20. TRANSMISSION OF HEAT(401-456)

PHYSICS-IC TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
TRANSMISSION OF HEAT
* Methods of heat transmission
* Conduction, Convection and Radiation
10 *
*
*
Blackbody Radiation
Stefan's Law, Wien's displacement Law
Newton's Law of Cooling
10.1 Introduction : molecules lying next to them. During collision, the

Each and every form of energy has got its less active particles also get excited, (i.e., thermal
own method of transmission. Thermal energy trans- energy is imparted to them). This process is repeated
fers from one place to another by three main pro- for layer after layer of molecules until the heat energy
cesses called conduction, convection and radiation. reaches the other end. Each layer of molecules is at
Thermal conduction and convection can take place a slightly higher temperature than the preceding one,
only in the presence of material medium. Thermal i.e., a temperature gradient exists along the length
radiation does not require a material medium for of the rod. The rate of heat flow between the two
transmission. In this chapter, various consequences
ends depends upon (a) the length of the rod
or applications of these three methods are explained
(b) temperature difference between the two ends and
in detail.
(c) the physical and chemical composition of the bar
10.2 Conduction of Heat : material (d) Area of cross section.
Thermal conduction is a mechanism of heat Definition: The process of transmisson of heat
propagation from a region of higher temperature to energy from one place to another without the bodily
a region of lower temperature with in a medium movement of the particles of the medium is called
(solid, liquid or gaseous) or between different media conduction.
in direct physical contact. Conduction does not in-
Note 10.1: Heat transfer by the process of
volve any movement of macroscopic portions of
conduction mainly occurs in solids. It also takes place
matter relative to one another. The thermal energy
in liquids and gases but with less ease.
may be transferred by means of electrons which are
free to move through the lattice structure of the ma- 10.3 Variable state and steady state :
terial. In addition, it may be transferred as vibrational Consider a metal rod, whose sides are covered
energy in the lattice structure. Irrespective of the ex- with an insulating material so that heat is conducted
act mechanism, the observable effect of conduction only along its length. When the rod is heated from
is an equalization of temperature. one end, the amount of heat Q approaching any sec-
Consider the flow of heat along a metal rod. tion of the rod gets divided into two parts.
One end of it is placed adjacent to a flame. The (i) Q1 – heat absorbed by the section
elementary particles (molecules, atoms, electrons) (ii) Q2 – heat conducted forward to the other
sections of the rod.
composing the rod and these which are very close to
Q = Q1 + Q2
the flame, get heated. As the temperature increases,
Heat absorbed Q1 by any section is the cause
their vibrational kinetic energy increases. This puts
for the rise of its temperature. "The state of the rod,
them in a violent state of agitation. So they start where the temperatures of all its sections are
vibrating about their mean positions. As a result, changing continuously with time is called a vari-
these active particles collide with less active able state".
AKASH MULTIMEDIA 401

TRANSMISSION OF HEAT PHYSICS-IC
After some time, the temperature of every Problem 10.1

cross section of the rod becomes constant. There is Let q1 and q2 be the temperatures of two
no further absorption of heat in any part of the rod ends of a metal rod 'AB' of length 'L' in steady
and total heat is transferred (i.e., Q1 = 0 and Q2 = Q) state (q1 > q2 ). If q be the temparature of the
Now the rod is said to be in steady state. section at a distance 'x' from the hot end A then
"The state of the rod when the temperatures find ' q '. (assume steady state conditions)
of all its sections is not changing with time is Solution : Temperature gradient is constant.
known as steady state". q1 - q q - q2
i.e., =
At steady state : x L- x
(i) Different sections of the rod attain different æq1 - q2 ö÷
After solving, we get q = q1 - çç
constant temperatures. (including hot end and çè L ø÷ ÷x .
cold end) Problem–10.2
(ii) No heat is absorbed by any section of the rod. A copper bar 2m long has a circular cross
ie., whatever amount of heat is received by the section of radius 1cm. One end is kept at 1000C
section, is just conducted forward. and the other at 00C. It is assumed that no heat
(iii) The rate of flow of heat through every cross - is lost through the surface. Find (a) the
section of the rod remains constant. temparature gradient (b) the temparature at
(iv) Temperature gradient along the length of the 25cm from the hot end.
rod remains constant. Solution :
(v) Specific heat of any cross section is infinity. q1 - q2 100 - 0
(a) Temparature gradient = = = 50 K /m
L 2
10.4 Temperature Gradient : æq1 - q2 ö÷
The fall of temperature in the direction (b) q = q1 - çççè ÷x
L ø÷
of flow of heat per unit distance is called
temparature gradient. æ100 - 0 ö÷
= 100 - çççè
0
÷0.25 = 87.5 C
q1 q2 2 ø÷
Q Q 10.5 Thermal conductivity :
x Consider a good conductor in the shape of
If q1 and q2 are the temperatures of any rectangular block whose opposite parallel faces are
two cross - sections of a rod normal to the di- maintained at different steady temperatures 1 and
rection of heat flow separated by a distance x, 2 such that 1  2 .Under steady state conditions,
q- q the amount of heat Q flowing from hot face to the
then temperature gradient = 1 2 .
x cold face of the block is
(or) If ' dq ' is small change in temperature a) directly proportional to the area of cross section
in the direction of flow of heat corresponding (A) of the face i.e. Q  A.
to a small distance 'dx' then
b) directly proportional to the temperature
dq
temparature gradient = - difference i.e. Q   1  2 
dx
– ve sign indicates the decrease in temperature c) directly proportional to the time (t) for which
with increase of distance. the heat flows i.e. Qt.
Temparature gradient is a vector quantity. But d) inversely proportional to the distance (l)
temperature is a scalar. 1
between the hot and cold faces i.e. Q
S.I. unit : K/m l

Combining all the above ,we get 10.6 Thermal Conductivities of some substances
A  1  2  t A  1   2  t in SI units:
Q or Q  K
l l Substance K value
Silver 429
q1 q2
Copper 401
Gold 318
A A Aluminium 238
Brass 122
l Iron 80.2
Ice 1.7
Here K is the constant of proportionality
Water 0.6
called "coefficient of thermal conductivity"
Hydrogen 0.172
of the material of the block. Its value depends
on the nature of material of the block. Helium 0.138
Air 0.0234
 
(Here 1 2 is known as temperature gradient) Wood 0.13

Q is directly proportional to temperature gradient 10.7 GOOD AND BAD CONDUCTORS :
  A substance of large value of coefficient of
If A = 1 unit, 2 1 =1 unit and t =1s,
 thermal conductivity is a good conductor of heat. It
then Q=K.
can be observed that metals like silver, copper,
From this coefficient of thermal conductiv- aluminium .....etc., and their alloys like brass, steel,
ity can be defined as follows. etc.,.are good conductors of heat. Of all the metals,
10.5 (A) Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity(K) : silver is the best conductor of heat. Mercury being a
Coefficient of thermal conductivity of a liquid metal, is a good conductor.
material is numerically equal to the amount Non metals like glass, wood, cotton..... etc., are
of heat conducted per second normally per bad conductors. For these, the value of coefficient
unit area of cross section per unit of thermal conductivity is small and they have the
temperature gradient. tendency to prevent heat flow. Liquids conduct heat
Q/ t with less ease than solids, because, average distance
K
    between the atoms/molecules is relatively greater
A 1 2 
   than that in solids and the forces between the atoms
Unit of K : Cals-1 cm-1 0C-1 in C.G.S system: are weaker.
Js -1 m-1 K -1 or Wm-1 K -1 in SI system Gases are even less efficient conductors than
dimensional formula of K is MLT-3 1 liquids as the atoms/molecules have to travel even
The rate of flow of heat across the material greater distance before they collide.
of a block between the parallel faces is given 10.8 THERMAL RESISTANCE
dQ  d  Thermal resistance is the inherent property
by  KA  
dt  dx  of a body by which it opposes the flow of heat energy
from one end to the other end.
Here the negative sign indicates that the
temperature decreases as the distance increases It arises due to the collisions between the
in the direction of heat transfer. vibrational atoms or molecules in the body.

Lesser is the resistance, greater is the If two layers of different materials are in contact
conduction. such that heat flows through them one after the other,
We know that under steady state, rate of heat they are said to be in series.
conducted through a solid is given by In series arrangement, under steady state, the
rate of flow (or) power ( P) will be same in all the
 Q  1  2  æQö (q1 - q2 ) Dq layers.
 t   KA or çççè t ø÷÷÷=  / KA = R
 Consider two layers AB and BC having
 coeffiicient of thermal conductivities K1, K2, and
The quantity is called thermal resistance
KA thicknesses d1, d2 but having same area of cross
R of the conductor. Thermal resistance depends on
section 'A' connected in series. The layers have
(a) the nature of the material and (b)
temperatures q1 and q3 at their extreme surfaces and
geometry of the object. R is measured in units of
the interface layer has temperature q2 as shown in
Kelvin/Watt.
figure. Let R1 and R2 be their thermal resistances
Q/t is the rate of heat flow (or) rate of energy and P is the power (or) rate of heat flow through
transfer, which is equal to power P. Then them at steady state.
 For the layer AB, q1 – q2 = PR1 ------(1)
D q = Px = PR . This equation is useful for
KA
solving problems when heat flows through layers of For the layer BC, q2 – q3 = PR2 -----(2)
materials placed in series.
i.e., ( q1 – q2 ) + ( q2 – q3 ) = P(R1+ R2)
Note 10.2 :
Nature of flow Cause for flow
( q1 – q3 ) = D q = P(R1 + R2)
Cause of resistance
Charge flow Potential difference Collisions of charges Þ P Rs = P (R1 + R2 )

with lattice atoms
Fluid flow Pressure difference Viscosity of the fluid
\ Rs = R1 + R2
Collisions between
Heat flow Temparature difference vibrating atoms or
molecules The effective thermal resistance for layers in
series is the sum of thermal resistances of each layer.
10.9 Thermal conductors in series.
Note 10.3 :
q1 q2 q3
1) Their effective coefficient of thermal
conductivity is calculated as follows.
Q
K1 K2 Q In series, Rs = R1 + R2
d1 d2 1 +  2  
A B C ie, = 1 + 2
KA K1 A K 2 A
Y 1 +  2  
Þ = 1+ 2
q1 A K K1 K 2
q
q2 B (1 +  2 )K1K 2
\ K=
1 K 2 +  2 K1
q3 d1 d2
C 2K1 K 2
X If 1 =  2 then K = K + K
x 1 2

Graph : 10.10 Junction Temperature :

If a graph is plotted between temperature ' q ' of If two metal slabs of equal area of
any section as a function of its position 'x', the crosssection, having lengths l1, l2, coefficients
following conclusions could be drawn from the
of thermal conductivities K1,K2 with free end
graph.
temperatures 1, 2 are kept in contact with
1) Slope of the graph of either material is the each other, then under steady state , 1   2 
temperature gadient of that material
1  2
ædq ö (Q / t ) P
2) Temperature gradient, ççç ÷ ÷= = K1 K2
è dx ø÷ KA KA
dq 1 1 2
Þ a ( P & A are constan t )
dx K The rate of flow of heat is same in the two
i.e., slope of the graph of any material is inversly conductors
proportional to its coefficient of thermal K1A  1    K2 A    2 
\  .
conductivity 1 2
3) For the metal having greater coeffcient of thermal K11 2  K221
conductivity, slope is less and vice-versa. If Þ Junction temperature  
K1 2  K21
K1 > K2 then slope of AB < slope of BC K11  K 2 2
4) As materials have different K values. If  1 =  2 =  then,  
K1  K 2
temperature gradients are not same. But rate of
heat flow (Q/t) is same. ** 10.11 Thermal conductors in parallel :
q1 q2
Note 10.4 : If 'n' slabs, each of cross-sectional
K1
area A, lengths  1,  2,  3 ... and coefficient of Q1 / t Y1
X1
thermal conductivities K 1 , K 2 , K 3 ....K n Q/t Q
Y2
respectively be connected in series, then X2
Q2 / t
K2
i) Rate of flow of heat (or) power is the same
in all the conductors i.e., Y
Q q1
 H1  H2  H3 .....  Hn = constant q
t
K1A  1  2  K 2 A  2  3  KnA  n1  n 
 
1 2 n
q2
ii) Equivalent thermal resistance is
RS = R1+R2+.........+Rn X
x
iii) Equivalent coefficient of thermal
conductivity is calculated as follows If two layers of different materials are in
contact such that temperature difference between
RS = R1 +R2 + R3 +.......+Rn
their ends is same, they are said to be in parallel.
1   2  ...   n  1  2 
    ...  n Consider two layers X1 Y 1 and X2 Y 2
KS K1 K 2 Kn having coefficients of thermal conductivities K1 and
 1 +  2 + .... n K2 , area of cross section A1 and A2 but of same
Þ Ks =
1  2  thickness connected in parallel. The layers have
+ + ... + n
K1 K 2 Kn temperatures q1 and q2 at their extreme surfaces.

The total quantity of heat supplied is æ ö

distributed between the two layers çç A & d q are constant ÷÷
çè dx ø÷
Q Q Q
i.e., = 1 + 2 (or) P = P1 + P2 i.e., rate of heat flow is different as materials
t t t
q- q q- q q- q have different K values
Þ 1 2= 1 2+ 1 2
R R1 R2 Note 10.6 :
1 1 1 R1 R2 If 'n' slabs each of length  and area of cross
\ = + (or) R=
R R1 R2 R1 + R2 section A1 , A2 , A3 , ..............An with thermal
Note 10.5 : conductivities K1 , K2 , K 3 ..................Kn are
Their equivalent coefficient of t hermal connected in parallel then
conductivity is calculated as follows. i) Equivalent thermal resistance
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
In parallel , R = R + R     ........
1 2 R p R1 R 2 R 3 Rn .
K (A1 + A2 ) K1 A1 K 2 A2 The reciprocal of effective thermal resistance
Þ = +
L L L in parallel arrangement is equal to the sum of
K A + K 2 A2 recipro cals o f t her mal resist ances o f
\ K= 1 1
A1 + A2 individual layers.
K + K2 ii) Temperature grandient is same across each slab.
If A1 = A2 then K = 1
2 iii) Rate of flow of heat in each slab will be
Graph :
different.
If a graph is plotted between temperature ' q ' of
any section as a function of its position 'x', the Net heat current H  H1  H2  H3  ............Hn
following conclusions can be drawn from the graph K  A 1  A 2  ......  A n  K1 A1 K2 A2 KA
= + + ..............+ n n
1) Slope of the graph of either material is the    
temperature gradient in that material
2) Temperature gradient is same for both the rods, K=
K1 A1 + K 2 A2 + .... + K n An
=
å KA
even though the materials have different A1 + A2 + .... + An å A
K values.
dq Q / t P Problem 10.3
= =
dx KA KA One face of a copper plate of area 5m2 and
dq P thickness 0.01m is in contact with boiling water
But = constant Þ = constant at 1000C, the other face is at 00C. In steady state
dx KA
find the heat conducted in one second. (K of
Here P1 ¹ P2 , A1 ¹ A2 , K1 ¹ K 2
copper = 400 Wm–1K–1)
P
but = cons tan t . Solution :
KA
ie, slope of graph of X1 Y1 = slope of graph of KA(q1 - q2 )t
from Q =
P1 P2 
X2 Y2 Þ K A = K A
1 1 2 2
400´ 5´ (100 - 0)´ 1
Q dq Q Q= = 2´ 107 J .
3) = KA. Þ µ K 0.01
t dx t

Problem 10.4 Heat required to boil the water, Q = mL

A thermocole cubical ice box of side = 6000 x 2256
30 cm is of thickness 5cm. If 4kg of ice is put in
the box, estimate the amount of ice remaining 109´ 0.15´ (T1 - 100)´ 60
\ = 6000´ 2256
after 6 hours. The outside temparature is 450C 0.01
and coefficient of thermal conductivity of (or) T1 – 100 = 138
thermocole = 0.01 W/mK. Given latent heat of
fusion of ice = 335 x 103 J/Kg. \ T1 = 2380C
Solution : ** Problem 10.6
Area of six faces of the box, A cylindrical block of length 0.4m and
A = 6  2 = 6 x (0.3)2 = 0.54m2 area of cross-section 0.04m2 is placed coaxially
on a thin metal disc of mass 0.4kg and of the same
thickness, L = 5 cm = 0.05m cross-section. The upper face of the block is main-
time, t = 6h = 6 x 3600 s tained at a constant temperature of 400K and the
temparature difference = 45 - 0 = 450C initial temperature of the disc is 300K. If the ther-
mal conductivity of the material of the cylinder is
Total heat entering in to the box in 6 hours. 10 Watt/mK and the specific heat of the material
KA(q1 - q2 )t of the disc is 600J/kg-K, how long will it take for
Q= the temperature of the disc to increase to 350K?
L
Solution:- Fundamental equation of heat conduc-
0.01´ 0.54´ 45´ 6´ 3600 tion in steady state is
= = 104976 J
0.05
Q KA(T1  T2 )
If 'm' be the amount of ice melted, then H  ....................(1)
t 
Q 104976 In this case the temperature of upper face of

m= = = 0.313kg cylinder is T1 = 400K, while the temperature of lower
Lice 335´ 103
face of cylinder is changing. Therefore, we shall use
\ mass of ice left after 6h = 4 – 0.313 = 3.687 kg. equation (1) in the form
dQ æ400 - T ö÷
= KA çç
Problem 10.5 dt çè  ø÷ ÷
A brass boiler has a base area of 0.15 m2 and where T is any intermediate temperature of
thickness 1 cm. Water boils in it at the rate of 6.0 lower face of cylinder, dQ is heat absorbed by disc
kg/min, when placed on flame. Estimate the in time dt
temperature of the part of the flame in contact dQ = mc dT
with the boiler. Thermal conductivity of Here m = mass of disc = 0.4 kg
brass = 109 J/sm–K and latent heat of c = specific heat of disc = 600 J/kg-K
vapourisation of water = 2256 J/g. mc dT  400  T 
  KA  
Solution : dt   
Let T1 be the temperature of the part of the flame mc
 dT 
or dt  KA  400  T 
in contact with boiler. The amount of heat flown into 350
water in 1 minute mc dT
Integrating t  KA  (400  T)
KA(q1 - q2 )t 109´ 0.15´ (T1 - 100)´ 60 300
Q= =
 0.01 mcl  log e (400  T) 
350

Mass of water boiled in 1 minute = 6kg = 6000g. KA  1 
300

mcl  400  300 

According to given problem, mice = msteam, i.e.
  2.3 log10  
KA  400  350  200 100 6
= Þ x= m = 10.34cm
80 (1.5 - x) 540´ x 58
mcl
  2.3 log10 2
KA i.e., 2000C temperature must be maintained at a
substituting given values, we get distance 10.34 cm from water at 1000C
0.4  600  0.4 Problem 10.8
t  2.3  0.3010 166 sec
10  (0.04)
A wall is of two layers P and Q each made of
= 2 min. 46 sec different materials. Both the layers have same
Problem 10.7 thickness. The thermal conductivity of the
material P is twice that of Q. Under thermal
One end of a copper rod of uniform cross - equilibirum, the temperature difference across
section and of length 1.5 m is kept in contact with the walls is 36 0 C. What is the temperature
ice and the other end with water at 1000C. At difference across the layer P ?
what point along its length should a temperature Solution : For layer P, A = A1,  =  1 K = K1
of 2000C be maintained so that in steady state, for layer Q, A = A2 ,  =  2. K=K2
the mass of ice melting be equal to that of the
Given  1 =  2, A1 = A2 , K1 = 2K2
steam produced in the same interval of time ?
Assume that the whole system is insulated from We know
the surroundings. Q Dq 1
= KA Þ Dqa
Solution : t l K
Q
x (1.5 - x)
( here , A & l are same )
steam t
D qP KQ 1
i.e., D q = K = 2
2000C Q P
Water Ice at 00 C 1 1
\ D qP = ´ D q = ´ 36 = 120 C
at 1000C 3 3
If the point is at a distance x from water at Problem 10.9
1000C, heat conducted to ice in time t, Two walls of thicknesses in the ratio 1: 3
and thermal conductivities in the ratio 3 : 2 form
(200 - 0) a composite wall of a building. If the free surface
Qice = KA ´ t
(1.5 - x ) of the wall be at temperatures of 300C and 200C
So ice melted by this heat respectively, what is the temperature of the
interface?
Qice KA (200 - 0)
mice = = ´ t Q KAD q 
LF 80 (1.5 - x ) Solution : We know = Þ Dqa
t  K
Similarly heat conducted by the rod to the water ( here Q/t &A are same for both walls)
at 1000C in time t, q1 - q 1 K 2
(200 - 100) i.e., q - q =  ´ K ( Where q = tempera-
2 2 1
Qwater = KA t
x ture of interface)
So steam formed by this heat 30 - q 1 2
= ´ Þ 270 - 9q = 2q - 40
Qwater (200 - 100) q - 20 3 3
msteam = = KA t
LV 540´ x Þ q = 28.180 C

