FOUNDATION CHEMISTRY CHM092

CHAPTER 1
MATTER AND
STOICHIOMETRY

PREPARED BY :

DR NOR HAYATI BT. MUHAMMAD

FAIZATUL FARAH BT. HATTA
 Main Topics
1.1 Fundamental Particles of an Atom and
Structure of Atom
1.2 Elements, Molecules, ions, and Compound
1.3 Nomenclature and Chemical Formulae
1.4 Chemical equations and Balancing
1.5 Precision, Accuracy and Significant Figures
1.6 Relative Atomic, Isotopic, Molecules and
Formula Masses
1.7 The Mole and Avogadro Constant
1.8 Empirical and Molecular Formulae
1.9 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants, Theoretical
Yields and Percentage Yield
1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
1.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN
ATOM AND STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1.1.1 The Atomic Theory (page 6 )
Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

1. Matter consists of tiny particles.

2. Atoms are indestructible. In chemical reactions, the atoms
rearrange but they do not themselves break apart
3. In any sample of a pure element, all atoms are identical in
mass and other properties.
4. The atoms of different elements differ in mass and other
properties.
5. When atoms of different elements combine to form a given
compound, the constituent atoms in the compound are
always present in the same fixed ratio.
 1.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN
ATOM AND STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1.1.2 The structure of the atom (page 10)
• Atoms are comprised of a nucleus and
surrounding electron(s):
– The nucleus occupies less
than 0.1% of the total
atomic volume.
– The nucleus is comprised
of protons and neutrons.
1.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN
ATOM AND STRUCTURE OF ATOM

AX
Z
– X is the chemical symbol for any element.
– Z is the atomic number, the number of
protons in the nucleus.
– A is the mass number, the number of
protons plus the number or neutrons in the
nucleus.
 1.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN
ATOM AND STRUCTURE OF ATOM
• In a neutral atom the atomic number is also equal
to the number of electrons:
1
1H

– H – hydrogen
– 1 proton (Z = 1)
– 1 electron
– 0 neutrons (A = 1)
• It is common to write in shorthand version as 1H.
 1.1 FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN
ATOM AND STRUCTURE OF ATOM
1.1.4 Isotopes (page 12)
• Isotopes:
– Atoms of an element with the same number
of protons but different numbers of
neutrons. 1 2
H H 3H
1 1 1
 Isotopes
 Isotopes are atoms of the same element having the same
number of protons
 Isotopes of an element have different masses
 Isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
MassIsotopes are identified by their mass numbers, which is
number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
the sum of all the protons and neutrons in the nucleus
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
 All isotopes of an element are chemically identical
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
undergo the exact samenuclei chemical reactions
 Isotopes have different physical properties such as melting
point, boiling point, density and rate of diffusion
 Isotopes
Isotope Uranium

• Atomic number
 Number of protons= 92
 Z

• Mass Number
 Protons + neutrons = 235
 whole number
 A

• Abundance = relative
amount found in a sample
 ELEMENTS, MOLECULES, IONS,
AND COMPOUND (PAGE 4)
1.2.1 Elements
– Collections of one type of atom only.
– Currently 118 different elements.
– Elements are arranged in the periodic table.
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei
1.2.2 Molecular Elements
A few elements have molecules as their constituent
particles
The molecules are made of two or more atoms (same
atom) chemically bonded together by covalent bonds
1.2.3 Ions
• Ions:
– Chemical species that have either a positive or
negative electric charge.
– Cations are ions with a positive charge e.g. Na+.
– Anions are ions with a negative charge e.g. Cl–.
– Adding or removing electrons from atoms or
molecules produces ions.
1.2.4 Compounds
• Compounds:
– Substances containing two or more elements in
definite and unchanging proportion.
– Compounds may be composed of molecules,
ions or a covalently bonded network of atoms.
– No individual ‘molecules’ of an ionic compound:
• Sodium chloride, NaCl, simply represents the
smallest repeating unit in an enormous 3D
array of Na+ and Cl– ions.
 Compound
Ionic Compounds
Compounds of metals with nonmetals are made of ions
metal atoms form cations, nonmetal atoms form anions
Each cation is surrounded by anions and vice-versa
No individual molecule units, instead they have a 3-
dimensional array of cations and anions made of formula
units

