7 – 6 = -1?
In 𝑍7 ________
n. is -8 – 7 – 5 = 2?
In 𝑍7 ________
o. is 9 – 8 – 7 – 6 = 0?
In 𝑍7 ________
2. In 𝑍5 , find the following:
a) -3-1 – 5 ________ b) 3-1 – 4-1 ________
c) -4-1 – 1/3 ________ d) -1/2 – 5 ________
e) -1 - 4-1 – 5 ________ f) -4 – 1 - 2-1 ________
g) -3-1 - 4-1 – 1 ________ h) -3-1 – 5 – 4-1 ________
i) 4-1 - 3-1 – 2-1 ________ h) -4 – 2-1 – 3 ________
3. In 𝑍7 , find the following:
a) -3-1 – 5 ________ b) 3-1 – 4-1 ________
c) -4-1 – 1/3 ________ d) -1/2 – 5 ________
e) -1 - 4 – 5
-1
________ f) -4 – 1 - 2-1 ________
g) -3-1 - 4-1 – 1 ________ h) -3-1 – 5 – 4-1 ________
i) 4-1 - 3-1 – 2-1 ________ h) -4 – 2-1 – 3 ________
4. Construct the table for 𝑍4 and find the following:

⊕ 0 1 2 3 ⊙ 1 2 3
𝑍4 : 0 0 1 2 3 1 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 4 2 2 4 6
2 2 3 4 5 3 3 6 2
3 3 4 5 6
a) -3-1 – 5 ________ b) 3-1 – 4-1 ________
c) -4-1 – 1/3 ________ d) -1/2 – 5 ________
e) -1 - 4-1 – 5 ________ f) -4 – 1 - 2-1 ________
g) -3-1 - 4-1 – 1 ________ h) -3-1 – 5 – 4-1 ________
i) 4-1 - 3-1 – 2-1 ________ h) -4 – 2-1 – 3 ________
1.2 Functions
This section aims to define and contrast the two kinds of mapping one to one and onto, and
determine if functions are injective or subjective.

A function or mapping may be denoted as f: X →Y, or simply y = f(x). A function may be

illustrated using a diagram below. Some synonyms for the word mapping are map, function,
correspondents and transformations. A function f is illustrated below.