Problem 10.10 Problem 10.11

A room has a window fixed with a pane of An electric heater is used in a room of total
ar ea 1.2 m 2. The glass has thickness 2.2 mm. If wall area 137m2 to maintain a temperature of
the temperature outside the room is 360C and the +200C inside it, when the outside temperature is
temperature inside is 260C (a) calculate the heat – 100 C. The walls have three different layers and
flowing into the room every hour. (b) If the same materials. The innermost layer is of wood of
single pane window is replaced by a double paned thickness 2.5 cm, the middle layer is of cement of
window with an air gap of 0.50 cm between the thickness 1.0cm and the outermost layer is of
two panes calculate the heat flowing into the room brick of thickness 25.0 cm. Find the power of the
every hour. For glass K = 0.80 Wm –2 K –4 ; electric heater. Assume that there is no heat loss
Kair = 0.0234 Wm–2 K–4 through the floor and the ceiling. The thermal
Solution : conductivities of wood, cement and brick are
(a) Given, 0.125, 1.5 and 1.0 W/m0C respectively.
Solution :
D q = q2 - q1 = 360 C - 260 C = 100 C .
Equivalent thermal conductivity of the wall
Thickness of the window pane,
1 +  2 +  3 0.025 + 0.01 + 0.25
 =2.2mm= 2.2x10–3m. K= =
1   æ0.025 0.01 0.25 ö÷
Area of the window pane A = 1.2 m2. + 2 + 3 çç + + ÷
K1 K 2 K 3 çè 0.125 1.5 1.0 ø÷
Thermal conductivity of glass ,Kgl = 0.80Wm–2 K–4
A(q2 - q1 )t 0.285
= = 0.624W / m - 0C
Q= K 0.457

The rate of flow of heat is given by
0.8´ 1.2´ 10´ 3600 T- T é20 - (- 10)ù
= = 1.57 ´ 107 J P = KA 1 2 = 0.624´ 137 ´ ë û
2.2´ 10- 3 L 0.285
Therefore heat flow into the room per hour is 0.624´ 137´ 30
= = 9000W
Q = 1.57 x 107 J. 0.285
b) The effective coefficient of thermal conductivity **Problem 10.12
is given by Four idential rods AB, CD, CF and DE
l1 + l2 + l3 l l l are connected as shown in figure. The length,
= 1 + 2 + 3 cross- sectional area and thermal conductivity of
K eff K1 K 2 K3
each rod are L, A, K respectively. The ends A, E,
F are maintained at temperature T1, T2 and T3
i.e., 0.22 + 0.50 + 0.22 = 0.22 + 0.50 + 0.22 respectively. Assuming no loss of heat to the at-
K eff 0.8 0.0234 0.8 mosphere, calculate the temperature at B
[CB = BD].
Þ K eff = 0.0429 W / m 2 K 4
K eff A(q1 - q2 )t
\ Q1 =
leff
0.0429´ 1.2´ 10´ 3600
= = 1.97 ´ 105 J
0.94´ 10- 2

Solution : Let TB be the temperature at B Problem 10.14

L Two rods(One semi - circular and other
AB = CD = DE = CF = L& CB  BD 
2 straight) of same material and of same cross -
3L sectional area are joined as shown in the figure.
 FCB  EDB 
2 The points A and B are maintained at different
Heat flowing per second towards B from E temperatures. Find the ratio of the heat
KA(T2  TB ) transferred through a cross - section of a semi -
H1 
via D is 3L circular rod to the heat transferred through a
2 cross section of the straight rod in a given time.
Heat flowing per second towards B from F
KA(T3  TB )
H2 
via C is 3L
2
Heat flowing per second towards A from B is
KA(TB  T1 ) A B
H3 
L
In steady state, H1 + H2 = H3 dQ KA
Solution:  , for both rods K, A and 
KA(T2  TB ) KA(T3  TB ) KA(TB  T1 )
dt 
  are same
(3L / 2) (3L / 2) L
dQ 1
2T2  2T3  3T1   So
on solving we get  TB 
7 dt 
 dQ / dt semi circular  straight 2r 2
Problem 10.13   
 dQ / dt straight  semicircular r 
Three rods of identical A(T)
cross - sectional area and made Problem 10.15
from the same metal form the
A cylinder is made up of two coaxial lay-
sides of an isosceles triangle ers, one of radius R and the other of inner radius
ABC right angled at B. The R and outer radius 2R. The inner and the outer
points A and B are maintained B( 2T ) C portions are respectively made up of substances
at temperatures T and 2 T of thermal conductivities K and 2K. Determine
respectively in steady state. Assuming that only the effective thermal conductivity between the flat
heat conduction takes place find the temperature ends of the cylinder
at point C. Solution : Here A1  R2 ; K1 = K
Solution : As TB > TA, heat flows from B to A through
both paths and A2  4R2  R 2  3R2 ; K2 = 2K
Rate of heat flow in BC = Rate of heat flow in
Using, the expression for the effective thermal
CA
conductivity Keff , for slabs in parallel,

KA  2T  TC   KA  TC  T 
A1K1 + A2 K 2
 2 K eff =
A1 + A2
Solving this we get,
3T R 2 (K)  3R 2 (2K) 7K
TC    .
2 1 R 2  3R 2 4

**Problem 10.16 coated uniformly with a thin layer of wax whose

A cylinder of radius R and length l is made melting point is less than the temperature of the bath.
up of a substance, whose thermal conductivity K The rods are inserted into the vessel up to the same
varies with the distance x from the axis as depth. After a long time, let the lengths to which
K = K1x + K2. Determine the effective thermal wax has melted in the different rods be l1, l2, l3 etc.
conductivity between the flat faces of the cylinder.
Solution : Let us subdivide the entire cylinder into a

number of coaxial cylindrical shells of infinitesimally Then the ratio of their thermal conductivities is
small thickness dx. Cross sectional area of the shell
K 1 : K 2 : K 3 = 12 : 22 :  23 .
2xdx .
Using, the expression for the effective thermal Thus the thermal conductivities of different
conductivity substances will be in the ratio of the squares of lengths
K eff 
A Ki i upto which wax has melted.
A i
Problem 10.17
R
1 In the Ingen hauz’s method to compare the
we have K eff 
 
K(2 x dx)
Ai 0 thermal conductivities of different substances,
1
R
2
R the length upto which wax melted in copper and
 2
(K1 x  K 2 )2x dx  2 (K1 x2  K 2 x)dx
  zinc rods are 9.3 cm and 5 cm respectively. Com-
R 0 R 0
pare their thermal conductivities.
R
2  x3 x2  1 Solution :
 K
 1  K 2   (2K1 R  3K 2 )
R2  3 2 0 3 Given  C  9.3 cm and  Z = 5cm
Note–10.7: Had there been no variation of K with x 2
then K1 = 0 and K = K2 ( K = K1x + K2) Kc 2c æç9.3cmö÷
 = =ç ÷ = 3.46
Now putting K1 = 0 in the expression for Keff, KZ 2Z çè 5cm ø÷
we obtain Keff = K2, which proves the validity of the
Thus, the thermal conductivity of copper is 3.46
expression.
times that of zinc.
** 10.12 COMPARISON OF THERMAL
** 10.13 RADIAL FLOW OF HEAT :
CONDUCTIVITES OF DIFFERENT
SUBSTANCES (INGEN HAUZ'S Consider two thin spherical shells of radii r1 and
METHOD) r2. A medium of thermal conductivity 'K' is contained
Ingen Hauz devised an approximate method between these shells. A heater is placed at the centre
to compare the thermal conductivites of differrent of the shells. Heat is conducted through the medium
substances. In this method, rods with identical radially from inner to the outer shell. Let the
dimensions, of different substances, are fitted to the temperatures of the inner and the outer shells be T1
holes provided on the sides of a constant temperature and T2 at steady state. Then 'K' is calculated as
bath filled with boiling water or oil. The rods are follows.

Choose an element Choose an element of radial thickness 'dr' at a

H of radial thickness dr at distance of 'r' from the axis of the tube. Let 'dT' be
a radial distance 'r' from the temperature difference across it. The rate of flow
r2
the centre of shells. Let of heat through the element.
r1
H H 'dT' be the temperature æ- dT ö÷
T1
r H = KA çççè ÷
dr difference across it. dr ø÷
T2 The rate of flow of heat Here A = 2p r  and H is constant
through the element dT dr - 2p K
H \ H = - K (2p r) Þ = dT ....... (i)
æ dT ö÷ dr r H
H = KA çççè- ÷
dr ø÷ Integrating equation (i), we have
T2
Here A = 4p r 2 and H is constant dr - 2p K
H ò
= dT
dT r T 1
\ H = – K( 4p r 2 ) r2
dr 2p K
dr 4p K òÞ log r2 - log r1 = (T1 - T2 )
=- dT H
(or) 2 .............. (i) r1
r H ær ö
Integrating equation (i), we have H log çç 2 ÷ ÷
÷
r2 T2
çè r1 ø÷
dr 4p K \ K=
2p  (T1 - T2 )
ò r 2
=-
H ò dT
r1 T1 ** 10.15 FORMATION OF ICE LAYER ON
1 1 4p K THE FREE SURFACE OF WATER
Þ - = (T1 - T2 ) In cold countries, where the atmospheric tem-
r1 r2 H
perature falls below the freezing point of water (00C),
H (r2 - r1 ) the continuous loss of heat from the surface of water
\ K=
4p r1r2 (T1 - T2 ) ............ (ii) (ponds, lakes, etc) results in the formation of ice layer
on the surface. The thickness of ice increases towards
** 10.14 CYLINDRICAL FLOW OF HEAT : the depth of the water, as more and more heat is lost
Consider a cylindrical tube of length  having to the atmosphere.
r1 and r2 as the inner and outer radius of the tube. Let A be the area of the surface of an ice
The thermal conductivity of material of the tube is layer of thickness x , when the atmospheric tem-
K. A heater is placed inside the tube. After steady perature is –T 0C
state, let temperatures of inner and outer surfaces are
T1 and T2 respectively. Heat is conducted radially
across the tube. Then 'K' can be calculated as follows.
H T2 H
r2 dr
Thermally r Thermally
r1 T1 Clearly the temperature of the water layer in
insulated insulated
contact with the ice layer will be at 00C.
Thus, the two faces (lower and upper) of ice
H H slab (of thermal conductivity, K) are maintained at
 temperature of 00C and –T0C. So, heat lost from

water to the surrounding in a small time interval dt, 10.16 APPLICATIONS OF THERMAL
will be
CONDUCTIVITY
[0  ( T)] KATdt
dQ  KA dt  .................(1) i) Cooking utensils are made of copper and
x x
aluminium. The reason is that, these two metals
If  and L be the density and latent heat of
are good conductors of heat. They rapidly absorb
fusion of ice, then the mass of additional ice formed
heat from the fire and supply it to food to be
due to the exit of dQ heat will be Adx (where dx is
cooked.
the increase in the thickness x of the ice layer corre-
sponding to the time interval dt). * ii) In winter, a metal chair is colder to touch than a
wooden chair at the same temperature.The rea-
Using dQ = mL, we have
son is that, metal is a good conducotor and wood
dQ  AL dx......................(2) is a bad conductor of heat. When we touch the
From Eqs. (1) and (2) metal chair , heat from the hand is quickly con-
KATdt L ducted . So we feel colder on touching the metal
 ALdx Þ dt  KT x dx
x chair than a wooden chair.
If t be the time elapsed, when thickness of *iii) Stainless steel cooking pans are preferred with
ice increases from x1 to x2, then extra copper bottom. The coefficient of thermal
t x
L 2 \ Dt =
rL 2
(x 2 - x12 )
conductivity of copper is larger than stainless
 dt  i.e.,
KT x
x dx 2KT
0
steel. So , copper at the bottom of the vessel
1
Thus, the time taken for the formation of ice conducts more heat to the food to be cooked
layer of thickness 1cm, 2cm, 3cm, etc. will be in the which saves the fuel.
ratio of (12  02 ) : (22  02 ) : (32  0 2 ), etc, 1 : 4 : 9 : ....... iv) Hot rice cooked in a vessel can be touched with
Moreover the time taken by the ice, for the fingers while the vessel cannot be touched . Rice
thickness to grow equally (say by h cm each) from is a bad conductor of heat and the vessel (made
the beginning, will be in the ratio of of metal) is a good conductor of heat. When
(h 2  0 2 ) : [(2h)2  h 2 ] : [(3h) 2  (2h)2 ],etc hot rice is touched with the fingers, very small
i.e., 1 : 3 : 5: ............. amount of heat will be conducted.
**Problem 10.18 v) Ice is kept covered with saw dust or rice husk
to keep it for a long time without melting. The
The thickness of ice in a lake is 5cm and the
reason is saw dust or rice husk is a bad conduc-
atmospheric temperature is –10 0 C. Calculate
tor of heat which prevents the flow of heat from
the time required for the thickness of ice to grow
the surroundings to ice.
to 7cm. Thermal conductivity of ice = 4 × 10-3 cal/
cm-s-0C; density of ice = 0.92 g/cm3 and latent vi) Cooking utensils are provided with wooden
heat of fusion for ice = 80 cal/g. handles. Wood is a bad conductor of heat. So,
rL wooden handles would not permit heat to be
Solution : Using D t = (x 22 - x12 )
2KT conducted from hot utensil to hand.
we have, the required time t as vii) Woolen clothes keep us warm in winter. Wool
92´ 10- 2 g/cm3 80cal/gm 2 2 2 contains small pores in which air is trapped. Air
Dt = ´ ´ (7 - 5 )cm is a bad conductor of heat besides wool. Both
2´ 4´ 10 cal/cm- s- C 100 C
-3 0
the air and the wool do not allow the heat of

92  80  24 our body to go out. So woolen clothes keep us
 s  22080s  6.13hr .
8 warm.

viii) Things cook better evenly, without burning in In natural convection, gravity plays an
heavy cast iron pots or vessels. Iron is a good important role and it always takes place vertically
conductor of heat . So it will be uniformly heated carrying the heat upwards.
first and then heat will be conducted into the food Natural convection cannot take place in a gravity
from all sides. So food will be cooked evenly. free region such as freely falling lift or orbiting satellite.
ix) Two thin blankets are warmer than a single thick Examples :
blanket. The reason is that, air which is trapped 1) When a liquid in a container is
in between the blankets is a poor conductor of heated, the bottom of the container
heat. So it does not allow the heat of our body gets heat by conduction and heats the
to flow out. lower layers of the liquid in contact
x) A piece of paper wrapped tightly on a wooden with it. The heated liquid layers at the
rod is found charred ( turns black ) quickly when bottom then expands, becomes less
kept over a flame compared to a similar piece dense and rises up. At the same time,
of paper wrapped on a metal rod. Metal is a cold liquid layers will move down and
good conductor and wood is a bad conductor thus convenction currents are set up
of heat. So heat is conducted quickly to the in the liquid. This process continues until all the
metal rod than the wooden rod. liquid layers attain the same temperature.
10.17 CONVECTION : 2) Suppose water taken in a
Heat transfer as a result of fluid currents is closed tube in vertical plane is
called convection. (OR) heated at one end as shown in the
It is the process by which heat flows from figure. The heated water molecules
the region of higher temperature to the region of rise up due to low density and cold
lower temperature by the actual movement of the water molecules take their places,
particles of the medium. coming from the side tube.
In conduction, the particles of the medium do Therefore a convection current is set
not leave their actual positions. But in convection, -up in the whole tube making the
the particles of the medium move from one place to water to flow in a clockwise sense.
another place. Hence convection occurs mainly in 3) Sea breeze : During day time, the land is heated
fluids (liquids and gases). more rapidly than sea. The reason for this is specific
Examples : Role of ventilators, Boiling of water heat of land is less than that of sea water. So the air
in a vessel, Land and Sea breezes, trade winds etc. over the land becomes less dense and moves up. As
a result, the cold air which is more dense over the
10.18 TYPES OF CONVECTION : sea flows towards the land. This breeze from the sea
Convection is of two types - on to the land is known as sea breeze.
a) Natural convection and b) forced convection.
10.18(A)Natural convection : Transfer of heat due
to the movement of fluid resulting from
differences in density is called natural convection.
In natural convection, convection currents move
hot fluid upwards and cold fluid downwards. Hence,
heating is done from bottom to top while cooling is
from top to bottom.

Land breeze : Late in the evening or in the mountains, the moist air rushes upwards to great
night, the land cools more quickly than the sea water height, gets cooled and moves towards low pressure
as specific heat of sea water is more. So the air over regions. In this process, miosture condenses and
the sea becoms less dense and moves up . As a result, causes rain fall.
the cold air which is more dense from the land flows
towards the sea. This breeze from the land onto the
sea is known as land breeze.
4) Ventillator : Ventillator is a small window

arranged at the top of a room just below the ceiling . 7) Use of a Chimney : An ordinary oil lamp is
The warm air due to respiration which is lighter, rises provided with a chimney and a set of holes at the
up and escapes through the ventillator. Then fresh, bottom. When the lamp is lighted, the layers of air
cool and dense air enters into room through the over the wick will be heated and move up. These
windows and doors which are open at low height . hot layers then escape out through the chimney and
5) Trade winds : fresh air enters through the holes at the bottom which
helps to continue the combustion. Here convectional
As the sun shines N air currents are set up. (If the holes at bottom are
vertically above the equator, NE closed, the lamp may be extinguished).
air in that region is heated Based on the same above principle tall and
E
more and rises up. Then cold W narrow chimnies are used in kitchens.
air from the north and south 10.18 (B) FORCED CONVECTION :
polar regions moves towards SE
Definition: Transfer of heat due to forced
the equator. But as the earth S movement of the fluid by mechanical means, such
rotates from west to east, this as a fan or pump, is known as forced convection.
wind blows along north–east in the northern
EXAMPLES :
hemisphere and sout h east in the so uthern
1) To regulate temperature in the human body :
hemisphere. This steady wind blowing from north
The temperature of the human body will be
east to equator is called trade wind.
maintained uniform inspite of large changes in
6) Monsoons : In summer, the surface of the earth environmental conditioin. The chief mechanism
of the Indian subcontinent becomes hotter than the involved in this process is forced convection. When
Indian ocean. This sets up convection current with temparature of our body is too high, blood vessels
hot air from the land rising and moving towards the near the skin expand and more blood can be pushed
Indian Ocean, while the moisture laden air from the into them by the heart. Then heat is transmitted from
ocean moves towards the land. When obstructed by the skin to the cooler surroundings of the person in

the form of radiation , convection and conduction. **Note–10.9 : Convection coefficient depends on
Here the human heart acts as a pump and it circulates i) Whether the wall is flat or curved
the blood. ii) Whether the wall is horizontal or vertical
2) The hot air in contact with the radiator of a car
iii) Whether the fluid in contact with the wall is a
will be thrown away by forcing air using a fan.
gas or a liquid.
* 3) Heating rooms by pumping hot air by fans, or
iv) The density, viscosity, specific heat and thermal
cooling them by pumping cool air by mechanical
conductivity of the fluid.
methods (air coolers).
4) Exhaust fans : In an auditorium or in a big hall v) Whether the velocity of the fluid is small enough
(crowded), exhaust fans will be provided at the top. to give rise to laminar flow or large enough to
The hot air which the audience breath out moves up. cause turbulent flow.
This hot air is driven out by exhaust fans and the fresh vi) Whether evapo ration, condensation, or
air enters into the hall through doors and windows. formation of scale takes place.
NOTE–10.8: Natural convection takes the heat from Since the physical properties of the fluid depend
bottom to top while forced convection may take heat upon temparature and pressure, it is clear that the
in any direction. calculation of a convection coefficient to a given
wall and fluid is a complicated problem. So the above
10.19 CONVECTION COEFFICIENT (h) :
formula for convective heat transfer is only an
Consider a fluid in contact with a flat or curved approximate one.
wall whose temperature is higher than that of the
fluid. Although the fluid may be in motion, there is a *Problem 10.19
relatively thin film of stagnant fluid next to the wall. A runner moves along the road at 2.0 ms-1
The thickness of the film depends on the character in still air that is at a temperature of 29.00C. His
of the motion of the fluid (turbulent or laminar) surface area is 1.4m2, of which approximately
Heat is transferred from the wall to the fluid by 85% is exposed to the air. Find the rate of con-
a combination of conduction through the film and vective heat loss from his skin at a temperature
35.00C to the outside air? Coefficient of convec-
convection in the fluid. The rate at which heat is
tion for dry air and bare skin at wind speed 2.0
transferred by convection is given by,
ms-1 is 22 W/m2 0C.
Q
P = = h ADq Q
t Solution : From Eq. = hAD T
t
A is area of the wall and D q is the temperature
Given h = Coefficient of convection = 22 W/
difference between the surface of the wall and the
m2 0C; T  35.00 C  29.00 C  6.00 C;
fluid and 'h' is called convection coefficient.
A = 85% of the surface area of the runner
Definition of convection coefficient (h) :
The rate of heat flow due to convection when 85
= ´ 1.4m 2 = 1.2m 2 .
a fluid moves along the surface of a body of unit 100
area with unit temperature difference between Q
\  22W / m 2 0 C  1.2m2  6.0 0 C  160W
the surface and the fluid, is called convection t
coefficient.
P 10.20 RADIATION
h=
A. D q The process of transmission of heat from one
S.I unit of h : Wm–2 K–1 place to another without the necessity of the
Dimensional formula of h : MT–3 K–1 material medium is called radiation.