Table salt – contains an array of Na+ ions and Cl- ions

 Compound
Ionic Compounds Contains polyatomic Ions
Compound contains polyatomic ions
several atoms attached together by covalent bonds into
one ion
 Compound
Molecular Compounds
Compounds are composed of individual molecule units
Each molecule contains atoms (non-metal) of different
elements chemically attached by covalent bonds

Propane – contains
individual C3H8
molecules
 Mixture
 A group of two or more elements and/or
compounds that are physically intermingled.
Checkpoint 1

Classify each of the following as either an Atomic Element,

Molecular Element, Molecular Compound, or Ionic Compound

Argon, Ar
Barium chloride, BaCl2
Phosphorus, P4
Acetone, C3H6O
Calcium phosphate, Ca3(PO4)2
Nikel, Ni
Checkpoint 2
The following scenes represent an atomic-scale view of
three samples of matter. Describe each sample as an
element, compound, or mixture.
• Systematic naming of compounds.
• International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
(IUPAC).
• Common unsystematic names are often used
rather than their systematic IUPAC name:
– The systematic name of water is oxidane.
– Only a small number of common compound
names are accepted by IUPAC.
1.3.1 Nomenclature of Ionic Compounds
Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds for Metals with
Invariant Charge
 Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal (anion)
 Metal listed first and followed by nonmmetal in formula
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. cation name should use the metal name itself
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide
 Naming Metal Cations (Invariant Charge)

Metals with invariant charge,

metals whose ions can only
have one possible charge
 Naming Monatomic Nonmetal Anion
 Determine the charge from position on the Periodic Table
 To name anion, change ending on the element name to –
ide
 Example 1: Naming Binary Ionic with Invariant
Charge Metal CsF
1. Identify cation and anion
Cs = Cs+ because it is Group 1A
F = F− because it is Group 7A
2. Name the cation
Cs+ = cesium
3. Name the anion
F− = fluoride
4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
Cesium fluoride
Checkpoint 3
Name the ionic compound formed from each of the following
pairs of elements:
(a) Bromine and strontium
(b) Rubidium and sulfur

Checkpoint 4
Name the ionic compound from each of the following
chemical formulas:

(a) K3N
(b) ScCl3
Rules for Naming Binary Ionic Compounds for Metals with
Variable Charge
 Consists of metal (cation) and nonmetal anion
 Metal listed first in formula and name
1. name metal cation first, name nonmetal anion second
2. metal cation name is the metal name followed by a Roman numeral
in parentheses to indicate its charge
 determine charge from anion charge
 common ions Table 3.4
3. nonmetal anion named by changing the ending on the nonmetal
name to -ide
 Naming Metal Cations (Variable Charges)
• Metals with variable
Charges
 metals whose ions
can have more than
one possible charge
 determine charge
by charge on anion
and cation
 name = metal name
with Roman
numeral charge in
parentheses
 Example 2: Naming binary ionic with variable
charge metal CuF2
1. Identify the cation and anion
F = F− because it is Group 7
Cu = Cu2+ to balance the two (−) charges from 2 F−
2. Name the cation
Cu2+ = copper(II)
3. Name the anion
F− = fluoride
4. Write the cation name first, then the anion name
copper(II) fluoride
1.3.2 Nomenclature of Polyatomic Compounds
 Polyatomic ions are single ions that contain more than one
atom
 Often identified by parentheses around ion in formula
 Name and charge of polyatomic ion do not change
 Name any ionic compound by naming cation first and then
anion
 Polyatomic Cations and Anions
Formula Name Formula Name
Common Cations
NH4+ ammonium H3O+ hydronium
CH3NH3+ metylammonium NH3+OH hydroxylammonium
Common Anions
CH3COO- acetate CO32- carbonate
CN- cyanide HCO3- bicarbonate
OH- hydroxide CrO42- chromate
ClO- hypochlorite Cr2O72- dichromate
ClO2- chlorite O22- peroxide
ClO3- chlorate PO43- phosphate
NO2- nitrite HPO42- hydrogen phosphate
NO3- nitrate SO32- sulfite
MnO4- permanganate SO42- sulfate
 EXAMPLE 3: NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
CONTAINING AN INVARIANT CHARGE METAL WITH
POLYATOMIC ION NA2SO4

1. Identify the ions

Na = Na+ because in Group 1A
SO4 = SO42− a polyatomic ion
2. Name the cation
Na+ = sodium, metal with invariant charge
3. Name the anion
SO42− = sulfate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
sodium sulfate
 EXAMPLE 4: NAMING IONIC COMPOUNDS
CONTAINING VARIABLE CHARGES METAL WITH
POLYATOMIC ION FE(NO3)3