In this process heat transmits in the form of 10.22 Applications of Thermal radiation :
electromagnetic radiation. The heat radiation from a human body is used
Ex : Heat energy transmits from the sun to the in medical diagnosis and treatment.
earth by the process of radiation. i) A thermogram is used to locate the broken part
Note–10.10 : Word 'radiation' is used for of a bone. Broken part of the bone radiates more
both process and energy. heat than other parts. This is because of
Thermal Radiation : abnormal cellular activity. A thermogram can
Everybody emits electromagnetic waves at the show which area is radiating more heat than it
expense of different kinds of energy. The emission should.
of electromagnetic waves at the expense of the ii) Infrared detectors are used as night scopes, and
internal energy (which is the function of also detect radiation from the skin.
temperature only) of the bodies is known as iii) Thermography is used to screen travellers at
thermal radiation. airports who suffer from high fever carrying
*10.21 PROPERTIES OF THERMAL infection with them.
RADIATION
10.23 Types of substances :
The properties exhibited by the heat energy
Depending upon their behaviour towards
that transmits by radiation can be listed as below
thermal radiations, various substamces have been
1) It travels in straight lines like light divided into two categories.
2) It can travel through vacuum.
(i) Dia thermanous substance : A substance
3) Thermal radiations travel from one place to the
which allows heat radiations to pass through it
other with velo city of light. They are
without absorbing them is called diathermanous
electromagnetic waves having wavelengths
substance. Thus the temperature of a diathermanous
ranging from 7800A0 to about 1mm.
substance does not increase irrespective of the
4) Thermal radiation is the only kind of radiation amount of the thermal radiations passing through it
that can be in equilibrium with emitting bodies. e.g. dry air, SO2, rock salt (NaCl).
5) Like light, heat radiation also obeys inverse
square law. The intensity of heat at a point varies b) Dry air does not get heated in summer by
inversly as the square of the distance of that point absorbing heat radiations from sun. It gets
heated through convection by receiving
1
from the source. I  2 (Inverse square law) heat from the surface of earth.
r
6) It undergoes reflection, refraction and total c) In winter, heat from sun is directly absorbed
internal reflection similar to light. by human flesh while the surrounding air
7) It exhibits the phenomena of interference, being diathermanous is still cool. This is the
diffraction and polarisation. reason that sun's warmth in winter season
appears very satisfying to us.
8) Radiation exerts a small, but finite pressure on
the surfaces on which it falls. This is called (ii) Athermanous substance : A substance which
"Radiation Pressure". partly absorbs heat radiation is called
9) Heat radiations get diffused when they are athermanous substance . As a result, temperature of
incident on a rough and unpolished surfaces. an athermanous substance increases when heat
10) They travel equally, in all directions in a radiations pass through it e.g., wood , metal, moist
homogeneous medium air, ordinary glass, human flesh etc.

10.24 Prevost's theory of heat exchanges : FERY'S BLACK BODY

In the earlier days, it was believed that radiations It is not possible to
are of two types namely "cold radiations" emitted by construct a perfect black body,
cold bodies and "hot radiations" emitted by hot bodies. but a body showing close
But Prevost developed a precise theory which approximation to a perfect
explained the reason for these feelings of cold and black body can be
hot. That theory can be put in the following words. constructed. Fery constructed
"Every body emits thermal radiation at all such a black body.
temperatures above absolute zero and exchanges Fery black body is a closed double - walled
heat energy with surroundings i.e., the body hollow sphere having small opening O and a conical
supplies heat to surroundings and in turn receives projection P opposite to the opening. The projection
heat from them". will protect direct reflection of any radiation coming
According to this theory : from the opening. The space between the walls is
evacuated to prevent loss of heat due to conduction
i) Every body emits and absorbs heat radiations
and convection. The outer surface of the sphere is
at all temperatures except at absolute zero
highly polished with nickel. Its inner surfce is coated
(–273ºC)
with lamp black.
ii) Heat radiated from the body depends on its
temperature and is independent of its Radiation entering the opening O suffers
surroundings. multiple reflections at the inner walls. After a few
reflections, almost the entire radiation gets absorbed.
iii) If a body emits more heat energy than what it
absorbs from the surroundings, then its As an example, let 80% of energy be reflected
temperature falls. at each reflection, the remaining 20% being absorbed.
Then after two reflections, 64% will be reflected and
iv) If a body absorbs more heat energy from the
36% will be absorbed. Thus, nearly 99% of the
surroundings than what it emits then its
temperature rises. energy will be absorbed in 10 reflections. Thus this
body behaves as a black body.
v) If a body emits & absorbs heat in equal amounts,
then it is said to be in thermal equilibrium. When this body is heated, the heat radiations
vi) When the temperatures o f bo dy and come out of the hole. It should be remembered that
surroundings are equalised, conduction and only the hole, (not the walls of the body) acts as the
convection stop but the radiation exchange black body emitter.
continues to takes place. So,the hole behaves like a good absorber as well
as a good emitter and thus acts as a perfect black
10.25 BLACK BODY :
body.
A perfect black body is the one which
absorbs all the heat radiation incident on it. Note–10.11 : The radiation from a constant temperature
enclosure depends only on the temperature of the
But a good absorber is also good radiator. So 'a
enclosure. It does not depend on the nature of the
perfectly black body is a good absorber as well as a
substance of which the enclosure is made.
good radiator".
Practically no body behaves like a perfect black *Note–10.12 : Black body need not be black in
body. Lamp black (96% absorption), Platinum black colour. 'Blackness' refers to ideal property of
(98% absorption) are the examples closest to prefect absorbing all the radiation incident on the body. If
black bodies. the body absorbs all the radiation it is described as

the black body. A black body could appear possibly 10.27 Emissive power (or) Emittance :
as red, white or any colour depending on its All bodies emit heat radiations at all tempera-
temperature. tures. The energy emitted by them comprises of all
10.26 Reflectance, Absorptance and wavelengths ranging from zero to infinity. Amount
Transmittance : of energy emitted by them depends upon the nature
When thermal radiations fall on a body, they and area of the body, temperature of the body and
are partly reflected, partly absorbed and rest get also upon the time for which the emission is consid-
transmitted. Let Q amount of thermal energy is ered. The same body radiates energy differently at
incident on a body. Suppose the part R is reflected, different temperatures.
A is absorbed and T is transmitted, then (i) Monochromatic emittance (or)
Q R Spectral Emissive Power ( El ) :
R + A + T = Q .........(1) Spectral emissive power ' El ' of a body at a tem-
A
perature 'T' for a wavelength ' l ' , is defined as the
T
energy radiated, in vacuum, per unit time, per unit
Dividing both sides of equation (1), by Q we
area and per unit range of wave length (lying in be-
R A T tween l and l +d l ).
have + + = 1 ................ (2)
Q Q Q Spectral emissive power
Where R/Q = r, is called reflectance or reflect- Energy
ing power, A/Q = a, is called absorptance or (El )=
Area ´ time ´ wavelength
absorbing power and T/Q = t, is called transmit-
tance or transmitting power. joule
S.I. Unit :
Thus equation (2) takes the form r + a + t = 1. m ´ sec´ A 0
2
For any specific wavelength l , we can write, Dimensional formula : ML–1T–3

rl + al + tl = 1 . Note–10.14 : ' El ' for a body is different for different
Note–10.13 : r, a and t all are pure ratios so they values of ' l ' and for different values of 'T'.
have no units and dimensions. (ii) Total emissive power (or) Total emittance (E) :
Special Cases : Total emittance of a body at a temperature 'T' is
(i) If a body does not transmit the radiations, defined as the total amount of energy radiated per
t = 0, then r + a = 1. It shows that if 'r' is more, a is unit time, per unit area of the body, for all possible
less and vice versa. That is good reflectors are bad wavelengths.
absorbers and viceversa. Energy flux :
(ii) If a body neither reflects nor transmits any It is the energy emitted per second by a given
radiation, r = 0 and t = 0, then a = 1, such a body is body at a given temperature. It is measured in "watt".
called a perfect black body.
Emissive power can also be defined as the
(iii) If a body neither absorbs nor trasmits any energy flux emitted by unit surface area of a
radiation , a = 0 and t = 0, then r = 1, such a body is radiating body.
called a perfect reflector.
If 'dE' is the amount of energy radiated per sec
(iv) If a body neither absorbs nor reflects any
per unit area for wave length range 'd l ' then
radiation, a = 0 and r = 0, then t= 1, such a body is
called a perfect transmitter. dE = E l . d l

\ Total emittance 'E' is given by d f l|

E ¥ \ al =
df l
E= ò dE = ò E dl l
0 0
energy flux absorbed by thebody in certain time
joule watt =
S.I. Units of 'E' : 2 or energy flux incident on thebody in the same time
m ´ sec m2
Dimensional formula : MT–3 Absorptive power is a dimensionless quantity.
10.28 Emissivity (or) Relative Emittance (e) : (ii) Total absorptive power (a) :
Emissivity of a body at a given temperature It is defined as the total amount of thermal energy
is defined as the ratio of total emissive power of absorbed per unit time, per unit area of the body for
the body (E) to the total emissive power of per- all possible wavelengths.
¥
fect black body (Eb) at the same temparature. a=
E
òa l dl
0
i.e., e = E 10.30 Good absorbers of heat are good emitters :
b
If El and El b are the spectral emissive powers T

of any body and black body respectively at a given
1 2
temperature , then emissivity.
3
E
e= l
El b
Emissivity is a dimensionless quantity. Its value Emissivity and absorptivity of any body have a
ranges from 0 to 1. For a perfect black body, e = 1. definite relation. Assume that several bodies are
For all practical bodies, emissivity lies between zero placed in an evacuated enclosure maintained at a
and one ( 0 < e < 1) For a perfect reflector, e = 0. constant temperature T. As the enclosure is evacu-
Emissivity depends on (a) nature of the surface ated, bodies can exchange energy mutually and with
and (b) temperature. the enclosure only by emitting and absorbing elec-
10.29 ABSORPTIVE POWER (or) ABSORPTIVITY : tromagnetic waves. After some time a state of ther-
mal equilibrium is attained and all the bodies acquire
The ability of a body to absorb radiation falling the temperature 'T' equal to that of the enclosure. In
on it is measured by a quantity known as absorptive
this situation, a body having greater emissivity el
power.It depends upon nature of the surface and
temperature of the body. The absorptive power of a loses more energy from unit surface area in unit time
perfect black body is one and for a perfect reflector than a body having lower emissivity el . As the tem-
it is zero. perature of the bodies does not change, the body
emitting more energy must absorb more energy, i.e.,
(i) Spectral abosrptive power (or) spectral
absorptivity (al ) . it should have a greater al . This means that, the
greater the emissivity el of a body, the greater its
The spectral absorptive power (or)
absorptivity of a body at a given temperature and absorptivity al .
el 1 el 2 el 3
for a particular wavelength is defined as the ratio Hence we can write that a = a = a = ...
of energy flux absorbed by the body in certain l1 l 2 l3
time (d f l ) to the total energy flux incident on

| From the above discussion we proved that a
body that is a good emitter must be a good absorber
the body in the same time (d f l ). and vice versa.

10.31 Kirchoff's Law : sun is incident on sand) will be very hot. Now
It states that at any temperature, the ratio of in accordance with Kirchhoff's law, good
emissive power ' El ' of a body to its absorptive absorber is a good emitter, so nights (when sand
power ' al ', for a particular wavelength, is always emits radiation) will be cold. This is why in
constant and is equal to the emissive power of a deserts, days are hot and nights are cold.
iii) When white light is passed through sodium
perfect black body for that wavelength.
vapours and the spectrum of transmitted light is
El
seen, we find two dark lines called D1, D2 lines
al = Constant. in the yellow region. These dark lines are due
If ' El b ' and ' Al b ' are the emissive power and to absorption of radiation by sodium vapours
which it emits when heated. This is in
absorptive powers of a perfect black body,
accordance with Kirchhoff's law, i.e., a good
El El b
= emitter is a good absorber.
al Al b iv) Fraunhoffer lines are dark lines in the spectrum
For a perfect black body, Al b =1. of the sun and are explained on the basis of
El Kirchhoff's law. When white light emitted from
\ = El b the central part of the sun (photosphere) passes
al
through its atmosphere (chromosphere)
From Kirchoff’s law the following conclusions
radiations of those wavelengths will be absorbed
can be drawn.
by the gases present there which they usually
i) The emissive power of a surface is directly emit when heated (as a good emitter is a good
proportional to the absorptive power i.e El µ al
absorber) resulting in dark lines in the spectrum
It shows that good emitters are good absorbers of the sun.
of thermal radiation. During total solar eclipse, these lines
ii) Since El b increases with temperature, the ratio appear bright because the gases present in the
chromosphere start emitting those radiations
El
also increases with the temperature. which they had absorbed.
al
v) A red piece of glass appears red as it reflects
El red and absorbs all other radiations incident on
iii) is called the emissivity of the body.. it. So if a piece of red glass is heated to red hot
El b
Therefore emissivity of the body is equal to its it will reflect red and hence in dark will become
absorptive power or absorptivity. invisible. However, if it is heated to
incandescene [white hot (>800 0C )], it will
10.32 APPLICATIONS OF KIRCHOFF'S LAW : reflect red and will absorb all others, so when
i) A piece of china dish with some dark paintings seen in dark it will glow with emission of
on it is heated in a furnace to high temperature radiations complementary to red (or white
(about 1000 °C) and then taken out quickly and deficient in red), i.e., cyan (or bluish).
examined in a dark room. The dark paintings Similarly, if a blue glass is heated to red
appear much brighter than the white portion, hot, it will absorb red and so in the dark will
because the paintings being better absorbers, appear red. However, if it is heated to
emit also much light. incandescence it will glow with emission of
ii) Sand is rough and black, so it is a good absorber radiation complementary to blue (or white
and hence in deserts, days (when radiation from deficient in blue), i.e., yellow (or reddish).

** 10.33 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF A Observations from the black body radiation

BLACK BODY SPECTRUM distribution curves indicate that the peak of the curves
A black body is one which emits radiations of shifts toward shorter wavelength with increase in
almost all wavelengths. However, the intensity of temperature. i.e., the wavelength of maximum
radiations corresponding to different wavelengths intensity  m shifts towards left along the axis (i.e.,
differ. Scientists performed several outstanding decreases) as the temperature of the body is
experiments on black body radiation, by devising increased.
methods to obtain the spectrum of the radiation. They
Statement : The wavelength  m corresponding
employed an electrically heated enclosure with tiny
hole as the black body. By maintaining the to maximum radiation is inversely proportional
temperature of the black body at various constant to absolute temperature of the black body.
levels, they plotted, the graph of the emissive power 1 b
against the respective wavelengths. These curves are i.e,  m  or  m 
T T
known as distribution curves where b is a constant known as Wien’s constant and
is equal to 2.89 × 10-3 m-K. This is known as Wien’s
displacement Law.
Note–10.15: The frequency J m corresponding to
maximum radiation is directly proportional to
absolute temperature of the black body.
i.e., J m µ T
The salient features evident from the Note–15 : Wien's displacement law is of great
distribution curves are as follows: importance in 'Astrophysics' as through the analysis
of radiations coming from a distant star, by finding
(i) Distribution of energy of the spectrum of black
æ ö
body radiations is not uniform over a wide range l m , the temperature of the star T ççè= b l m ø÷
÷is
of wavelengths.
determined.
(ii) For a particular temperature, the emissive power
Problem–10.20
' El ' of a perfect black body increases with an
The solar radiation spectrum reveals that
increase in wavelength, becomes maximum at
the intensity corresponding to a wavelength of
a particular wavelength ' l m ' and then starts
4750 A 0 is maximum. Estimate the surface
decreasing with t he further increase in temperature of the sun (Given Wien’s constant =
wavelength. 2.89 × 10-3 m-K)
(iii) ' l m ' the wavelength of radiation, for which the Solution: From Wien’s displacement law, the
intensity is maximum, decreases with a rise in temperature T of a body corresponding to maximum
temperature of the body.
b
(iv) Area under each curve represents the total radiant intensity wavelength  m is given by T = l
m
emittance of the body at that temperature. It has
been found that area under each curve varies 2.89´ 10- 3 m - K
directly as the fourth power of the absolute \ T= = 6084K
4750´ 10- 10 m
temperature of the body.
This temperature is corresponding to the
10.34 WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW : -
chromosphere (surface) of the sun.

*Problem 10.21 æ
hc ö÷
6) For radiations of long wavelength ççl÷
If a black body is radiating at T = 1650K, KT ø÷
çè
at what wavelength is the intensity maximum ?
Planck's law reduces to Rayleigh - Jeans
Solution : According to Wien's law energy distribution law
l m T = 2.9 x 10–3 mK 8p KT
El d l = dl
Substituting the value of the temperature l4
T = 1650K
10.36 STEFAN’S LAW :
2.9´ 10- 3
lm= = 1.8mm Statement : The emissive power of a black
1650 body is proportional to the fourth power of its
**10.35 Law of Distribution of energy (Planck's absolute temperature.(OR)
Hypothesis) : The total energy emitted per unit area of a
1) The theoretical explanation of black body black body per second is directly proportional to
radiation was done by Planck. the fourth power of the absolute temperature of
2) According to Planck, atoms of the walls of a the body.
uniform temperature enclosure bahave as If E is the emissive power of a black body at an
oscillators, each with a characterstic frequency absolute temperature T then according to the above law;
of oscillation.
3) These oscillations emit electromagnetic E a T 4 or E = s T 4
radiations in the form of photons (The radiation
coming out from a small hole in the enclosure Q Q
i.e. = s T 4 (or) = As T 4
is called black body radiation). The energy of tA t
each photon is hn . Where n is the frequency \ The radiating power of the black body
of oscillator and 'h' is the Planck's constant. dQ
Thus emitted energies may be hn , 2hn , P= = As T 4
dt
3hn .... nhn but not in between.
Where A is the surface area, T is temperature of
According to Plank's law
the surface in Kelvin scale and s is called Stefan’ss
8p hc 1 constant. Its value is 5.67 × 10–8 Watt m–2K–4.
El d l = 5
dl
l ée hc / l KT
- 1ùúû
êë Stefan derived this law experimentally in 1879.
Where c = speed of light and K = Boltzmann's In 1884, Boltzmann gave a theoretical proof of this
constant. This equation is known as Planck's law based on thermodynamical considerations. So,
radiation law. It is correct and complete law of this law is also known as Stefan - Boltzmann law.
radiation.
For a body other than a black body, the law can
4) This law is valid for radiation of all wavelengths
be given by
ranging from zero to infinite.
æ hc ö÷ Radiating power P = eA s T 4
5) For radiations of short wavelength çççèl ÷
KT ø÷ Where e is called emissivity.
Planck's law reduces to Wien's energy 10.36 (A) Application of Stefan – Boltzmann law :
distribution law. Consider a body with surface area A and at
A absolute temperature T surounded by another body
El d l = 5 e- B / l T dl Where A, B are constants
l at absolute temperature T0 (T0 < T). Then 'inner' body

loses heat energy eA s T 4 per second. At the same ** 10.38 Comparision of rate of heat loss (RH)
4 and rate of cooling (RC) for different bodies.
time, it also gains heat energy eA s T0 per second. Rate of heat loss Rate of cooling
Then the net rate of loss of heat of inner body Body Condition dQ dT dq
RH = RC = or
by radiation is given by dt dt dt
RH µ A µ r 2 A
RC µ
Pnet = Pemitted – Pabsorbed Two solid T, T0,C, r
RH 1 r 2
V
spheres are same Þ = 1 r2 1
2 µ µ
4 4 RH 2 r r3 r
= eA s T – eA s T 0
2
A
RC µ
Two solid Vr C
dQ
\ Pnet = = eAs (T 4 - T04 ) ....... (1) spheres
of different
T,T0 - same RH µ A µ r 2 1
dt materials
µ
rr C
dQ dT RH µ A
but we know = ms. .... (2) Different
T, T 0,C,r
dt dt shape bodies Amax ® Plate A
like cube, - same RC µ
sphere, plate Amin ® Sphere V
dT
= eA s (T - T0 )
4 4
From (1) & (2), ms.
dt Bodies of 1
T,T0 ,m,A are RH ® same for
different RC µ
\ Initial rate of fall of temperature(or) rate of materials same but C diff
all bodies C
cooling is given by
Problem–10.22
dT eAs The temperature of a perfect black body
= (T4 – T04).
dt ms is 1000K and its area is 0.1 m 2 . If
s = 5.67´ 10- 8 W m- 2 K - 4 calculate the heat
dT eAs
(or)
dt
=
Vrs
(T 4 - T04 ) radiated by it in 1 minute?
Solution : According to Stefan's law if E is the energy
Where m = volume (V) X density ( r ) radiated in 1 sec by unit surface area then E = s T 4
10.37 Dependance of rate of coolling :  Total energy radiated,
When a body cools by radiation the rate of E = A(s T 4 )t = 0.1´ 5.67´ 10- 8 ´ 1000 4 ´ 60
= 34.02 × 104J
cooling depends on
i) Nature of radiating surface i.e., greater the Problem 10.23
Two solid spheres of same material but
emissivity , faster will be the cooling.
diameters in the ratio of 5 : 4 are at temperatures
ii) Area of radiating surface, i.e., greater the area 2270C and 1270C respectively. The temperature
of radiating surface, faster will be the cooling. of the surrounding is 270C and Stefan's law holds.
iii) Mass of radiating body i.e., greater the mass of Calculate the ratio of rates of loss of heat of the
radiating body, slower will be the cooling two spheres?
iv) Specific heat of radiating body i.e greater the Solution : If Enet is the energy lost per second by
specific heat of radiating body, slower will be unit surface area, then Enet  (T4  T04 )
the cooling.  Energy lost by the whole sphere in 1 sec =
v) Temperature of radiating body i.e., greater the 4r 2 (T 4  T04 ) Now
temperature of body, faster will be cooling. Rate of heat lost by the I sphere r 2 (T 4  T04 )
 12 14
Rate of heat lost by the II sphere r2 (T2  T04 )
vi) Temperature of surroundings i.e., greater the
temperature of surroundings, slower will be æ5 ö÷2 é5004 - 3004 ù 34
= çç ÷ ê ú=
çè 4 ø÷ ê4004 - 3004 ú 7
the cooling. ë û

*Problem 10.24 *Problem 10.26

Find the temperatue of an oven if it radiates Two spheres made of same material have
8.28 cal per second through an opening, whose their radii in the ratio 1 : 3. They are heated to
area is 6.1cm2. Assume that the radiation is close the same temperature and kept in the same cool
to that of a black body. surroundings at a moderate temperature. Show
Solution : The emittance of the oven (the energy that the ratio of their initial rates of fall of tem-
radiated in one second by unit surface area) is perature is 3 : 1 if the bodies are cooled by natu-
ral convection and radiation.
8.28cal / s 8.28´ 4.2 J / s
E = = = 5.7 ´ 10 4 watt / m 2 Solution : The rate of fall of temperature of a hot
6.1cm 2
6.1´ 10- 4 m 2
d q eAs
From stefan - boltzmann formula body is given by
dt
=
ms
(T 4 - T04 )
E = s - T 4 , where s = 5.67 x 10–8W/m2.K4 4 3
For a spherical body, A = 4p r 2 & m = p r r
E 5.7´ 104 3
T4 = = = 1´ 1012 K 4
d q e.4p r s (T - T0 )
- 8 2 4 4
s 5.67 ´ 10 dq 1
3 \ = Þ a
\ T = 10 K = 1000 K. dt 4 3 dt r
pr r s
*Problem 10.25 3
A sphere with a diameter of 80cm is held at
a temperature of 2500C and is radiating energy. \
(dq
dt ) r
1
= =
3 2
If the intensity of the radiation detected at a dis-

tance of 2.0 m from the sphere's centre is 102 W/m2,
(dq dt) r 1
2 1
what is the emissivity of the sphere ?

Problem 10.27
Solution : Given that the intensity of radiation at a
Four spheres A, B, C and D of different metals
distance r1 = 2.0m from the centre of the sphere is
but of same radius are kept at same temperature.
102W/m2, the diameter of the sphere 2r2 = 80 cm or
The ratio of their densities and specific heats are 2 :
0.8m. From inverse square law
I 2 r12 3 : 5 : 1 and 3 : 6 : 2 : 4. Which sphere will show the
= fastest rate of cooling (initially)
I1 r22
2
ær12 ö÷ æ2.0 ö÷ 1) A 2) B 3) C 4) D
ç ÷ ç
\ I 2 = I1 ç 2 ÷= 102 ç ÷ = 2.55´ 103W / m 2
çè r ø÷ çè 0.4 ø÷ Solution : Since, radius or volume of all the four
2
The power 'P' at the surface of the sphere is spheres are equal, the ratio of their masses will be
2 : 3 : 5 : 1.
I 2 (4p r22 ) = 2.55 x 103 x 4p (0.4)2. Since intensity
is the energy received per unit area per second. Heat capacity = (mass) (specific heat)
According to stefan's law.  Ratio of heat capacities will be 6 : 18 : 10 :
4. The sphere having the minimum heat capacity will
P = es AT 4 show the fastest rate of cooling.
Substituting the values
\ correct option is (4)
s = 5.67x10–8W/m2K4; A = 4p r22 = 4 p (0.4)2m2.
**10.39 SOLAR CONSTANT :
T = 250 + 273 = 523K we get
2.55 x 103 x 4 p (0.4)2 Solar constant is defined as “the rate at
= e x5.67x10–8 x4 p (0.4)2 x (523)4 which the radiant energy of the sun incident,
2.55´ 103 normal to unit area of a body in the absence of
\ e= 4
= 0.61 atmosphere, when kept at distance equal to the
5.67 ´ 10- 8 ´ (523) mean distance of earth from the sun”

Its observed value is about 1400 W/m2. This 10.40 NEWTON’S LAW OF COOLING :
value can be employed to determine the average When the temperature of a body is greater than
temperature of the sun. that of the surroundings, the body radiates more heat
If 'a' is the radius of sun, (treating it as a perfect than what it gains from the surroundings. The body
black body) then the rate of heat emission will be P experiecnes a net loss of heat and cools down.
Newton found that both the rate of heat loss and
dQ rate of cooling depends upon the surface area of the
=
dt
 
 4a 2 Ts4 where T s is the absolute
body, nature of the surface and excess temperature
of the body over the surroundings. He then gave “
temperature of the sun. Now, the heat radiated by
law of cooling “ as below. This law holds good for
the sun, spreads radially outwards from the centre of
small temperature differences about 30°C only.
the sun to the outer space.
Statement : “The rate of loss of heat energy of a
hot body is directly proportional to the
temperatue difference between the body and its
surroundings provided the temperature
difference is small and the nature of the radiating
surface remains the same
Explanation: Let , 0 be the temperatures of the
body and the surroundings respectively. If ‘dQ’ is
the amount of heat lost by the body in a time ‘dt’
If ‘b’ be the mean distance between the sun seconds, then according to Newton’s law of cooling.
and the earth, then the entire heat radiated by the sun dQ dQ
per second is intercepted normally by the surface area     0  where
dt dt
of the sphere of radius ‘b’ and concentric with sun represents rate of loss of heat by the hot body
(i.e., 4b2 )
dQ
Therefore, the rate of heat transferred through or - = C (q - q 0 ) --------(1)
unit area at a mean distance ‘b’ from the sun, is the dt
solar constant S and is given by The negative sign indicates the loss of heat with
time.
(4 p a 2 )s Ts4 æ ö2
S=
P
= = çç a ÷
÷ s Ts4 Where ‘C’ is the proportionality constant. Its
4p b 2 2
(4 p b ) ç
è b ÷
ø value depends on the nature, shape and area of the
cooling surface.
1/ 4
 b  2  S   10.40 (A) Application of Newton's law of cooling :
or Ts   a      If m,s are mass and specific heats of the body
  respectively then
1 Heat lost during cooling dQ  ms d
éæ1.5´ 108 ö2 1400 ùú
4
êç ÷
÷´ where d is the fall in temperature in the time dt
= êçç 5 ÷ - 8ú
êëè 7´ 10 ø÷ 5.67 ´ 10 úû
From equation (1)
( b = 1.5 x 108 km & a = 7 x 105km ) msdq dq - C
- = C (q - q0 ) \ = (q - q0 )
 Ts = 6000 K dt dt ms
This result is in good agreement with the dq
\ = - K (q - q 0 )
experimental value of temperature of sun. dt

Assuming the body cools uniformly from 4

T 4 - T04 = (T0 + D T ) - T04
q10C to q20C in time t, then the temperature of the æ D T ö÷
4
é DTù 4
body is taken as their average.i.e., ç 4
= T çç1 + ÷ - T 4
T 4ê
1+ 4. ú- T0
=
T0 ø÷
0
è
0
÷ 0 ê T0 úû
q+q ë
q = qav = 1 2 and average rate of fall of
2 DT
d q q1 - q2 ( D T is small, higher powers of T may be
temperature is taken as = 0
dt t neglected)
The Newton's law of cooling then becomes
= 4T03D T = 4T03 (T - T0 ) Thus,
q1 - q2 æq + q2 ö
= K çç 1 - q0 ÷÷ P1 = 4 es AT03 (T - T0 )
t è 2 ø÷
= b1 A (T -T0) where b1 = 4es T03 = cons tan t
C
Where K = is called cooling constant . The body may also lose thermal energy due
ms
K depends on nature of surface involved, surface to convection in the surrounding air. This rate of
area and the surrounding conditions. loss of heat due to convection can be written as
Unit of K is sec–1 and Dimensional formula of P2 = b2 A (T - T0 ). where b2 is convection
K is T–1. coefficient
Note–10.16 : Greater the temperature difference The net rate of loss of thermal energy due to
between body and its surroundings greater will both convection and radiation is
be the rate of cooling. P = P1 + P2 = (b1 + b2 ) A (T - T0 ).
Note–10.17: Newton's Law of cooling is applicable If s be the specific heat capacity of the body
when. and m its mass, the rate of fall of temperature is
i) Loss of heat is negligible by conduction, and - dT P b + b2
only when it is due to convection and radiation = = 1 A (T - T0 ).
dt ms ms
ii) Loss of heat occurs in a streamlied flow of air
ie forced convection dT
(or) = - K (T - T0 )
iii) Temperature of the body is uniformly distributed dt
over it As the difference in temperature is the same for
iv) Temperature difference is moderate i.e., upto absoulute and Celsius scale, the above equation may
30K. However in forced convection, the law also be written as
is valid for large difference of temperature also. dq
= - K (q - q 0 )
Note–10.18 : Newton's law of cooling is dt
applicable when heat is lost both due to radiation Where q refers to temperature in Celsius scale.
and convetion.
Proof : Suppose, a body of surface area A at an **10.41 Cooling Curves
absolute temperature T is kept in surroundings 1) Curve between log (q - q0 )and time
having a lower temperature T0. The net rate of loss dq dq
of thermal energy from the body due to radiation As dt µ - (q - q0 )Þ (q - q ) = - Kdt
0
is P1 = es A (T 4 - T04 ) .
If the temperature difference is small, we can Integrating loge (q - q0 ) = – Kt + c log (q- q )
e 0
write T = T 0 + D T or,, O t

When t = 0, if the temperature of the body is q1 then both water and given liquid are equal and they
are allowed to cool down by radiation then rate
log e (q1 - q0 )= - K (0)+ C = C of loss of heat for both will also be same.
\ log e (q - q0 )= - Kt + log (q1 - q0 ) Suppose mc, mw , mL and sc, sw, sL are the
(or) loge (q - q0 ) = – Kt+ loge A. masses and specific heats of the calorimeter, the
water and the liquid respectively. tL, tw are the
Where A = q1 - q0 = initial temperature
times taken by the liquid and water taken in the
difference between body & surroundings
calorimeter to cool from same initial temperature
This is a straight line with negative slope.
q1 to same final temperature q2 when placed in
2) Curve between temperature of body and same surroundings then
time
ædQ ö÷ æ ö
çç = çç dQ ÷
As loge (q - q0 ) = – Kt+ loge A çè d t ø÷w ater çè d t ø÷
÷ ÷
liquid
q- q0
Þ log e = - Kt
A q (q - q ) (q - q )
Þ q- q0 = Ae- Kt (m wsw + m csc ) 1 2 = (m L sL + m c sc ) 1 2
tw tL
q0
Which indicates temperature O
Time t (m wsw + m csc ) (m L sL + m c sc )
descreases exponentially with (or) =
tw tL
increasing time
tL (m LsL + m c sc )
3) Curve between the rate of cooling(R) and (or) t = m s + m s
w ( ww c c)
body temperature (q)
Problem 10.28
R
A copper ball cools from 620 C to 500C in 10
minutes and to 42 0 C in the next 10minutes.
Kq0 q Calculate its temperature at the end of another
10 minutes.
R = K (q- q0 )= Kq- Kq0 Solution : The ball cools from
1  62 0 C to  2  50 0 C in t1 = 10 minutes
This is a staight line intercepting
i) Average temperatue during the interval
R axis at (– Kq0 )
1  2
  560 C
4) Curve between rate of cooling (R) and 2
temperatrue difference between body ( q ) Average rate of cooling
and surroundings ( q0 ) d 1  2 62  50
   1.20 C min 1
R
dt t1 10
d
 (   0 )
R µ (q- q0 ). dt
o (q- q0 ) 0 = temperature of the surroundungs
This is a straight line passing through origin. 1.2  (56  0 )  (1)
** Application : ii) The ball cools from
Determination of Specific Heat of a Liquid 2  50 0 C, 3  420 C , t2 = 10 minutes
If volume, radiating surface area, nature of
 2  3
surface, initial temperature and surroundings of 1   460 C
2

d1 2  3 50  42 d
   0.80 C min 1 Rate of heat radiation  ms
dt t2 10 dt
d 3
d1 = Thermal capacity x  4600   345J / sec.
 (1  0 ) Þ 0.8 µ (46 - q0 ) ® (2) dt 40
dt
Dividing (1) by (2) we get, Problem 10.30
A body cools from 800C to 600C in 2 minutes.
1.2 56   0
 0 In how much time it cools from 600 to 400C? The
0.8 46   0 Þ q0 = 26 C
temperature of the surroundings is 100C
The ball cools from Solution : I case: Mean temperature of the body
3  42 0 C to  4 in t3 = 10 minutes 80  60
  70 0 C
2
3   4 42   4
''   Mean excess temperature = 70 - 10 = 600C
2 10
d 20
 K(   0 ) Þ  K(60)  (1)
d'' 3   4 42  4 dt 2
 
dt t3 10 II case: Mean temperature of the body
60  40
æ ö  50 0 C
Now 42 - q4 µ çç 42 + q4 - 26÷÷÷® (3) 2
10 ç
è 2 ø
Mean excess temperature = (50 - 10) = 400C
Dividing eq.(3) by (2) we have Let ‘t’ minutes be the time to cool down from
æ42 - q4 ö÷ æ42 + q4 ö÷ 600C to 400C
çç ÷ çç - 26÷
çç 10 ÷ ÷ èç 2 ø÷
çç ÷=
÷ 20
çç 0.8 ÷÷ 46 - 26 Then  K(40)  (2)
÷ t
çè ø÷
÷
Dividing equation (1) by (2)
42  4 42  4  52 t 6 0
  =
8 2  20 ie, t = 3 minutes
2 4 0
5(42  4 )  4  10
Problem 10.31
64  220 Þ q4 = 36.70 C A liquid takes 5 minutes to cool from 800C
Problem 10.29 to 500C. How much time will it take to cool from
The rate of cooling of water in a calorimeter 60 0 C to 30 0 C? The temperature of the
is one-tenth of a degree per second when its surroundings is 200C.
t em p er at u r e i s 40 0 C above that of the Solution : According t o Newto ns law of
sorroundings. What is the rate of cooling and heat C
per second when the excess temperature over the cooling K =
ms
surroundings is 300C ? Thermal capacity of water æq1 - q2 ö÷ éæq + q2 ö ù
and calorimater is 4600 J/0C. çç ÷= K êçç 1 ÷
÷- q0 ú
èç t ø÷ êèç 2 ø÷
ë
ú
û
d Substituting the values, we get
Solution : Rate of cooling,  excess temperature
dt  80  50  
 80  50 
over the surroundings.    K    20   (1)
 5    2  
In the first case 1  40
10  60  30   60  30  
d and    K    20   (2)
In the second case  30  t   2  
dt
Solving equations (1) and (2), we get t = 9
d 1 30 Þ dq = 3 = 3 0C / sec
dividing /  minutes
dt 10 40 dt 4´ 10 40

Short Answer Questions 13. a) Which is the fastest mode of transfer of heat ?
b) In which methods of heat transfer, gravity
1. Explain thermal conductivity and coefficient
does not play any part ?
of thermal conductivity.
14. Ventilators are provided in rooms just below
2. Explain Kirchhoff's law of radiation and give
the roof. Why ?
one application of the law.
15. Does a body radiate heat at 0 K ? Does it radiate
3. Does thermometers measure the temperature
heat at 00C ?
of empty space ? Explain.
4. Why is it more comfortable to hold a cup of Assess your self
hot tea by handle rather than by wrapping our 1. Why copper is used at the bottom of cooking
hands around the cup ? utensils and why they are provided with
5. Explain why good absorbers of heat are good wooden handles ?
emitters ? Ans : Copper is a good conductor of heat. So, copper
6. Explain why relatively less hot iron rod is used at the bottom of cooking utensils. Wood
appears red than the rod at high temperature ? has low value of thermal conductivity K = 0.13
SI unit hence a bad conductor of heat to provide
7. Explain Stefan's law of radiation.
it as handles.
8. Would loss of heat be reduced or increased by
2. Rub one of your palms on a metal surface
increasing the air gap between the double
for some time , say for 30 - 40s. Place the
paned windows than the usual necessary gap.
other palm on an unrubbed portion of the
Explain (consider convection).
surface and then the rubbed portion of the
Very Short Answer Questions metal surface. The rubbed portion will feel
1. State the different modes of transmission of heat. warmer. Now repeat the same on a wooden
Which of the these modes require medium ? surface. You notice that the difference in
2. Define coefficient of thermal conductivity and temperature between the rubbed and un -
temperature gradient. rubbed portion of the wooden surface is
3. What is thermal resistance of a conductor ? larger than that of the metal surface. Why ?
On what factors does it depend ? Ans : Metals are good conductors of heat. Heat
4. State the units and dimensions of coefficient generated due to rubbing of palm spreads
of convection. rapidly from rubbed regions to other regions of
5. Define emissive power and emissivity. the metal surface. Wood on the other hand is a
6. State Prevost's theory of heat emissivity. bad conductor. The heat generated at the rubbed
7. Define absorptive power of a body. What is region can not move rapidly to other areas of
the absorptive power of a perfect black body. the wooden surface. Hence rubbed and
8. State Newton's law of cooling. unrubbed regions exhibit a distinct temperature
difference.
9. State the conditions under which Newton's law
3. Which type of convection is involved in
of cooling is applicable.
cooling the air in air coolers ?
10. The roof of building are often painted white Ans : Forced convection.
during summer. Why ? 4. Guess some properties of thermal radiation.
11. Why do two layers of cloth of equal thickness Ans : (i) Radiation travels in straight lines (ii) Can
provide warmer covering than a single layer propagate through vaccum with speed of light
of cloth of double the thickness ? C = 3x 108 ms–1 . (iii) Follows laws of reflection,
12. A body with large reflectivity is a poor emitter. refraction and total internal reflection and
Explain. exhibits interference , diffraction and

polarisation. (iv) Follows inverse square law of * The molecules which absorb heat energy, vibrate
intensity ( intensity varies as the inverse square violently and transfer some of its energy to its
of the distance). (v) Rises the temperature of neighbours. The molecules at the colder parts
the body on which it falls. will receive energy from the hotter parts of the
5. When we sit in front of a fire with closed eyes material.
we can feel significant warmth in our eyelids. * In case of metals, heat energy can also be
When a pair of glasses were put on our eyelids transported by the free electrons. As electrons
we do not feel that warmth. Why? are more effective in transmitting energy from
Ans : Fire radiates EM waves with large fraction of the hotter to colder part, thermal conduction in
radiation falling in the infrared part of the metals is much more than that in insulators.
spectrum. Glass absorbs such infrared radiation.
* Steady State : In the process of heat conduction
Hence when we put on the cooling glasses,
through a conductor from hot end to cold end,
much of the radiation is blocked from reaching
if no heat is absorbed by it along the conductor
our eyelids and we feel cooler.
then it is called steady state of the conductor.
6. Is a black body black ? The temperatures at different points of the
Ans : No . 'Blackness' refers to ideal property of conductor remain same.
absorbing all the radiation incident on the body.
(The temperature of each section is constant but
If the body absorbs all the radiation it is not equal)
described as the black body. A black body could
Under steady state of the conductor,
appear possibly as red, white or any colour
Q
depending on its temperature. * Rate of flow of heat = = constant
t
7. If it is true that all bodies radiate energy, why * Temperature gradient along the conductor =
we are not able to see all the objects in a dark
1   2
room ? = constant (where  1   2 )
l
Ans : At room temperature, energy radiated is
* Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity : K
primarily in t he infrared region of
The quantity of Heat conducted through a metal
electromagnetic radiation. But our eyes are only
rod in steady state is
sensitive to visible light. Our eye can not detect
Infrared radiation. Hence we can not see the * directly proportional to Area of cross section
objects in a dark room. (A) of the rod.
* directly proportional to temperature difference
SYNOPSIS (1-2) between hot and cold ends
* Heat is Transmitted by three methods namely, * directly proportional to time of flow of heat
Conduction, Convection and Radiation. (t) inversely proportional to length (l) of the
CONDUCTION rod.
* It is the phenomenon of Heat transfer without
A (1   2 ) t
the actual displacement of the particles of the Q 
l
medium. The particles of the medium execute
vibratory motion. K A(1   2 ) t
Q
Ex. : Heat Transfer in a metal rod (solid) l
Note : Free electrons are largely responsible for K is coefficient of Thermal Conductivity of
the transport of thermal energy in a metal the material of the conductor. It is property of
* There are two possible ways in which the meterial of the conductor. It is independent
conduction can take place. of dimensions of the conductor.