1. Identify the ions

NO3 = NO3− a polyatomic ion
Fe = Fe3+ to balance the charge of the 3 NO3−
2. Name the cation
Fe3+ = iron(III), metal with variable charge
3. Name the anion
NO3− = nitrate
4. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
iron(III) nitrate
Checkpoint 5
Name the polyatomic ion compound
(a) Ba(NO3)2
(b) Cu(CN)2
 EXAMPLE 5: NAMING COMPOUNDS
CONTAINING POLYATOMIC CATION AND
POLYATOMIC ANION (NH4)2CO3
1. Identify the cation
NH4+ = ammonium
2. Identify the anion
CO32− = carbonate
3. Write the name of the cation followed by the name of the
anion
Ammonium carbonate
PERIODIC PATTERN OF POLYATOMIC IONS
-ATE GROUPS
1.3.3 Nomenclature of Molecular Compounds
1. Write name of first element in formula
a) element furthest left and down on the Periodic Table
b) use the full name of the element
2. Writes name the second element in the formula with an -
ide suffix
a) as if it were an anion, however, remember these compounds do
not contain ions!
3. Use a prefix in front of each name to indicate the number
of atoms
a) Never use the prefix mono- on the first element
 SUBSCRIPT – PREFIXES

• 1 = mono- • 6 = hexa-
 not used on first nonmetal
• 2 = di- • 7 = hepta-
• 3 = tri- • 8 = octa-
• 4 = tetra- • 9 = nona-
• 5 = penta- • 10 = deca-

• Drop last “a” if name begins with a vowel

 EXAMPLE 6: NAMING A BINARY MOLECULAR
COMPOUND SF4
1. Name the first element
sulfur
2. Name the second element with an –ide
fluorine  fluoride
3. Add a prefix to each name to indicate the subscript
Monosulfur, tetrafluoride
4. Write the first element with prefix, then the second
element with prefix
a) drop prefix mono from first element
sulfur tetrafluoride
1.3.4 Nomenclature of Oxoanions

1. The root name arises from the central atom:

– e.g. carbonate CO32-

2. When an element forms 2 different oxoanions, the

one with fewer oxygen atoms ends in –ite, the one
with more oxygens ends in –ate:
– Sulfite SO32-
– Sulfate SO42-
3. Four oxoanions for chlorine, bromine and iodine.
Distinguished by prefixes and suffixes:
• Hypobromite BrO-
• Bromite BrO2-
• Bromate BrO3-
• Perbromate BrO4-

4. A polyatomic anion with a charge more negative than 1-

may add H+ to give another anion. Named from the
parent anion by adding the word hydrogen:
• Hydrogen phosphate HPO42-
• Dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4-
1.3.5 Nomenclature of Acids

• If the anion in the acid

ends in -ide, change
the ending to -ic acid
and add the prefix
hydro- .
– HCl: hydrochloric acid
– HBr: hydrobromic acid
– HI: hydroiodic acid
43
1.3.6 Nomenclature of Oxyacid
• If the anion in the acid
ends in -ate, change
the ending to -ic acid.
– HClO3: chloric acid
– HClO4: perchloric acid

• If the anion in the acid

ends in -ite, change
the ending to -ous
acid.
– HClO: hypochlorous acid
– HClO2: chlorous acid
 Relationship between (root)ate polyatomic ions and (root)ic acids.
Oxyanion Formula Oxyanion Name Oxyacid Formula Oxyacid Name
NO3- nitrate HNO3 nitric acid
C2H3O2- acetate HC2H3O2 acetic acid
sulfuric acid
(Notice that the whole
SO42- sulfate H2SO4
name sulfur is used in
the oxyacid name.)
CO32- carbonate H2CO3 carbonic acid
phosphoric acid
(Notice that the root of
PO43- phosphate H3PO4 phosphorus in an
oxyacid name is
phosphor-.)
ClO3- chlorate HClO3 chloric acid
BrO3- bromate HBrO3 bromic acid
IO3- iodate HIO3 iodic acid
C2O42- oxalate H2C2O4 oxalic acid
CrO42- chromate H2CrO4 chromic acid
1.3.7 Nomenclature of Hydrated Ionic Compounds
• Hydrates are ionic compounds
containing a specific number of waters
for each formula unit
• Water of hydration often “driven off” by
heating
• In formula, attached waters follow ∙
 CoCl2∙6H2O
• In name attached waters indicated by
prefix+hydrate after name of ionic
compound
 CoCl2∙6H2O = cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate
 CaSO4∙½H2O = calcium sulfate hemihydrate
 CoCl2
CoCl2•6H2O