* K depends on nature of the mateiral. * Thermal resistance of a conductor of length

* Rate of flow of heat i.e. heat current  , corss - section (A) and conductivity (k) is given

Q KA  1  2  by the formula R =
 KA
t  * SI unit of R is KW–1
* K is defined as the Rate of flow of Heat per unit * Dimensional formula M–1L–2T3  .
area of crosssection per unit Temperature 1
gradient in steady state. * Thermal conductance= Thermal resistance
* Units of K Thermal Diffusivity (or) Thermometric
CGS --- Cal s-1 Cm-1°C-1 SI --- Wm-1 K-1 conductivity D :
DF of K : - MLT-3  -1
It is the ratio of coefficient of Thermal
Values of K : conductivity (K) to Thermal Capacity per unit
* For a perfect conductor K =  volume (ms/v) of a material.
K K m
* For a perfect Insulator K = 0 D   (   density)
 ms  s v
* If K value is more, it is a good conductor of  
v
 
heat Combination of Metallic Rods :
* If K value is less, it is a bad conductor of heat. * Series Combination : Let n slabs each of cross-
* Conduction of heat can take place in liquids and sectional area A, lengths  1,  2,  3 ... and
gases also. conductivities K1, K2, K3....Kn respectively be
* Generally Solids are better conductors than connected in the series
Liquids, Liquids are better conductors than 1 2 3 n1 n
Gases.
* Metals are much better conductors than Non-
K1 K2 Kn
Metals, because Metals contain Free electrons. 1 2 n
* Decreasing order of conductivity of Ag, Cu, Al * Heat current is the same in all the conductors
and Fe is K Ag  Kcu  K A  KFe . Q
i.e.,  H1  H2  H3 .....  Hn
t
* Mercury being a liquid metal is a good
conductor. K1A  1  2  K 2 A  2  3  KnA  n1  n 
 
1 2 n
* Conduction of heat takes place between the
objects till they attain the state of thermal * Equivalent thermal resistance is
equilibrium. R = R1+R2+...Rn
* K of good conductor is determined by * Equivalent thermal conductivity is calculated
as follows RS = R1 +R2 + R3 +....
Searl’s method.
* K of Insulator is determined by Lee’s Disc 1   2  ...   n  1  2 
   ...  n
method. KS K1 K 2 Kn
Thermal Resistance :
 1   2  .... n
* The thermal resistance of a body is a measure  Ks 
1  2 
of its opposition to the flow of heat through it   ...  n
K1 K 2 Kn
* It is defined as the ratio of temperature
difference to the heat current (Rate of heat flow). * If n slabs of equal length are in series then
 1  2  n

1

1
 ... 
1
* R=
 Q / t . KS K1 K2 Kn

K1 + k 2 + ....K n
2K1K 2 For n slabs of equal area K =
* For two slabs of equal length, Ks = n
K1  K2 .
K1 + K 2
Junction Temperature : If two metal slabs of equal For two slabs of equal area K =
2
areas of crosssection, having lengths l 1, l 2 ,
coefficients of thermal conductivities k1,k2 and Growth of thickness of Ice layer on Ponds :
free end Temperatures 1, 2 are kept in contact * When atmospheric temperature falls below 0°C,
with each other, then under steady state , water in a lake starts freezing.
1  2 * The time taken to form an ice layer of thickness
K1 K2 x on the pond is given by the formula
1 2 1 L 2
t x  t  x2
The heat current is same in the two conductors 2 K
K1A  1    K2 A    2  where  is density of Ice
 .
1 2 L is latent Heat of Fusion of Ice
K11l2  K 2 2l1 K is conductivity of Ice

Junction temperature =    is Atmospheric temperature.
K 1l2  K 2l1
K11  K 2 2 * To increase the thickness of ice layer from
If l1 = l2 = l then   x1 to x2 , time taken is
K1  K 2
Parallel combination : L 2
Let n slabs each of length  and areas A1, A2, t
2k

x2  x12 
A3, ..............An and thermal conductivities K1,
* Cooking utensils are made of metals which are
K2, K3...............Kn are connected in parallel then
good conductors of heat.
1  2
* In winter, a metal chair is colder to touch than a
K1
wooden chair at the same temperature. The
K2 reason is metal is a good conductor and wood
is a bad conductor of heat.
* In summer, a metal chair is hotter to touch than
Kn
a wooden chair at the same temperature.
* Equivalent thermal resistance * A block of metal and a block of wood can be
1 1 1 1 1 felt equally cold or hot when touched, if they
    ........ are at the temperature of the human body.
Rp R1 R2 R3 Rn
* Hot rice cooked in a vessel can be touched while
R1R2
* for two slabs Rp  the vessel cannot be touched because rice is a
R1  R2 bad conductor of heat.
* Temperature grandient is same across each slab. * Two layers of cloth of same thickness provide
* Heat current in each slab will be different warmer covering than a single layer of cloth of
* Net heat current H  H1  H2  H3  ............Hn double the thickness. The reason is air which is
trappped in between the blankets is a poor
K  A 1  A 2  ......  A n  K1A1 K2A2 KA
   ..............  n n conductor of heat.
   
* Davy’s safety lamp used in mines works on the
K A  K2 A 2  ....  KnAn
K 1 1 principle of heat conduction.
A1  A 2  ....  A n

CONVECTION * Natural convection cannot take place in a gravity

* It is the phenomenon of Heat transfer by the free region.
actual displacement of the particles of the Ex : Orbiting satellite, freely falling lift
medium in a fluid. (or) Heat transfer as a result * Natural convection is the principle in working
of fluid currents is called convection. of ventilator, working of a chimney, changes in
* Convection can occur only in fluids (Liquids climatic conditions, formation of Land & Sea
and gases) but not in solids. breezes, Trade winds, ocean currents etc.,
* Transfer of heat due to the movement of fluid
* Convection is quicker process than conduction.
particles resulting from differences in density is
For convection molecules must be relatively free
called natural convection.
Ex1: A fluid heated in a container. * Most of the heat transfer that takes place on the
earth is by convection.
Ex2: Convection currents that brings cool
breezes from sea to the shore during the day is * During convection, the rate at which body looses
an example of natural convection. heat to the surrounding air is proportional to the
* Transfer of heat by the forced movement of the excess temperature of the body over the
fluid particles by mechanical means, such as a surroundings. This is true up to 300C in still air
fan or pump, is known as forced convection. and is true for large excess temperature under
Ex1: Temperature of human body is kept forced convection
constant by pumping blood with heart pump. * Rate of fall of temperature is proportional to the
Here the transfer of heat is by forced convection. surface area to volume ratio. i.e. it is inversely
Ex2:Heating rooms by pumping hot air by fans. (or) proportional to the linear dimensions. i.e small
cooling them by pumping cool air by body cools faster than larger one.
mechanical methods.
* The rate of heat convection from an object is RADIATION
such that
* Radiation is the phenomenon of transfer of heat
 dQ  without necessity of a material medium. It is by virtue
 dt   h A(  ) of electromagnetic waves.
  convection
Energy radiated from a body is called Radiant
Here
energy.
A = Contact area
Rate of emission of radiant energy depends on
 = Temperature difference between
i) Nature of surface of the body
the object and conductive fluid.
ii) Surface area of the body
h = constant called convection coefficient. It
depends on the properties of the fluid such as iii) Temperatures of the body and the surroundings
density, viscosity, specific heat and thermal * Properties of Thermal Radiation:
conductivity. (i) It is the invisible eletromagnetic radiation
* In case of natural convection, convection emitted from a hot body.
currents move warm fluid upwards and cool fluid (ii) It lies in I.R. region of wavelength range from
downwards. Hence, heating is done from base 4 x 10–4m to 7.5 x 10–7m
to top while cooling is from top to base.
(iii) It travels in vacuum with velocity of light (3x108
* Natural convection takes heat from the bottom
ms –1 ). It can also travel through a medium
to the top while forced convection may take heat
without affecting it.
in any direction.
* Natural convection is a consequence of gravity (iv) It exhibits the Phenomena of Reflection,
and always takes place vertically carrying the Refraction, Interference, Diffraction and
heat upwards Polarisation like light.

(v) It obeys Inverse square law iv) Radiation from black body depend upon the
temperature and independent of the nature or
1 shape of the walls of the enclosure and emissions
i.e., I 
d2 are greater for every wave length at a higher
where I = Intensity of radiation d= temperature
distance from source. * Emissive power (E) :
(vi) It can be detected byThermocouple, i) It is the amount of energy radiated by unit
Thermopile,Bolometer,Pyrometer, Radio- surface area per second at a given temperature
micrometer, Differential air thermoscope etc., in a given wavelength range.
(vii) Its spectrum can be formed by prisms of Rock- Q
salt, KCl etc., E = At S.I. Unit : watt m–2
(viii)Rough and black surfaces are good absorbers ii) It depends on nature of surface and temperature.
while shining and smooth surfaces are good
iii) It is maximum for a perfect blackbody. It is
reflectors of heat radiation.
minimum for a smooth, shining white surface.
Ex : Transmission of heat from Sun to Earth.
iv) Spectral emissive power is different for different
* Prevost’s theory of Heat Exchange : values of  and different values of T
i) Every body emits and absorbs heat radiations * Absorptive power (a) :
at all temperatures except at absolute zero
i) For a given wavelength and temparature, it is
(–273ºC)
the ratio of radiant energy absorbed by unit
ii) Heat radiated from the body depends on its surface area per second to that incident on it in
temperature and is independent of its the same time.
surroundings.
a = Qa/Qi no unit
iii) If a body emits more heat energy than what it
absorbs from the surroundings, then its ii) For a perfect blackbody, a =1 (Qi = Qa)
temparature falls. iii) Absorptive power depends upon
iv) If a body absorbs more heat energy from the nature of the surface and temperature of the
surroundings than what it emits then its body.
temparature rises. * Emissivity or relative emittance (e) :
v) If a body emits & absorbs heat in equal amounts,
Emissive power of a body E E
then it is said to be in Thermal equilibrium. e= = = l
Emissive power of a perfect blackbody Eb El b
vi) When the temperatures of body and
surroundings are equalised, conduction and For a perfect blackbody e = 1
convection stop but the radiation exchange For anybody 0 < e < 1
continues to take place. * For a surface if a = Absorptive power,
* Perfect blackbody: r = Reflecting power, and t = Transmitting power
i) It is a body which absorbs all the heat radiations then a+r+t =1
incident on it. for a black body r =0 , t = 0, a=1
ii) On heating, it emits radiations of all possible * Kirchoff’s law :
wavelengths at a given temparature. For a given temparature and wavelength range,
iii) The wavelengths of the emitted heat radiations the ratio of emissive power to absorptive power of
depend only on the temparature but are all bodies is always a constant. This constant is equal
independent of the material of the blackbody. to emissive power of a perfect blackbody at the same
Ex : Lamp black (96%), platinum black (98%) temparature and same wavelength range.
El
Fery’s and Wien’s black bodies are aritifical = El b = cons tan t \ El a al
al
black bodies. ‘Sun is a natural blackbody’.

i) Good emitters are good absorbers and vice As the temperature of the body increases, the
versa. wavelength at which the spectral intensity (E l )
is maximum shifts towards left. Therefore it is
ii) With increase of temperature El b increases.
also called wien’s displacement law.
El
 the ratio a also increases. * Stefan’s Law:
l
i) The amount of heat radiated per second from unit
iii) According to kirchoff’s law
surface area of a black body (E) is proportional
El El b E a
= => l = l to Fourth Power of its absolute temperature (T).
al Al b E l b Al b
This is also called fourth power law
El Q Q
but Al b = 1 and E  T4   T4    T4
El b = emissivity of the body At At
emissivity = Absorptive power of the body.. Q
=  ATT4 (watt)
Applications : t
i) A white china cup with a black spot is heated to where ‘  ’ is Stefan’s constant
high temperature and kept in a dark room. The  = 5.67 x 10–8 w/m2/K4
spot appears brighter than the remaininig part, ii) If the body is not a black body, then
because black is good absorber and hence good
Q
emitter. = e ATT4 (‘e’ lies between 0 & 1)
t
ii) A Red glass when heated to high temperature
e = Emissivity of the body.
kept in a dark room, appears Cyan and vice versa
 Q = e At  T4
iii) A Yellow glass when heated to high temperature
and kept in a dark room appears Blue and vice * Stefan - Boltzmann Law :
versa i) If a blackbody at absolute temperature ‘TB’ is
The above pairs of colours are called in an enclosure at absolute temparature ‘Ts’ then
complementary colours. the loss of thermal energy by the body per unit
iv) Dark lines in solar spectrum are called time is
Fraunhoffer lines. Some wavelegths of white
Q
light emitted by elements from photosphere are =  A (TB4 – TS4)
absorbed by same elements in chromosphere t
On the day of solar eclipse, absorption spectrum ii) If it is not a blackbody, then
is not seen, rather emission spectrum which is Q
complimentary to earlier absorption spectrum is = e  A (TB4 – TS4) where e= emissivity
seen. t
Wien’s Displacement Law: * When the heat loss by radiation is considered
According to Wien’s law the product of dQ d
wavelength corresponding to maximum intensity of (i) = ms
dt dt
radiation and temperature of body (in Kelvin) is
constant, i.e m T=b = constant Here m = mass of of the body
s = specific heat of the material of the body
Where b is wien’s constant and has value
2.89  103 m-K. (ii) Using Stefan - Boltzman’s Law
   d 
e  A TB4 - TS4  ms 
 dt 
Therefore
d
dt
=
e  A 4 4
ms

TB - TS 
Where b is proportionality constant and it

 d 
(iii) Rate of cooling   by radiation depends upon : depends on nature, shape and area of the cooling
 dt  surface.
a) Nature of the radiating surface i.e., (greater dQ d
ii)  ms
the emissivity, faster will be the cooling). dt dt
b) Area of the radiating surface , i.e., (greater d
– b (T – T0) = ms
the area of radiating surface, faster will be dt
the cooling) d  b  T  T0
1   2   
    K  1 2  0 
c) Temperature of the radiating body, i.e., dt ms t  2 
(greater the temperature faster will be the
cooling). b
K=
d) Temperature of the surroundings i.e., ms
(greater the temperature of surroundings iii) This law is applicable
slower will be the cooling) a) If heat lost is mainly by convection
e) Mass of the body i.e., (greater the mass of b) Hot body is cooled in uniform stream line
the radiating body slower will be the cooling. flow of air or forced convection
f) Sp.heat of the body i.e., greater the specific c) Temperature of every part of body is same
heat of the radiating body slower will be the
iv) As the body cools, its rate of cooling goes on
cooling). decreasing
(iv). For a spherical body, v) Cooling curve of hot body is exponential
indicating that the temparature decreases
4 3
A = 4R 2 m= R  expanstially with him.
3
Note : To compare specific heats of two liquids
d  1 with their cooling curves, the liquid with cooling
 dt R  S curve of less slope is of more specific heat.
(v) A solid sphere and a hollow sphere of same vi) The body never cools to the temperature below
material are of equal radii. They are heated to the temperature of surroundings.
the same temperature and allowed to cool in the vii) Newtons law of cooling is a special case of
same environment. Now Stefan-Boltzman’s Law.
a) The hollow sphere cools faster 

 d  1  EXERCISE - I
 dt m 
b) The rate of loss of heat is same for both the A) Multiple choice
spheres. 1. Of the following the fastest process of heat
* Newton’s law of cooling transfer is
i) The rate of loss of heat of a hot body is directly 1) conduction 2) convection
proportional to difference in temperature 3) Radiation
between the body and its surroundings provided 4) conduction through silver rod
the difference in temperature is small and the
2. S.I. Unit of temperature gradient is
nature of radiating surface remains same
1) mK-1 2) Km-1 3) K-m 4) K-m2
dQ
  T  T0  3. Amount of heat conducted through a metal rod
dt
is directly proportional to
Where T is temperature of the hot body, T 0 is
temperature of the surroundings 1) Area of cross section
dQ 2) Temperature gradient
=> = – b (T – T0) 3) Time of flow of Heat 4) All the above
dt

4. Coefficient of thermal conductivity 11. It is hotter over top of the fire than at same
1) depends upon Nature of the material of the Body distance on the sides due to
2) is independent of Dimensions of the body 1) Conduction 2) Convection
3) both (1) and (2) 3) Radiation 4) All the above
4) depends on temperture gradient 12. Thermal radiation falls in
5. For an Ideal conductor, thermal resistance is 1) Visible region 2) Cosmic region
1) Zero 2) Infinity 3) unity 4) none 3) Ultra violet region 4) Infrared region
6. When a metal rod attains same temperature 13. If the distance between the source & absorber
through out its length, then its conductivity is is halved then Intensity of radiant
1) zero 2) Infinity 3) one 4) None energy will be
1) Doubled 2) Quadrupled
7. Under steady state of conduction, the
temperature at a cross-section of a body 3) Halved 4) increased to 16 times
1) Decreases with time 2) Increases with time 14. The process of heat transfer without affecting
3) Does not change with time and is same at all the medium is called
crossections of the body 1) Conduction 2) Convection
4) Does not change with time and is different 3) Radiation 4) All
at different crossections of the body 15. The material of prism used for obtaining
8. During severe winter in the low temperature spectrum of heat radiations is
zones of the world, the superficial parts of the 1) Flint glass 2) Crown glass
lakes are frozen, leaving water below. The
3) Rock salt 4) Quartz
freezing at the bottom is prevented because :
16. Rate of transfer of heat is maximum in the
1) The conductivity of ice is low
case of
2) The water has large specific heat
1) Conduction 2) Convection
3) The water has large latent heat of fusion
4) The temperature of the earth at the bottom of 3) Radiation 4) All the above
the lake is high. 17. A calorimeter full of hot water is hung in
vaccum. It will
9. Which of the following combination of
properties would be most desirable for a 1) Cool by conduction2) Cool by convection
cooking pot : 3) Cool by radiation 4) Not cool at all
1) High specific heat and low thermal 18. A Block of Ice
conductivity 1) Can radiate as well as absorb heat
2) Low specific heat and high thermal 2) Cannot radiate heat
conductivity
3) Is an example for a black body
3) High specific heat and high thermal
conductivity 4) Is an example for a white body
4) Low specific heat and low thermal 19. Emissive power and Absorptive power of a
conducticity body depend upon
10. While measuring the thermal conductivity of a 1) Nature of the surface
liquid we keep the upper part hot and the lower 2) Temperature of the body
part cool so that, 3) Both 1 and 2 4) None of the above
1) Convection may be stopped 20. The surface which radiates more heat at a
2) Radiation may be stopped given temperature is
3) Heat conduction is easier downwards 1) Black& Polished 2) White & Polished
4) Both convection and radiation may be stopped 3) White & Rough 4) Black & Rough