CuSO4•5H2O CuSO4
1.4 Chemical Equations and Balancing
1. Identify all reactants and products and write their correct
formula on the left side and right side of equation.
2. Begin balancing the equation by trying suitable coefficients
that will give the same number of each element on both
sides of the equation.
3. Look for the elements that appear only once on each side of
the equation and with equal number of atoms on each side
– the formula containing these elements must have the
same coefficient.
4. Look for elements that appear only once on each side of the
equation but in unequal no of atoms. Balance these
elements. Next, balance elements that appear in two or
more formula on the same side of the equation. If a
reactant or product exists as a free elements, try balancing
that element last.
5. Check your balanced equation to be sure that you have the
same total number of each type of atom on both sides of
the equation.
Example 6:
Balance the equations below:
a) Na + H2O  NaOH + H2

1) Balance each atom

Na + H2O  NaOH + 1/2H2

2) Multiply by 2 to obtain whole number coefficients

b) NH4OH + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4 + H2O

1) balance the polyatomic ion first.

The polyatomic ions remain intact before and after the
reaction – can be treated as single ions
2NH4OH + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4 + H2O

2) balance the H and O atoms.

There are 4 H and 2 O on the left side , but only 2 H
and 1 O on the right side. Add 2 to H2O –equation is
balanced.

2NH4OH + H2SO4  (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O

Exercise
Balance the equations below:

1. K2O + H2O  KOH

2. I2 + Na2S2O3  NaI + Na2S4O6
3. Al + CuO  Al2O3 + Cu
4. C3H8 + O2  CO2 + H2O.
• A chemical reaction is the mixing of two or
more species (reactants) to produce new
substances (products).
• Writing balanced chemical
equations describes what
happens when a chemical
reaction occurs.
• Stoichiometry is concerned with the relative
amounts of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction.

• Stoichiometric coefficients are used to balance an

equation to meet this condition.
• Specify the physical states of matter:
– (s) for solid
– (l) for liquid
– (g) for gas
– (aq) meaning ‘aqueous solution’.
• To balance an equation:
– Step 1: Write the unbalanced ‘equation’.
Al(s) + HCl(aq) ) → AlCl3(aq) +H2(g)

Total reactants: Total products:

1 × Al 1× Al
1×H 2×H
1 × Cl 3 × Cl

• Count the number of each element present. Is the

equation balanced?
• Chemistry is a science of measurement:
– always has a unit
– always an associated uncertainty.
• Unit:
– specific standard quantity of a
particular property.
– used to measure all other
quantities of specific property.
NASA’s Mars Climate
Orbiter crashed into Mars after
calculations were made using
inconsistent units.
Measurement Unit Symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela Cd
• The SI units for ANY physical quantity can be built
from the seven base units:
– For example:
• area = length × width
• length and width are measured in metres
• the unit of area is square metres, m2
• Units undergo the same kinds of mathematical
operations as the numbers to which they are
attached.
• The terms precision and accuracy have different
meanings.
– Accuracy refers to how close the value is to the
correct value.
– Precision signifies how reproducible a
particular measurement is when made a
number of times.
– The precision of a measurement determines
the number of significant figures to which the
measurement must be quoted.
• Every measurement has an associated uncertainty.

24.3 ºC 24.32 ºC
297.45 K 297.47 K
• Uncertainty depends on the instrument.
• Absolute uncertainty:
– has the same units as the quantity being
measured.

The 0.1 mL
gradations
on this pipette
imply an
uncertainty of
±0.05 mL.
• All figures in a measurement up to and including
the first estimated figure.

24.32 ºC
297.47 K

• Scientific notation expresses numbers in terms of

powers of ten:
– e.g. 24.32 ºC is 2.432 × 101 ºC
• In calculations:
– Multiplication or division of measurements:
• The smallest number of
significant figures is 2 in 0.64,
hence the answer is expressed to 2 sig. figs.
– Addition or subtraction of measurements:
• The smallest number of
decimal places is 1 in 125.2, hence
the answers is expressed to one
decimal place.
 1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC, ISOTOPIC,
MOLECULAR AND FORMULA MASSES
1.6.1 Relative Atomic Mass, Ar

• What is Relative Atomic Mass, Ar?

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___

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 1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC, ISOTOPIC,
MOLECULAR AND FORMULA MASSES
 1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC, ISOTOPIC,
MOLECULAR AND FORMULA MASSES
1.6.2 Relative Molecular Mass, Mr

• What is Relative Molecular Mass, Mr?

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___

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 1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC, ISOTOPIC,
MOLECULAR AND FORMULA MASSES
 1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC, ISOTOPIC,
MOLECULAR AND FORMULA MASSES

Molecule Molecular Relative molecular mass

formula
Chlorine Cl2 2 x 35.5 = 72

Nitrogen N2 2 x 14 = 28

Ammonia NH3 14 + (3 x 1) = 17

Ethanol C2H5OH (2 x 12) + (5 x 1) + 16 + 1 = 46

Carbon CO2 12 + (2 x 16) = 44

dioxide
 1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC, ISOTOPIC,
MOLECULAR AND FORMULA MASSES
• Some substances consists of ions and not
molecules.
• For these ionic substances, the relative formula
masses are used in place of relative molecular
masses.
 1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC, ISOTOPIC,
MOLECULAR AND FORMULA MASSES

Ionic Ionic Relative formula mass

substance formula
Sodium NaCl 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
chloride
Hydrated MgSO4.7 24 + 32 + (4x 16) + 7(2 +
magnesium H2O 16) = 246
sulphate
Calcium CaO 40 + 16 = 56
oxide
 1.6 RELATIVE ATOMIC, ISOTOPIC,
MOLECULAR AND FORMULA MASSES
1.6.3 Relative Isotopic Mass

• What is Relative Isotopic Mass?

________________________________________
________________________________________
________________________________________

• If more than one isotope of element is present,

the atomic mass is calculated by taking the
average of the relative atomic masses of different
isotopes
 Determining Relative Atomic Mass from
Isotopic Abundance
Elements that do not have isotopes (e.g; Fluorine-19)
relative atomic mass is the same as the relative isotopic mass

Elements consists of isotopes, the relative atomic mass is

the average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes
weighted according to their abundances.

Atomic mass is calculated by multiplying relative isotopic

mass of each isotope by its relative abundance (fractional
abundance) and adding all these values together
Example 7: If copper is 69.17% Cu-63 with a
mass of 62.9396 amu and the rest Cu-65 with a
mass of 64.9278 amu, find the atomic mass of
copper
Cu-63 = 69.17%, 62.9396 amu
Cu-65 = 100-69.17%, 64.9278 amu
atomic mass, amu
 Checkpoint 6
1. There are two isotopes of Gallium:
Ga-69 with mass 68.9256 amu and abundance of 60.11%;
and Ga-71 with mass 70.9247 amu and abundance of 39.89%
Calculate the atomic mass of gallium.

2. The isotopic masses of Li-6 and Li-7 are given as 6.01512

amu and 7.01601 amu respectively. If the atomic mass of
Li is 6.941 amu, calculate the % abundance of the two
isotopes

3. Given that Ag-107 (51.839% abundance) and the mass

ratio : Ag-109/Ag-107 = 1.0187. Calculate the mass of Ag-
107. (Atomic mass of Ag = 107.87 amu)

ans: (1) 69.723 (2) 92.51% (3) 106.9068

 1.7 The Mole and Avogadro Constant
1.7.1 The Mole and Avogadro Constant

Define a mole
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_________________________________________
Define Avogadro’s constant
_________________________________________

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 1.7 The Mole and Avogadro Constant

• The number of specified entities in a mole is

constant.
• The mass of 1 mole depends on the mass of the
individual entities.
One mole of different
elements (clockwise from
top left: sulfur, aluminum,
mercury and copper). Each
of these element samples
contains 6.022 x 1023
atoms.
 1.7 The Mole and Avogadro Constant

• Define molar mass

_______________________________________

_______________________________________

• Molar mass of water (H2O) is:

MH2O = 2(H) + 1(O)
MH2O = (2 × 1.008 g) + 15.999 g = 18.015 g
 1.7 The Mole and Avogadro Constant

One mole of
different compounds
(clockwise from top
• M is molar mass (in grams/mol). left: copper sulfate
pentahydrate, water,