21. Radiant Energy emitted by a body depends 29. The best laboratory approximation to an ideal
upon black body is
1) Nature of the surface of the body 1) A lump of charcoal heated to high temperature
2) Surface area of the body 2) A glass surface coated with coaltar
3) Temperature of the body 3) A metal coated with a black dye
4) All the above 4) A hollow enclosure blackened inside with soot
22. In case of a perfect blackbody and having a small hole
1) Emissivity = 1 30. The bulbs of two identical thermometers
A and B are coated, one with lamp black and
2) Absorptive power = 1
the other with silver. Both are exposed to Sun.
3) Reflecting &Transmittiing powers are zero Then
4) All the above 1) Initial reading of A is more than that of B
23. The hot water pipes used to heat up the rooms 2) Final temperature of both is same
are painted 3) Final temperature of both is different
1) red 2) black 3) white 4) yellow 4) Both 1 and 2
24. A small hole in the wall of an enclosure behaves as 31. In a Thermos flask, heat losses due to
1) Good absorber & poor emitter
1) Conduction & Convection are minimised by
2) Good absorber & good emitter
creating vacuum between the two walls of
3) Poor absorber & poor emitter
the flask
4) Poor absorber & good emitter
2) Radiation is minimised by silver polishing both
25. In Fery’s blackbody inner & outer surfaces
1) Inner surface of inner wall is coated with lamp 3) Both 1&2 4) None of the above
black and outer surface of outer wall is silver 32. A cup of hot tea on a metal table in a room
polished loses heat by
2) Space between the two walls is evacuated to 1) Conduction 2) Convection
prevent heat losses due to conducion &
convection 3) Radiation 4) All the above
3) A conical projection is provided on the inner 33. According to Kirchoff’s law
wall opposite to small hole 1) Good emitters are good absorbers
4) All the above 2) Good emitters are poor absorbers
26. Blackbody Radiation is 3) Poor emitters are good absorbers
1) Black 2) White 4) All the above
3) Colourless 4) None of the above 34. Fraunhoffer lines in solar spectrum can be cited
27. The spectrum of thermal radiation from a as an example of
blackbody is 1) Stefan’s law 2) Kirchoff’s law
1) Continuous spectrum 3) Wien’s law 4) Plank’s law
2) Line Spectrum 35. A sphere, a cube and circular plate of same
3) Band Spectrum 4) All the above material and same mass are heated to same
28. A person with dark skin when compared to a temperature. Then cooling of
person with white skin will experience 1) Sphere is slowest
1) Less heat, less cold 2) Less heat, more cold 2) Circular plate is fastest
3) More heat, more cold 3) Cube is moderate
4) more heat, less cold 4) All the above

36. The thermal radiations emitted by a body is 43. Two spheres of radii r1 and r2 have densities
proportional to n where  is absolute
1 and  2 and sp.heats C1 and C2 respectively..
temperature. The value of n is
If they are heated to same temperature, the
1) 4 for a black body ratio of their rates of fall of temperature in the
2) 4 for black pointed bodies same surroundings will be
3) 4 for polished bodies r11c1 r1 2 c 2 r2 1c1 r2  2 c 2
4) 4 for all bodies 1) 2) 3) 4)
r2  2 c 2 r2 1c1 r1 2 c 2 r11c1
37. A Blackbody, a Whitebody, A Bluebody and a 44. The cooling curves 1and 2 of two liquids of same
Red coloured body are heated to same mass, Sp.heats S 1 and S 2 are cooled under
temperature and are allowed to cool in the identical conditions as shown in the graph. Then
same surroundings. Then the body that cools
early is 1) S1 = S2
1) Red 2) Blue 3) White 4) Black
2) S1 < S2
d
38. Rate of cooling depends upon
dt 3) S1 > S2
1) Nature of the surface and surface area of the body
2) Temperature of body and surroudings 4) S1  S2
3) Mass and Sp.heat of the body
45. Newton’s law of cooling is applicable when
4) All the above
 dQ  1) Temperature of every part of the body is same
39. If rate of heat loss   of two bodies of 2) Hot body is cooled in uniform streamlined
 dt 
different masses are same, then flow of air (Forced convection)
 d  3) Heat is lost only by radiation
1) their rates of fall of temperature   will be 4) Both 1 and 2
 dt 
same
46. Newton’s law of cooling is a special case of
2) rate of fall of temperature of the body having
1) Kirchoff’s Law
large Thermal capacity will be large
2) Wien’s Law
3) rate of fall of temperature of the body having
3) Plank’s Law
large Thermal capacity will be small
4) Stefan -Boltzmann’s Law
4) None of the above
47.According to Newton's law of cooling, the rate
40. If ratio of rates of heat loss of two bodies is
x : y and ratio of rates of fall of tempeature is of cooling of a body is proportional to   n ,
p : q, then ratio of their heat capacities will be where  is difference of temperature of body
xp xq yq yp and surroundings, and n is equal to
1) 2) 3) 4)
yq yp xp xq [AIEEE 2003]
41. Ratio of rate of fall of heat to rate of fall of 1) 1 2) 2 3) 3 4) 4
temperature of a body of mass m and sp.heat S is B) More than one options
1 m
1) ms 2) 3) 1 4) 48. A) Generally solids are better conductors
ms s
than liquids
42. A beaker full of hot water is kept in a room. It
cools from 80° C to 75° C in t1 minutes, 75°C to B) Liquids are better conductors than Gases
70°C in t2 minutes and 70°C to 65°C in t3 minutes C) Metals are much better conductors than
in the same surroundings. Then non-metals
1) t1 = t2 = t3 2) t1 < t2< t3 1) A, B are correct 2) B,C are correct
3) t1 > t2 > t3 4) t1< t2 = t3 3) C,A are correct 4) A,B, C are correct

49. Water is taken in a metal container and is 55. A. Natural convection can take place in gravity
heated at its bottom. The arrangement is placed free region
in a freely falling elevator. Now the liquid is B) Forced convection is the principle in
heated up by __________ maintaining constant temperature of our body.
a) Conduction b) Convection c) radiation 1) A is correct, B is wrong
1) a,b,c 2) a, b only 2) Both A & B are correct
3) b,c only 4) a only 3) A is wrong, B is correct
50. For a good cooking vessel, the necessary 4) Both A & B are wrong
characterstics are 56. In a common room heating system,
a) Large thermal conductivity Statement A : Hot water is circulated through
b) Small specific heat radiators by forced convection.
c) Small coefficient of expansion Statement B : The warmed air rises by natural
convection.
1) a,b,c 2) a,b only
3) b,c only 4) a,c only 1) A is true B is false 2) A is false B is true
51. A) Heat transfer by conduction & convection 3) A,B both are true 4) A,B both are false
require a material medium 57. A) Polished suface is a poor absorber but good
B) Heat transfer by radiation does not affect reflector
the medium through which it passes B) Rough surface is a good absorber and good
1) A is true, B is false 2) A is false, B is True reflector
3) Both A&B are false 4) Both A&B are True 1) A is wrong, B is correct
52. A) A body of low Thermal capacity gets heated 2) A is correct, B is wrong
or cooled quickly 3) Both A&B are correct
4) Both A&B are wrong
B) Good emitters are bad reflectors
1) Both A&B are true 2) Both A&B are false 58. A spherical black body is of raidus ‘r’. Its
3) A is true, B is false radiating power is ‘P’ and its rate of colling is
R. Then
4) A is false, B is true
a) P  r b) P  r 2 c) R  1 / r
53. Two identical conductors made of metals of
1) a only true 2) both b and c are true
coefficients of thermal conductivities K 1, K2 3) a and c are true 4) b only true
such that (K1 < K2) are given 59. A solid sphere of copper and a hollow sphere
Statement A : Under series connection the of same metal, same radius are with identical
effective coefficient of thermal conductivity surfaces. They are heated to the same
(KS) is such that K1 < KS < K2 temperature and allowed to cool in the same
environment.
Statement B : Under parallel connection the
Statement (A) : The rate of loss of heat is same
effective coefficient of thermal conductivity
for both the spheres.
K1  K 2 Statement (B) : The rate of fall of temperature
(KP) is such that KP=
2 is more the hollow sphere.
1) A is true B is false 2) A is false B is true 1) A is true B is false 2) A is false B is true
3) A,B both are true 4) A,B both are false 3) A,B both are true 4) A,B both are false
54. A) A hot hollow sphere in vacuum cools by 60. Satement (A) : Water can be boiled in a thin
convection paper box without even charring the paper
B) A hot solid sphere in vacuum cools by Statement (B) : In winter , woolen clothes keeps
radiation us warmer compared to cotten clothes.
1) A is false, B is true 2) A is true, B is false 1) A is true B is false 2) A is false B is true
3) Both A&B are true 4) Both A&B are false 3) A,B both are true 4) A,B both are false

C) ASSERTION & REASON : 68. (A) : It is hotter at the same distance over the
These Questions consist of two statements each top of a fire than it is on the sides.
printed as Assertion and Reason. While (R) : Heat is transmitted equally in all directions by
answering these questions you are required to radiation but convection takes heat upwards only
choose any one of the following four responses. 69. (A) : Water can be boiled inside satellite by
1) If both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the convection.
correct explanation of (A) (R) : Convection is the process in which heat is
transmitted from a place of higher temperature
2) If both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is not the
by means of particles with their migrations
correct explanation of (A)
from one place to another.
3) If (A) is true but (R) is false
70. (A) : During solar eclipse, the solar spectrum
4) If (A) is false but (R) is true is an emission spectrum
61. (A) : Stainless steel cooking pans are prefered (R) : During solar eclipse, the radiation from
with extra copper bottom. the elements in chromosphere are only received
on earth.
(R) : Thermal conductivity of copper is more
than that of steel 71. (A) : Black body radiation is white.
(R) : Emissivity of blackbody is zero
62. (A) : Two bodies at different temperatures, if
72. (A) : A body with large reflectivity is a poor
brought in thermal contact do not necessiarily
emitter.
settle to the mean temperature.
(R) : Poor absorbers of heat are poor emitters.
(R) : The two bodies may have different
73. (A) : Winter nights are warmer when clouds
thermal capacities. cover the sky
63. (A) : When temperature difference across the (R) : Clouds allow radiations of shorter
two sides of a wall is increased, in steady state, wavelength through them but reflect radiations
its temperature gradient increases. of longer wavelength.
(R) : Thermal conductivity linearly depends on 74. (A) : All black coloured objects are considered
temperature difference between the ends. black bodies.
64. (A) : Snow is a better insulator than ice (R) : Black colour is a good absorber of heat.
75. (A) : ‘Green houses’ which are used to keep
(R) : Snow contains air pockets and air is a
the plants in warm atmosphere in winter are
bad conductor of heat
built with glass.
65. (A) : Two layers of cloth of same thickness (R) : Glass has the property of tranmitting
provide warmer covering than a single layer shorter wavelength heat radiations through it
of cloth of double the thickness. while reflecting longer ones.
(R) : Air layer trapped between two cloth layers 76. (A) : Radiation is the speedest mode of heat
acts as good insulator of heat. transfer
66. (A) : A man would feel iron or wooden balls (R) : Radiation can be transmitted in vaccum
equally hot at 98.40F. even in curved path.
77. (A) : The radiation from the sun’s surface
(R) : At 98.40F both iron and wood have same
varies as the fourth power of its absolute
thermal conductivity.
temperature.
67. (A) : Greater is the coefficient of thermal
(R) : According to Stefan’s Law E   T4
conductivity of a material, smaller is the
thermal resistance of a rod of that material. 78. (A) : Animals curl into a ball, when they feel
very cold.
(R) : Thermal resistance is the ratio of (R) : Animals by curling their body reduces the
temperature difference between the ends of the surface area and hence reduce the rate of loss
conductor and rate of flow of heat. of radiation.

D) MATCHING
ANSWERS
79. Matching block type 1) 3 2) 2 3) 4 4) 3 5) 1
List - I List - II
6) 2 7) 4 8) 1 9) 2 10) 1
a) Absorptive power e) Watt/m2
11) 2 12) 4 13) 2 14) 3 15) 3
b) Emissive power f) no unit
16) 3 17) 3 18) 1 19) 3 20) 4
c) Stefan’s constant g) watt/m2/k4
d) Wein’s constant h) mk 21) 4 22) 4 23) 2 24) 2 25) 4
1) a - f b-e c-g d-h 26) 2 27) 1 28) 3 29) 4 30) 4
2) a - f b-e c-h d-g 31) 3 32) 4 33) 1 34) 2 35) 2
3) a - e b-f c-h d-g 36) 4 37) 4 38) 4 39) 3 40) 2
4) a - g b-f c-e d-g
41) 1 42) 2 43) 4 44) 3 45) 4
80. Matching block type
List - I List - II 46) 4 47) 1 48) 4 49) 4 50) 1
a) Fraunhoffer e) Prevost’s theory 51) 4 52) 1 53) 3 54) 1 55) 3
lines of heat exchange.
56) 3 57) 2 58) 2 59) 3 60) 3
b) Intensity of ther- f) Kirchoff’s law.
61) 1 62) 1 63) 3 64) 1 65) 1
mal radiation
c) Rate of cooling g) Inverse square law 66) 3 67) 2 68) 1 69) 4 70) 1
d) Zero point energy h) Newton’s law of 71) 3 72) 1 73) 1 74) 4 75) 1
cooling
76) 3 77) 1 78) 1 79) 1 80) 4
1) a - f b-e c-h d-g
2) a - f b-g c-e d-h 81) 2 82) 3 83) 1
3) a - g b-f c-h d-e
4) a - f b-g c-h d-e EXERCISE - II(A)
E) ASCENDING (OR) DESCENDING (CLASS WORK)
81.In Newton’s law of cooling, if the rates of CONDUCTION
emission of radiation by a calorimeter from 1. In steady state condition, the temperatures at
750C to 700C, 700C to 650C and from 650C to the two ends of a metal rod of length 25 cm are
600C are E1, E2 and E3 respectively then 100°C and 0°C. Then temperature at a point
1) E1 = E2 = E3 2) E1 > E2 > E3 8cm from the hot end is
3) E1 < E2 < E3 4) E1 < E2 > E3 1) 68°C 2) 40°C 3) 32°C 4) 60°C
82.The thermal conductivites of copper, mercury *2.A copper bar 2m long has a circular cross section
and glass are respectively KC, KM and KG such of radius 1 cm. One end is kept at 1000C and the
that KC > KM > KG. If the same quantity of other at 00C. It is assumed that negligible heat
heat flows per second per unit area of each and is lost through the surface. (a) The thermal
the corresponding temperature gradients are resistance of the bar is (b) The temperature
XC, XM and XG then gradient is (c) The temperature at 25 cm from
1) XC = XM = XG 2) XC > XM > XG the hot end will be (K = 400 SI units)
3) XC < XM < XG 4) XM > XC > XG 1) 159 K/w, 50 K/m, 8.750C
83.In which one of the following cases does the 2) 15.9 K/w, 50 K/m, 87.50C
thermal conductivity increase from left to right ?
3) 1.59 K/w, 500 K/m, 8.750C
1) Al ,Cu, Ag 2) Ag, Cu, Al
3) Al, Ag, Cu 4) Cu, Ag, Al 4) 159 K/w, 5 K/m, 8.7500C

3. Four rods of same material but with different 10. A 3cm cube of iron has one face at 1000C and
radii and lengths are used to connect two the other in a block of ice at 0 0C. If k of
reservoirs of heat with the same temperature iron = 0.2 CGS units and L for ice is 80 cal/
difference. Which one will conduct more heat gm, then the amount of ice that melts in 10
[DPMT 81, NCERT 81] minutes is (assume steady state heat transfer)
1) 450 gm 2) 900 gm
1) r  1cm, l  1m 2) r  1cm, l  2m
3) 350 gm 4) 500 gm
1 1 1 11. Two rectangular rods of Thermal resistances
3) r  1cm, l  m 4) r  cm, l  m
2 2 2 5 Kw -1 and 10 Kw -1 are joined in Parallel
4. A rod of length 1 m having cross-sectional area combination. Their equivalent Thermal
0.75 m2 conducts heat at 6000 Js–1 . Then the Resistance will be
temperature difference acorss the rod is, if
1) 15 Kw-1 2) 3.33 Kw-1
K = 200 Wm–1 K–1 [CPMT 2001]
3) 7.5 Kw-1 4) 6.67 Kw-1
1) 200 C 2) 400 C 3) 800 C 4) 1000 C
12. Two vessels made of different materials are
5. Three metal rods of same lengths and same
area of cross-section having conductivities 1, identical in all respects. The same quantity of
2, 3 units are connected in series. Then their Ice filled in them gets melted in 27 min. and 45
effective conductivity will be min. when placed in same surroundings. If
1) 2 units 2) 1.6 units thermal conductivity of material of 1st vessel
3) 2.4 units 4) 2.8 units is 180 wm-1k-1, then Thermal conductivity of
6. Two rods of same length having conductivities material of second vessel will be
60 Wm-1k-1, 40 Wm-1K-1 and areas 0.2 m2, 0.3m2 1) 108 Wm-1K-1 2) 90 Wm-1K-1
are connected in Parallel to each other. The
3) 300 Wm-1K-1 4) 1 20 Wm-1K-1
effective conductivity of the combination is
1) 50 Wm-1K-1 2) 45 Wm-1K-1 13. Equal temperature difference exists between
the ends of two metallic rods 1 and 2 of equal
3) 52 Wm-1K-1 4) 48 Wm-1K-1
length. Their thermal conductivities are
7. The ratio of radii of two cylindrical rods of
K1 and K 2 and cross sectional areas are
same material is 2 :1 and ratio of their lengths
is 2 : 3. Their ends are maintained at same resepctively A1 and A 2 . The condition for
temperature difference. If rate of flow of heat equal rate of heat transfer will be [PMT 91]
in the longer rod is 2 Cal s-1, then that in the
1) K1A 2  K 2 A1 2) K1A 22  K 2 A12
shorter rod will be
1) 4 Cal s-1 2) 12 Cal s-13) 8 Cal s-14) 1 Cal s-1 3) K1A1  K 2 A 2 4) K1A12  K 2 A 22
8. The ratio of thermal conductivities of two rods
of different material is 5 : 4. The two rods have *14. Two bars of thermal conductivities K and 3K
same area of cross – section and same thermal and lengths 1cm and 2 cm respectively have
resistance. They will have the lengths in the ratio equal cross - sectional area, they are joined
1) 4 : 5 2) 9 : 1 3) 1 : 9 4) 5 : 4 length wise. If the temperature at the ends of
9. One end of a cylindrical rod is kept in steam this composite bar is 0 0 C and 100 0 C
chamber and the other end in melting Ice. Now respectively, then the temperature f of the
0.5 gm of ice melts in 1 sec. If the rod is replaced interface is
by another rod of same length, half the 100 0
diameter and double the conductivity of the first 1) 500 C 2) C
rod, then rate of melting of ice will be 3
1) 0.25 gm/sec 2) 0.5 gm/sec 200 0
3) 600C 4) C
3) 1 gm/sec 4) 2 gm/sec 3

15. Two slabs A and B of equal surface area are 22. The rate of emission of radiation of a black
placed one over the other such that their body at temperature 27 o C is E 1 . If its
temperature is increased to 327oC the rate of
surfaces are completely in contact. The
emission of radiation is E 2 . The relation
thickness of slab A is twice that of B. The between E1 and E2 is [2002 M]
coefficient of thermal conductivity of slab A is 1) E2 = 24 E1 2) E2 = 16 E1
twice that of B. The first surface of slab A is
3) E2 = 8 E1 4) E2 = 4 E1
maintained at 1000 C, while the second surface
of slab B is maintained at 25 0 C. The 23. The radiation emitted by a star "A" per second
is 10,000 times that of the sun. If the surface
temperature at the contact of their surfaces is
temperatures of the sun and the star A are
1) 62.50 C 2) 450 C (2008 E) 6000K and 2000K respectively, the ratio of the
3) 550 C 4) 850 C radii of the star A and the sun is [2003 E]
16. Two rods A and B of same length and radius 1) 300:1 2) 600:1 3) 900:1 4) 1200:1
are joined together. The thermal conductivity 24. The rectangular surface of area 8cm x 4cm
of A and B are 2K and K. Under steady state of a black body at a temperature of 127 0 C
conditions, if temperature difference between emits energy at rate of E per second. If the
the open ends of A and B is 36 0 C, the
length and breadth are reduced to half of its
temperature difference across 'A' is [1993 E]
initial value and the temperature is raised to
1) 120 C 2) 180 C 3) 240 C 4) 90 C
3270C, the rate of emission of energy will be
17. A pond has an ice layer of thickness 3 cm. If K
[MP PMT 2000]
of ice is 0.005 CGS units, surface temperature
of surroundings is –200C, density of ice is 0.9  3E   9E   81E   81E 
gm/cc, the time taken for the thickness to 1)   2)   3)   4)  
increase by 1 cm is  8   16   16   64 
1) 30 min. 2) 35 min. 25. Two objects A and B have same shape and area.
The Emissivity of A is 0.2 and that of B is 0.8.
3) 42 min. 4) 60 min.
Each radiates same power. The ratio of their
RADIATION: absolute temperatures is [2005 M]
18. The ratio of intensities of radiation at distances
of R and 3R from a spherical source will be 1) 2:1 2) 1:4 3) 1: 2 4) 2 :1
1) 1:3 2) 9:1 3) 1:9 4) 3:1 26. Two identical bodies have temperatures 277°C
19. If reflecting and transmitting powers of a body and 67°C. If the surrounding temerature is
are 0.2 and 0.3 units, then its Absorptive power 27°C, the ratio of loss of heat of two bodies
will be during the same interval of time is (approx).
1) 0.1 2) 0.5 3) 0.25 4) 1 (2005 E)
20. If the temperature of a Black body increases 1) 4 : 1 2) 8 : 1 3) 12 : 1 4) 16 : 1
by 50% then amount of radiation emitted by 27. A body having a surface area of 5.0 cm2 ,
it in a given time interval will [2001 M] radiates 300 J of energy per minute at a
1) Increase by 800% 2) Increase by 400% temperature of 7270 C. The emissivity of the
3) Increase by 200% 4) Increase by 1600% body is (Stefan’s constant = 5.67 x 10–8 W/m2/K4)
*21. An incandescent light bulb has a tungsten 1) 0.09 2) 0.18 3) 0.36 4) 0.54
filament that is heated to a temperature 3 x 28. A Black metal foil receives radiation of power
103 K when an electric current passes through P from a hot sphere at absolute temperature
it. If the surface area of the filament is T, kept at a distance d. If the temperature is
approximately 10–4 m2 and it has an emissivity doubled and distance is halved, then Power will
of 0.32, the power radiated by the bulb is be
1) 150 W 2) 175 W 3) 200 W 4) 225 W 1) 64P 2) 16P 3) 4P 4) 8P

29. If wavelengths of maximum intensity of *36.A body at 50 0 C cools in a surroundings

radiations emitted by the sun and the moon maintained at 300C. The temperature at which
are 0.5 x 10–6 m and 10–4 m respectively, the the rate of cooling is half that of the begining is
ratio of their temperatures is [MP PMT 1990] 1) 16.30C 2) 26.30C
1) 1/100 2) 1/200 3) 100 4) 200 3) 400C 4) 46.30C
30. The wavelength of maximum energy released ANSWERS
during an atomic explosion was 2.93 x 10 –10
1) 1 2)2 3) 3 4) 2 5) 2
m. Given that Wein's constant is 2.93 x 10–3 m
– K, the maximum temperature attained must 6) 4 7) 2 8) 4 9) 1 10) 1
be of the order of [Haryana CEE 1996; MH 11) 2 12) 1 13) 3 14) 3 15) 1
CET 2002; Pb. PET 2000] 16) 1 17) 3 18) 2 19) 2 20) 2
21)1 22) 2 23) 3 24) 4 25) 4
1) 107 K 2) 107 K
26) 4 27) 2 28) 1 29) 4 30) 2
3) 1013 K 4) 5.86  107 K 31) 2 32) 4 33) 4 34) 2 35) 3
*31. If the maximum intensity of radiation for a 36) 3
black body is found at 2.65mm , the
EXERCISE - II(B)
temperature of the radiating body is (Wien’s
constant = 2.9 x 10–3 mK) (HOME WORK)
1) 927 K 2) 1094 K 3) 2027 K 4) 2173K CONDUCTION :
32. The wavelength of maximum emitted energy 1. In a steady state of thermal conduction,
of a body at 700 K is 4.08 m . If the tempera- temperature of the ends A and B of 20cm long
ture of the body is raised to 1400 K, the wave- rod are 100 0 C and 0 0 C respectively. The
length of maximum emitted energy will be temperature of the rod at a point at a distance
[MP PET 1990] of 6 cm from the end A of the rod is
1) 1.02m 2) 16.32m 1) – 300 C 2) 700 C 3) 50 C 4) 400 C
*2. Two metal cubes with 3 cm edge of copper and
3) 8.16 m 4) 2.04 m aluminium are arranged in series.Find the (a)
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING : thermal resistance of each cube and the total
33. A hot body is placed in cooler surroundings. thermal resistance of the system, (b) the
When the body temperature is 75°C, the rate temperature T at the surface of contact. The
of cooling is 4°C/ min. When it is 55°C, the rate temperatures of outer surfaces of copper and
of cooling is 2°C/ min. The temperature of the aluminium are 1000C and 200C respectively.
surroundings is (K of copper = 400 W/mK& K of aluminium =
240W/mK)
1) 20°C 2) 25°C 3) 30°C 4) 35°C
- 2 - 1
34. A body takes 8 minutes to cool from 90°C to 1) 8.3´ 10 K / w, RAI = 1.4´ 10 K / w,
80°C in a surrounding of temperature 25°C.
Rtotal = 0.223, 700 C
The time taken by it to cool from 80°C to
2) 8.3´ 10- 1 K / w, RAI = 1.4´ 10- 2 K / w,
70°C in the same surroundings is
1) 10 min2) 9.6 min 3) 12 min 4) 16 min Rtotal = 0.223, 70.230 C
35. A body cools from 700 C to 500 C in 5 minutes. 3) 8.3 K / w, R AI = 1.4 K / w,
Temperature of surroundings is 200 C. Its Rtotal = 0.223, 70.230 C

4) 8.3 ´ 10- 2 K / w, RAI = 1.4 ´ 10- 1 K / w,
temperature after next 10 minutes is (2008 M)
1) 250 C 2) 350 C 3) 300 C 4) 450 C Rtotal = 0.113, 7.0230 C

3. Two ends of rods of length L and radius r of 10.A rectangular block of copper (K=0.9) of
the same material are kept at the same thickness 5cm and area of cross section 10cm2
temperature. Which of the following rods has one of its faces maintained at a constant
conducts most heat in a given time interval temperature of 1000C while the opposite face
1) L = 50 cm, r= 1cm 2) L = 100 cm, r = 2cm is in contact with ice at 00C. If there is no loss
3) L = 25 cm , r = 0.5 cm of heat, the amount of ice that melts in
4) L = 75 cm, r = 1.5 cm 10 minutes is [1987 E]
4. The quantity of heat flowing for 10 seconds 1) 1.25kg2) 1.30kg 3) 1.35kg 4)1.40 kg
through a rod of length 40 cm, area 50 cm2 is 11. Two rectangular rods of thermal resistances
200 J. If the temperature difference at the ends 5 kw –1 and 10 kw –1 are joined in series
of the rod is 80°C, then coefficient of thermal combination. Their equivalent thermal
conductivity of the rod in Wm-1K-1 is resistance will be
1) 120 2) 80 3) 20 4) 60 1) 15 kw–1 2) 3.33kw–1
5. Two metal rods of same length and same cross 4) 7.5 kw–1 4) 6.67 kw–1
sectional area are connected in Series. If their 12. Two vessels of different materials are similar
conductivities are 120 Wm-1 K -1 and 240 in size in every respect. The same quantity of
Wm-1 K-1 , then effective conductivity of the ice filled in them gets melted in 20 minutes and
combination is 35 minutes respectively. The ratio of the
1) 150 Wm-1K-1 2) 180 Wm-1K-1 thermal conductivities of their materials is
3) 200 Wm-1K-1 4) 160 Wm-1K-1 [AFMC 98]
6. Three metal rods of same length and same 1) 5 : 6 2) 6 : 5 3) 3 : 1 4) 7 : 4
cross sectional area are connected in Parallel. 13. Two different metal rods of equal lengths and
If their conductivities are 70 Wm-1K-1, 110 Wm- equal areas of cross – section have their ends
1 K -1 and 180 Wm-1 K -1 respectively then
kept at the same temperatures 1and 2 . If k1
effective conductivity of the combination is andk 2 are their thermal conductivities,
1) 140 Wm-1K-1 2) 130 Wm-1K-1 1 and 2 their densities and s1 and s2 their
3) 120 Wm-1K-1 4) 90 Wm-1K-1 specific heats, then the rate of flow of heat in
7. The heat is flowing through two cylindrical rods the two rods will be the same if
of same material. The diameters of the rods
are in the ratio 1 : 2 and their lengths are in 1k s
1 1 1k s
1 2
1) k   s 2) k   s
the ratio 2 : 1. If the temperature difference 2 2 2 2 2 1
between their ends is the same, the ratio of rates
of flow of heat through them will be
k1 1
3) k   4) k1  k 2
1) 1 : 1 2) 2 : 1 3) 1 : 4 4) 1 : 8 2 2
8. Two rods of same length have areas in the ratio 14. Metal rods X and Y of identical cross - sectional
2:1 and thermal conductivities in the ratio 3 : 4. area, have lengths 60 cm and 30 cm
respectively. They are made of metals of
The ratio of their thermal resistances will be
thermal conductivities  X and  Y . They are
1) 3 :2 2) 8 : 3 3) 2 : 3 4) 3 : 8 well - lagged and joined end - to - end . One
9. A cylindrical rod with one end in steam and end of X is maintained at 1000C and the opposite
other end in ice results in melting of 0.1 g of end of Y is maintained at 0 0C. When steady
ice per second. If the rod is replaced by another conditions have been reached, the temperature
with half the length, double the radius of first of the junction is found to be 250C. What is the
and if the conductivity of material of second X
1 value of  ?
is of first, the rate at which ice melts is Y
4
(in g/s) [1989 E] 1 2 25 3
1) 2) 3) 4)
1) 3.2 2) 1.6 3) 0.2 4) 0.1 6 3 24 2

*15. The coefficient of thermal conductivity of 22. At 27°C if the energy radiated by a body in a
copper rod is four times that of an identical given interval of time is 162 cal. Then at 127°
steel rod. In the composite cylindrical bar, what C the energy radiated by it in the same time
will be the temperature at the junction of wil be
copper and steel when temperatures at the free 1) 324 cal2) 648 cal 3) 512 cal 4) 256 cal
ends are 1000C and 00 C
23. Two spheres of same material have radii 1m
1) 800 C 2) 670 C and 4 m and temperatures 4000 K and 2000 K
3) 330 C 4) 250 C respectively. The ratio of the energy radiated
16. A wall has two layers A and B of equal areas. per second by the first sphere to that by the
Their thicknesses are 10 cm and 20cm. second is [AIEEE 2002]
Conductivity of A is twice that of B. Under 1) 1 : 1 2) 16 :1 3) 4 : 1 4) 1 : 9
thermal equilibrium, if the temperature 24. The radii of two spheres of same material are
difference across the wall is 45°C, then 1m and 4m, their temperatures are 4000K and
temperature difference across the layer A is 2000K respectively. The ratio of amounts of
1) 36°C 2) 27°C 3) 18°C 4) 9°C heat emitted by them in a given time interval
17. With cold wind keeping the surface at will be
–10 0 C, a layer of ice on a pond grows in 1) 1:4 2) 1:2 3) 1:1 4) 2:1
thickness from 20 mm to 21 mm in 10 min.
Later on with the surface at the same 25. A black body radiates energy at the rate of E
temperature, it will grow from 40 mm to 42 watt m–2 at a high temperature TK, when the
mm in approximately (in min.) T
temperature is reduced to   K, the radiant
1) 10 2) 5 3) 20 4) 40 2
energy [2007 E]
RADIATION : E E E
18. Intensity of radiation received by an absorber 1) 2) 2E 3) 4)
2 4 16
is 100 units when the distance between source 26. Two bodies A and B at temperatures 327°C and
& absorber is ‘d’ units. If the distance is doubled 277°C are kept in vacuum chamber at 27°C.
then intensity received will be Then ratio of their rates of loss of heat in a
1) 200 units 2) 400 units given time interval is nearly
3) 25 units 4) 100 units 1) 2:1 2) 1:2 3) 1:4 4) 4:1
19. If 25% of energy incident on a body is reflected 27. The power of a black body at temperature
and 55% of energy is absorbed, the energy 200K is 544 watt. Its surface area is
transmitted is
1) 80% 2) 20% 3) 40% 4) 30%   5.67 x10 8
wm2 K 4  [2007 MEDICAL]
20. If the absolute temperature of a black body is 1) 6 X 10 2 m 2 2) 6m 2
doubled then Energy radiated by it in a given
time interval will be increased by 3) 6 x106 m2 4) 6 x102 m 2
1) 1600% 2) 1500% 28. A Black metal foil receives radiation of
3) 800% 4) 400% power P from a hot sphere at absolute tem-
*21. The surface of the sun has temperature of perature T, kept at a distance d. If the tem-
about 6000 K and the radius of the sun is perature is doubled and distance is doubled,
7 x 108 m. The total energy radiated by the sun then Power will be
in each second is nearly (Assume that the 1) 64P 2) 16P 3) 4P 4) 8P
emissivity of the sun is 1) 29. Two stars emit maximum radiation at wave-
26
1) 1.77 ´ 10 J / s 26
2) 2.77 ´ 10 J / s length 3600A0 and 4800 A0 respectively. The
ratio of their temperatures is [MP PMT 1991]
3) 3.77´ 10 26 J / s 4) 4.52´ 1026 J / s
1) 1 : 2 2) 3 : 4 3) 4 : 3 4) 2 : 1

30. A particular star (asuming it as a black body) ANSWERS

ANSWERS
as an surface temperature of about 5  104 K . 1) 2 2) 1 3) 2 4) 3 5) 4
The wavelength in nanometers at which its 6) 3 7) 4 8) 3 9) 3 10) 3
radiation becomes maximum is 11) 1 12) 4 13) 4 14) 2 15) 1
(b = 0.0029 mK) [EAMCET (Med.) 2003]
16) 4 17) 4 18) 3 19) 2 20) 2
1) 48 2) 58 3) 60 4) 70
*31.A black body emits radiations of maximumm 21) 4 22) 3 23) 1 24) 3 25) 4
0
intensity at a wavelength of 5000A, when the 26) 1 27) 2 28) 3 29) 3 30) 2
temperature of the body is 1227 0 C. If the 31)2 32) 3 33) 3 34) 1 35) 3
temperature of the body is increased by 36) 4
1000 0 C, the maximum intensity of emitted
radiation would be observed at EXERCISE - III(A)
0 0
1) 2754.8 A 2) 3000 A (CLASS WORK)
0 0
3) 3500 A 4) 4000 A CONDUCTION :
1. The ends of a metal rod of length 40 cm are
32. A black body at 200 K is found to emit
maintained at temperatures 100 0 C and 200 C
maximum energy at a wavelength of 14 m . respectively. At steady state condition, the
When its temperature is raised to 1000K, the temperature at a point at a distance 30 cm
wavelength at which maximum energy emitted from the hot end of the rod is
is [RPMT 1998; MP PET 1991; BVP 2003]
1) 400 C 2) 300 C 3) 200 C 4) 100 C
1) 14 m 2) 70 m
2. Three rods of same length and area of cross-
3) 2.8 m 4) 2.8 mm section but of thermal conductivities K, 2K and
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING : 3K are connected in series in the same order.
Free end of the first rod is at 00C and free end
33. The rates of cooling of a body at temperatures
of third rod is at 55 0 C. In steady state,
100°C and 80°C are x1 and x2 respectively,
temperature difference across the middle rod is
when placed in a room of temperature 40°C
x1 1) 150 C 2) 300 C 3) 100 C 4) 250 C
then x is
2 3. Two bars of equal length and the same cross -
1) 4/5 2) 5/4 3) 3/2 4) 2/3 sectional area but of different thermal
34. A body in a laboratory takes 4 minutes to cool conductivities, K 1 and K 2, are joined end to
from 61°C to 59°C. If the laboratory end as shown in Fig. One end of the composite
temperature is 30° C, then time taken by it to bar is maintained at temperature Th whereas
cool from 51°C to 49°C is the opposite end is held at Tc.
1) 6 min 2) 8 min If there are no heat losses from the sides of
3) 5.6 min 4) 10 min4 the bars, the temperature Tj of the junction in
steady state is given by [ AIEEE 2007]
35. A body cools from 62°C to 50°C in 10 minutes. Tn Ti Tc
If the temperature of surroundings is 26° C,
then temperature of the body after another k1 k2
10 minutes is
1) 46°C 2) 44°C 3) 42°C 4) 40°C
*36. A metal ball kept in a cooling room, cools  
from 720C to 600C in 10 minutes; and to 520C k 2  Th  Tc  k2
1) 2)  Th  Tc 
in next 10 minutes. The temperature of the k1 2 k1  k 2
cooling room is k1  k 2  Th  Tc   k 1 Th  k 2 Tc 
1) 320C 2) 300C 3) 380C 4) 360C 3) 4) k1  k 2
2 2

4. A glass window conducts out a certain system is in steady state. The effective thermal
quantity of heat per second when the inside conductivity of the system is
temperature is 10 0 C and the outside K 2K1
temperature is - 100C. The same quantity of 1) K1 + K2 2) K  K
1 2
heat will be conducted through the window per
second when the inside temperature is 43 0C 8K1  K 2 K1  8 2
3) 4)
and the outside temperature is 9 9
1) 430C 2) – 230C 3) 230C 4) 00C 10. Three rods of same dimensions have thermal
5. A cubical vessel of side 10 cm is filled with Ice conductivities 3 K, 2K and K. They are
at 0°C and is immersed in water bath at 100°C. arranged as shown in the figure below
If thickness of walls of vessel is 0.2 cm and 500C
conductivity is 0.02 CGS units, then time in
which all the Ice melts is (Density of 2K
Ice = 0.9 gm/cc) 100 C 0 3K T
1) 6 sec 2) 9 sec 3) 12 sec 4) 15 sec K
6. Two slabs A & B having lengths l 1 and l2 , 00C
respectively, and same cross - section have Then the temperature of the junction in
thermal conductivities K1 and K2 respecitvely. steady state is (2009 E & M)
They are placed in contact and a constant
temperature difference is maintained across 100 0 200 0 50 0 C
1) C 2) C 3) 75 0 C 4)
the combination. The ratio of the quantities of 3 3 3
heat flowing through A and B in a given time is 11. Ice starts forming on a lake with water at 0°C,
when the atmospheric temperature is
K1 K 2 K1 K 2 – 6°C. If the time taken for 1 cm of Ice to be
1) l : l 2) l : l
1 2 2 1 formed is 5 hours, then time taken for thickness
of ice to change from 1 cm to 2 cm is
3) K1l1 : K2 l2 4) 1 : 1
7. One end of a metal rod of length 0.3 m area 1) 20 Hr. 2) 10 Hr. 3) 15 Hr. 4) 25 Hr.
60 cm2 is in boiling water and the other end is RADIATION :
in melting ice. If 0.12 Kg of Ice melts per 12. Two bulbs have filaments of lengths,
minute, then coefficient of thermal Emissivities and diameters in the ratio of 2:1.
conductivity of the material of the rod is If ratio of their powers is 1:2 then, ratio of
1) 168 Wm-1K-1 2) 420 Wm-1K-1 their temperatures is
3) 336 Wm-1K-1 4) 240 Wm-1K-1 1) 1 : 1 2)1 : 2 3) 2 : 1 4) 1 : 4
8. Two identical rods of a metal are welded in
13. A star behaves like a perfect Black body
series then 20 cal of heat flows through them
emitting radiant energy. The ratio of radiant
in 4 minute. If the rods are welded in parallel
energy emitted per sec by this star to that
then the same amount of heat will flow in
emitted by another star having 8 times the
1) 1 minute 2) 2 minute radius of the former but having Kelvin
3) 4 minute 4) 16 minute temperature one fourth of the former is
9. A cylinder of radius R made of material of 1) 1: 4 2) 1: 8 3) 4 : 1 4) 1: 16
thermal conductivity K 1 is surrounded by a 14. A solid sphere is at a temprature T K. The
cylindrical shell of inner radius R and outer sphere is cut into two halves. The fraction of
radius 3R made of material of thermal energy emitted per second by the half sphere
conductivity K 2 . The two ends of the
to that by complete sphere is
combined system are maintained at two
different temperatures. There is no loss of 1 1 3 1
heat across the cylindrical surface and the 1) 2) 3) 4)
2 4 4 16

15. A sphere and a cube both made of copper have 21. The plots of intensity versus wavelength for
equal volumes and are blackened. These are three black bodies at temperatures T1, T2 and
heated to same temperature and are allowed T3 respectively are as shown. Their tempera-
to cool under same surroundings. The ratio ture are such that [IIT - JEE (Screening) 2000]
of their rates of loss of heat is
1) 1 : 1 2) (/6)1/3 1) T1  T2  T3
T3
3) (6/ )1/3 4) (/6)1/2 2) T1  T3  T2 I
T2
T1
16. A metal ball of surface area 200 cm2 and tem- 3) T2  T3  T1
perature 5270 C is surrounded by a vessel at

270C. If the emissivity of the metal is 0.4, then 4) T3  T2  T1
the rate of loss of heat from the ball is 22. The absolute temperature of a body A is four
 
  5.67  108 J/ m2  s  k 4 [MP PMT/PET- 1988] times that of another body B. For the two bod-
ies, the difference in wavelengths, at which
1) 108 joules approx 2) 168 joules approx
energy radiated is maximum is 3.0 m . Then
3) 182 joules approx 4) 192 joules approx the wavelength at which the body B radiates
17. Energy is being emitted fromthe surface of a maximum energy, in micrometers is [ 2004 M]
black body at 1270 C temperature at the rate 1) 2 2) 2.5
of 1.0 x 10 6 J/sec - m2 . Temperature of the 3) 4.00 4) 4.5
black body at which the rate of energy emis-
23. The wavelength of maximum intensity of ra-
sion is 16.0 x 106 J/sec - m2 will be
diation emitted by a star is 289.8 nm. The ra-
1) 2540 C 2)508 0 C 3)527 0 C 4) 7270 C diation intensity for the star is [2001 E]
18. An electric bulb has a filament of surface area
20 cm2. The filament is raised to a tempera- 1) 5.67x108 Wm2 2) 5.67  1012 Wm2
ture of 1727 0 C, when a current passes
3) 10.67  107 Wm2 4) 10.67  1014 Wm2
through it. If Stefan’s constant is 5.7x10–8 W/
m2k4 and the emissivity of the filament is 0.5, NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING :
the electric power being consumed to main- 24. Two metallic spheres S1 and S2 made of same
tain this temperature is material have identical surface finish. The mass
1) 456 W 2) 45.6 W 3) 912 W 4) 91.2 W of S1 is 3 times that of S2. Both are heated to
19. A spherical black body with a radius of 12 cm same temperature and are placed in same
radiates 450 W power at 500 K. If the radius surroundings. Then ratio of their initial rates
were halved and the temperature doulbed, the of fall of temperature will be
power radiated by it in watt would be 1
[IIT 1997 Re - exam] 1 1  1 3 3
1) 2) 3)   4)
1) 225 2) 450 3) 900 4) 1800 3 3 3 1
20. Three discs A, B adn C having radii 2m, 4m
25. A black body of mass 34.38 gm and surface
and 6 m respectively are coated with carbon area 19.2 cm2 is at an initial temperature of
black on their other surfaces. The wavelengths 400K. It is allowed to cool inside an evacuated
corresponding to maximum intensity are 300 enclosure kept at constant temperature 300K.
nm, 400 nm and 500 nm, respectively. The The rate of cooling is 0.040C per second. The
power radiated by them are Q a , Qb and Qc specific heat of the body in J kg –1 K –1 is
respectively [IIT - JEE (Screening) 2004] approximately [2004 E]
1) Qa is maximum 2) Qb is maximum 1) 2800 2) 2100
3) Qc is maximum 4) Qa = Qb = Qc 3) 1400 4) 1200

ANSWERS 5. Two spherical containers of different

materials, one with double the radius and one
1) 1 2) 1 3) 4 4) 3 5) 3
- fourth wall thickness of the other are filld
6) 4 7) 3 8) 1 9) 4 10) 2 with ice. If the time taken for complete melting
11) 3 12) 2 13) 3 14) 3 15) 2 of ice in the larger container is 25 minutes and
16) 3 17) 3 18) 3 19) 4 20) 2 for the smaller one is 16 minutes, the ratio of
21) 2 22) 3 23) 1 24) 3 25) 3 thermal concuctivies of the materials of larger
container to that of the smaller one is
EXERCISE - III(B)
1) 4 : 5 2) 5 : 4 3) 25 : 8 4) 8 : 25
(HOME WORK)
6. Two cylindrical rods of the same material have
CONDUCTION :
the same temperature difference between their
1. The ends of a copper rod of length 100 cm are
ends. The ratio of the rates of flow of heat
maintained at temperatures 100 0 C and 00 C
respectively. At steady state condition, the through them is 1 : 8. The radii of the rods
temperature at a point at a distance 35cm are in the ratio 1 : 2. What is the ratio of their
from the cold end is lengths ?
1) 350 C 2) 650 C 3) 700 C 4) 550 C 1) 2 : 1 2) 4 : 1 3) 1 : 8 4) 1 : 32
2. Two metal rods are joined end to end. Their 7. 2
A slab of stone of area 0.34 m and thickness
lengths are in the ratio 1:2 and cross-sectional 10 cm is exposed on the lower face to steam at
areas are in the ratio 2:3. The free ends are 1000C. A block of ice at 00C rests on the upper
maintained at 1000C and 00C respectively. At face of the slab. In one hour, 3.6 kg of ice is
the steady state, if the temperature difference
melted. Assume that the heat loss from the sides
across the first rod is equal to that across the
second rod, the ratio of coefficients of thermal is negligible. The latent heat of fusion of ice is
conductivity of two rods is 3.4 x 10 4 J kg –1 . What is the thermal
10
1) 1:3 2) 3:1 3) 2:3 4) 3:4 conductivity of the stone in units of Js–1 m C–1
3. Temperature of the two outer surfaces of a 1) 0.1 2) 1.5 3) 2.0 4) 2.5
composite slab, consisting of two materials 8. Two rods of same length and material transfer
having coefficients of thermal conductivity K a given amount of heat in 12s, when they are
and 2 K, thickness X and 4X respectively are joined end to end. But they are joined length
T2 and T1 ( T2 > T1). The rate of heat transfer wise they will transfer same heat in same
through the slab, in a steady state is condition in [BHU 98]
  T2  T1  KA  1) 24s 2) 3s 3) 48 s 4) 1.5 s
  f , with f equal of [AIEEE 2004]
 X  9. Two rods A and B of different materials are
welded together as shown in figure. If their
T2 K 2K T1 thermal conductivities are k1 and k2, the thermal
conductivity of the composite rod will be
x 4x
A k1
1) 1 2) 1/2 3) 2/3 4) 1/3 1
2
B k2
4. A glass window conducts out a certain
d
quantity of heat per second when the inside
temperature is 10 0 C and the outside
3
temperature is - 100C. The same quantity of 1) 2  k1  k 2  2) k  k 
2 1 2
heat will be conducted through the window per
second when the inside temperature is 30 0C
and the outside temperature is 1
3)  k1  k 2  4) k  k 
2 1 2
1) 430C 2) – 230C 3) 230C 4) 100C

10. Rods of copper, brass and steel are welded are heated to same temperature and are
together to from a Y-shaped figure as shown. allowed to cool under same surroundings. The
The cross-sectional area of each rod is 4 cm2. ratio of their rates of loss of heat is
The free end of the copper rod is mainatained 1) 1 : 1 2) /6 3) 6/ 4) /3
at 1000C and the free ends of the brass and
16. A black body at a temperature of 227 0 C
the steel rods at 00C. The lengths of the copper,
radiates heat energy at the rate of 5 cal/cm2 -
brass and steel rods are 46 cm, 13 cm and 12
sec. At a temperature of 727 0C, the rate of
cm., respectively. The temperature of the
heat radiated per unit area in cal/cm2 will be
junction point P in steady state in (Kcu = 0.92,
[MP PET 1987; MH CET 2002]
Kbrass = 0.26, Ksteel = 0.12 in cal/s/cm/0C)
1) 80 2) 160 3) 250 4) 500
17. The temperature of a piece of iron is 27 0 C
and it is radiating energy atthe rate of
QkWm-2. If its temperature is raised to 1510C,
the rate of radiation of energy will become
approximately
1) 2QkWm–2 2) 4QkWm–2
3) 6QkWm–2 4) 8QkWm–2
18. A thin square steel plate with each side equal
1) 200C 2) 300C 3) 400C 4) 600C to 10 cm is heated by a blacksmith. The rate
11. Water in a lake is changing into ice at 00C when of radiated energy by the heated plate is 1134
the atmospheric temperature is -10 0C. If the W. The temperature of the hot steel plate is
time taken for 1 cm thick ice layer to be formed (Stefans constant  = 5.67 x 10–8 watt m-2
is 7 hours, the time required for the thickness k–4, emissivity of the plate = 1) [MP PMT 1995]
of ice to increase from 1 cm to 2 cm is 1) 1000 K2) 1189K 3) 2000K 4) 2373K
1) 7 hour 2) 14 hours 19. Two spheres P and Q, of same colour having
3) < 7 hour 4) > 14 hour radii 8 cm and 2 cm are maintained at
RADIATION : temperatures 1270 C and 5270C respectively.
The ratio of energy radiated by P and Q is
12. Two Electric bulbs have filaments of lengths l
and 2l, diameters 2d and d. The emissivities 1) 0.054 2) 0.0034 3) 1 4) 2
of the bulbs are 3e, 4e with temperatures in 20. When the temperature of a black body
the ratio 2 : 3. Their radiant powers will be in increases, it is observed that the wavelength
the ratio corresponding to maximum energy changes
1) 4 : 27 2) 8 : 9 3) 1 : 8 4) 2 : 9 from 0.26 m to 0.13 m . The ratio of the
13. If the temperature of sun were to increase emissive powers of the body at the respective
from T to 2T and its radius from R to 2 R, temperatures is [2002 E]
then ratio of radiant energy received on earth 1) 16/1 2) 4/1 3) 1/4 4) 1/16
to what it was previously will be [AIEEE 2004]
21. On investigation of light from three different
1) 4 2) 16 3) 32 4) 64
stars A, B and C it was found that in the
14. A solid sphere is at a temperature T.K. The spectrum of A, the intensity of red colour is
sphere is cut into two halves. The ratios of maximum, in B the intensity of blue colour is
Intensities emitter by the half sphere to that maximum and in C the intensity of yellow
by complete sphere is colour is maximum. If T A, T B, T C are their
1) 1 : 2 2) 1 : 4 3) 3 : 4 4) 1 : 1 temperatures then
15. A sphere and a cube both made of copper have 1) TA = TB = TC 2) TA > TB > TC
same surface areas and are blackened. These 3) TB < TC < TA 4) TB > TC > TA

22. A black body is at a temperature of 2880 K. Comprehension questions

The energy of radiation emitted by this object
with wavelength between 499 nmand 500 nm Comprehension - I (1-3) :
is U1, between 999 nm and 1000 nm is U2 and
A metal block of heat capacity 80 J/0C placed
between 1499 nm and 1500 nm is U 3 . The
in a room at 200C is heated electrically. The heater
Wein's constant b = 2.88 x 106 nmK. Then
is swiched off when temperature reaches to 300C.
1) U1 = 0 2) U3 = 0 [IIT 1998] The temperature of block rises at the rate of 20C/s
3) U1 > U2 4) U2 > U1 just after heater is switched on and falls at the rate
23. The energy spectrum of a black body exhibits of 0.20C/s when switched off. Assume newtons law
a maximum around a wavelength  0 . The of cooling holds.
temperature of the black body is now changed Choose the correct answer :
such that the energy is maximum around a 1. The power of the heater is
30
wavelength . The power radiated by the 1) 120 W 2) 140 W
4
black body will now increase by a factor of 3) 160 W 4) 200 W
(KCET 2002] 2. The power radiated by block just after heater
is switched off is
1) 256 / 81 2) 64/27 3) 16/9 4) 4/3
1) 12 W 2) 14 W 3) 16 W 4) 20 W
NEWTONS LAW OF COOLING : 3. The power radiated by block when its tem-
24. Two metallic spheres S1 and S2 made of same perature is 250 C is
material have identical surface finish. The mass 1) 16 W 2) 8 W 3) 24 W 4) 4 W
of S1 is 2 times that of S2. Both are heated to
same temperature and are placed in same Comprehension - II (4-6) :
surroundings. Then ratio of their initial rates During radiation, having non conducting me-
of fall of temperature will be dium between two surfaces may reduce transfer
1 of heat.
1 1  1 3 2
1) 2) 3)   4) Choose the correct answer :
2 2  2 1 4. Two thin blankets are better than one thick
25. Two solid spheres A and B made of the same blanket in controlling effect of cold air since
material have radii r A and r B respectively.
1) Perforation in thick blanket will be bigger
Both the spheres are cooled from the same
2) Perforation in thin blanket will be smaller
temperature under the conditions valid for
Newton's law of cooling. The ratio of rate of 3) Air between thin blankets stops heat transfer
change temperatures of A and B is : 4) Thin blanket absorb more energy
[2006 ENGG] 5. Two spheres of emissive power 0.6 and 0.8
and radii 2 cm and 4 cm are heated to 270 C
rA rB rA2 rB2 and 1270C and placed in room of temperature
1) 2) 3) 2 4) 2 0 K. The ratio of heat radiated per second is
rB rA rB rA
1) 0.059 2) 0.044
ANSWERS
3) 0.079 4) 0.831
1) 2 2) 4 3) 4 4) 4 5) 4 6. Temperature at which person can feel metal
rod and wooden block to be equally hot is
6) 1 7) 1 8) 2 9) 4 10) 3
1) His body temperature
11) 4 12) 1 13) 4 14) 4 15) 1 2) Twice his body temperature
3) Four times equal to body temperature
16) 1 17) 2 18) 2 19) 3 20) 4
4) Temperature equal to their ratio of specific
21) 4 22) 4 23) 1 24) 3 25) 2 heat capacities

Comprehension - III (7-9) : ANSWERS

A bar of length 75 cm of copper joined end to
1) 3 2) 3 3) 2 4) 3 5) 1
end with 125 cm steel bar of same cross-sectional
radius 1 cm as shown 6) 1 7) 1 8) 3 9) 2 10) 2
1000 C 00 C 11) 2 12) 2
K Cu  9.2 10 2 kcal / m  s 0C **EXERCISE – IV(A)

(CLASS WORK)
2 0
K st  1.110 kcal / m  s C 1. In Ingen Hauz experiment the wax melts up
Choose the correct answer : to 5 cm and 10 cm on bars A and B,
respectively. The ratio of the thermal
7. Heat transmitted per unit time in steady
conductivites of A and B is
state is
1) 1 : 2 2) 1 : 4 3) 1 : 8 4) 1 : 16
1) 0.258 cal/s 2) 0.34 cal/s
2. The figure shows a system of two concentric
3) 0.428 cal/s 4) 0.552 cal/s spheres of radii r1 and r2 and kept at tempera-
8. Temperature of junction in steady state is tures T 1 and T 2 respectively. The radial rate
1) 720 C 2) 80.20 C of flow of heat in a substance between the con-
3) 93.30 C 4) 25.20 C centric spheres is proportional to [AIEEE 2005]
r1r2
9. Equivalent thermal conductivity of system is 1) r  r
 2 1
1) 1.4 x 10–2 units 2) 1.64 x 10–1 units
3) 1.32 x 10–4 units 4) 1.22 x 10–3 units 2) r2  r1  r1
T1 T2
Comprehension - IV (10-12) : r2  r1
Three rods of equal length of same material 3) r r
12 r2
are joined as shown in figure. Area of rod AB  r2 
is S and BC is 2S and AC is S then 4) In r 
 1
B
3. The spectrum of a black body at two
0
temperature 27 C and 3270 . Let A and A be
1 2
the areas under the two curves respectively.
A C A2
1000C 00 C The value of
A1 is
Choose the correct answer :
1) 1 : 16 2) 4 : 1 3) 2 : 1 4) 16 : 1
10. Temperature of B junction is
1) 560 C 2) 33.330 C 4. Radiant energy from the sun strikes the earth
at a rate of 1.4 x 10 3 watt/m2. Calculate the
3) 78.20 C 4) 250 C temperature of the surface of the sun. Aver-
11. Heat current in AB is age distance of earth from sun = 1.5 x 1011 m;
Stefan’s constant = 5.7 x 10–8 Wm–2 K–4 (Ra-
1) 1/3rd of heat current in AC dius of sun = 7 x 108m)
2) 2/3rd of heat current in AC 1) 5801K 2) 2880 K 3) 3080 K 4) 4801 K
3) 1/2nd of heat current in BC 5. 10gm of water and 60gm of a liquid of sp.heat
4) 1/4th of heat current in BC 0.5cal gm-1 C-1 are taken successively in a calo-
12. Ratio of thermal resistance of BC of AC is rimeter. They are cooled from 60°c to 50°C in
15 min and 30 min resepctively. The water
1) 1:1 2) 1:2
equivalent of calorimeter is
3) 3:1 4) 4:1
1) 10gm 2) 20gm 3) 15gm 4) 40gm

6. 40 gm of water and an equal volume of alcohol 3. The spectrum of a black body at two
0
(specific gravity is 0.8 ) are placed one after temperature 127 C and 5270 . Let A and A
another in the same calorimeter of water be the areas under the two curves
1 2
equivalent 2 gm. They are found to cool from A2

600C to 550C in 2 min. and 1 min. respectively respectively. The value of
A1 is
. Find specific heat of alcohol ?
1) 1 : 16 2) 4 : 1 3) 2 : 1 4) 16 : 1
1) 0.6 cal/gm0 C 2) 0.8 cal/gm0 C
4. Assuming the sun to be a spherical body of
3) 1.2 cal/gm0 C 4) 6.8 cal/gm0 C radius R at a temperature of TK, evaluate
ANSWERS the total radiant power, incident on earth,
at a distance ‘r’ from the sun (AIEEE 2006)
1) 2 2) 1 3) 4 4) 1 5) 1 (where r0 is the radius of the earth and  is
6) 1
stefan’s constant)
R2 T4 4r02 R2 T4

**EXERCISE – IV(B) 1) 2)
r2 r2
(HOME WORK)
1. In Ingen Hauz experiment the wax melts up  r02 R2 T4 r02 R2 T4
3) 4)
to 4 cm and 8 cm on bars A and B, respectively. r2 4 r2
The ratio of the thermal conductivites of A 5. A calorimeter containing 40 gms of water cools
and B is
from 500C to 400C in 15 minutes. When the same
1) 1 : 2 2) 1 : 4 calorimeter contains 100gms of water it cooles
3) 1 : 8 4) 1 : 16 from 500C to 400C in 33 minutes. The water
equivalent of calorimeter is
2. Two thin metallic spherical shells of radii r1
and r2 (r1 < r2) are placed with their centres 1) 20 gms2) 10 gms 3) 30 gms 4) 5 gms
coinciding. A material of thermal 6. 50gm of water and an equal volume of alcohol
conductivity K is filled in the space between (sp.gravity = 0.8) are placed one after another
the shells. The inner shell is maintained at in a calorimeter of water equivalent 2gm. They
temperature 1 and the outer shell at
are found to cool from 60°C to 55°C in 2 min.
temperature 2  1  2  . Then the rate at
which heat flows radially through the and 1min respectively. The sp.heat of Alcohol
material in Cal gm-1 oC-1 is
1) 0.1 2) 0.3 3) 0.4 4) 0.6
4Kr1 r2  2  1  4Kr1r2 r2  r1  ANSWERS
1) 2)
r2  r1 2  1
1) 2 2) 1 3) 4 4) 3 5) 2
4Kr1r2 r2  r1  4Kr1 r2  2  1 
3) 4) 6) 4
2  1 r2  r1

20. TRANSMISSION OF HEAT(401-456)

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PHYSICS-IC TRANSMISSION OF HEAT

10.1 Introduction : molecules lying next to them. During collision, the

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 401

After some time, the temperature of every Problem 10.1

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 402

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 403

Charge flow Potential difference Collisions of charges Þ P Rs = P (R1 + R2 )

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 404

Graph : 10.10 Junction Temperature :

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 405

The total quantity of heat supplied is æ ö

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 406

Problem 10.4 Heat required to boil the water, Q = mL

Q 104976 In this case the temperature of upper face of

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 407

mcl  400  300 

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 408

Problem 10.10 Problem 10.11

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 409

Solution : Let TB be the temperature at B Problem 10.14

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 410

**Problem 10.16 coated uniformly with a thin layer of wax whose

Solution : Let us subdivide the entire cylinder into a

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 411

Choose an element Choose an element of radial thickness 'dr' at a

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 412

the air and the wool do not allow the heat of

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 413

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 414

4) Ventillator : Ventillator is a small window

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 415

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 416

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 417

10.24 Prevost's theory of heat exchanges : FERY'S BLACK BODY

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 418

For any specific wavelength l , we can write, Dimensional formula : ML–1T–3

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 419

\ Total emittance 'E' is given by d f l|

If El and El b are the spectral emissive powers T

time (d f l ) to the total energy flux incident on

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 420

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 421

** 10.33 ENERGY DISTRIBUTION OF A Observations from the black body radiation

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 422

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 423

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 424

*Problem 10.24 *Problem 10.26

If the intensity of the radiation detected at a dis-

what is the emissivity of the sphere ?

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 425

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 426

Assuming the body cools uniformly from 4

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 427

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 428

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 429

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 430

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 431

* K depends on nature of the mateiral. * Thermal resistance of a conductor of length

AKASH MULTIMEDIA 432

K11l2  K 2 2l1 K is conductivity of Ice

Problem 10.24 Problem 10.26