• m is mass (in grams). sodium chromate

and sodium
chloride).
• n is the number of moles (in mols).
Example 8 : How many copper atoms are in a
penny weighing 3.10 g?
Given: 3.10 g Cu
Find: atoms Cu

Conceptual Plan:
g Cu mol Cu atoms Cu
Relationships:

1 mol Cu = 63.55 g, 1 mol = 6.022 x 1023

Solution:

Check: because the given amount is much less than 1 mol Cu, the
number makes sense
Checkpoint 7

Dimethylnitrosamine (CH3)2N2O is carcinogenic substance

that formed in foods, beverages or gastric juices.
a) Calculate the molar mass
b) Calculate the moles of 2.5 g of dimethylnitrosamine
c) How many atoms of nitrogen are present in 1.0 x 1016
molecules of dimethylnitrosamine
d) What is the mass in grams of one molecule of
dimethylnitrosamine

ans: (a) 74g/mol (b) 0.034 mol (c) 2x1016 (d) 1.229x10-22
Checkpoint 8
Hemoglobin C2952H4664N812O832S8Fe4 is the oxygen carrier in
blood
(a) Calculate its molar mass
(b) An average adult has about 5.2 L of blood. Every
millimeter of blood has approximately 5.0 x 109
erythrocytes (red blood cells), and every erythrocytes has
2.8 x 108 hemoglobin molecules. Calculate the mass of
hemoglobin molecules in grams in an average adult.

ans: (a) 65248 g/mol (b) 788.78 g

 1.7 The Mole and Avogadro Constant
1.7.2 Moles of Gases
The volume occupied by one mole of any gas is
called the molar volume
 At s.t.p (standard temperature and pressure), the molar gas
volume is 22.4 dm3. The condition for s.t.p are 0oC and 1 atm
pressure.
Volume of gas (dm3)
Mol substance (gas) = 22.4 dm3 at s.t.p

 At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p) (20oC and 1 atm

pressure) the molar gas volume is 24dm3
Volume of gas (dm3)
Mol substance (gas) = 22 dm3 at r.t.p
Example 9: The decomposition of KClO3
produced 48 dm3 of oxygen gas. How many
moles of oxygen gas are there and calculate the
mass of oxygen gas.
Volume of gas (dm3)
Number of moles of O2 =
22.4 dm3 at s.t.p
48 dm3

22.4 dm3 at s.t.p

= 2.14 mol

Mass of O2 = 2.14 mol x 32g/mol = 68.6 g

Checkpoint 9

Carbon dioxide gas is obtained from the fermentation of

glucose. If 20.0 dm3 of carbon dioxide (at s.t.p) are collected,
how many atoms oxygen are present in this gas?

ans: 1.076 x 1024 atom O

 1.8 Empirical and Molecular Formulae

Define Molecular formula

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Define Empirical formula
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 1.8 Empirical and Molecular Formulae

1.8.1 Composition by Mass

The percentage by mass of an element calculation:

% element = mass of element x 100%

mass of whole sample
 1.8 Empirical and Molecular Formulae
To determine the empirical formula:

Step 1: Assume 100g of the sample. Individual percentages

become the actual masses.
Step 2: Divide the mass of each element by its molar mass to
obtain the no of moles.
Step 3: Divide all numbers in the ratio by the smallest number
of moles. Gives the smallest whole-number ratios of each
element.
 1.8 Empirical and Molecular Formulae

Step 4:

– if result is within 0.1 of whole number, round

to whole number
– if ratio ~.5 multiply all by 2
– if ratio ~.33 or ~.67 multiply all by 3
– if ratio ~.25 or ~.75, multiply all by 4
Example 10 : Laboratory analysis of aspirin determined
the following mass percent composition as follows:
C = 60.00%, H = 4.48% and O = 35.53%.
Calculate the empirical formula of aspirin.
Solution:
In 100 g of aspirin there are 60.00 g C, 4.48 g H, 35.53 g O
The conceptual plan is

gC mol C
whole empirical
gH mol H mole number formula
ratio ratio
gO mol O
Given the molar mass:
1 mol C = 12.01 g; 1 mol H = 1.008 g; 1 mol O = 16.00 g
calculate the moles of each element

The mole ratio of C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220

Divide the mole ratio by the smallest number of mole in
the above mole ratio to get the whole number mole ratio
Whole number mole ratio:
C : H : O = 4.996 : 4.44 : 2.220 = 2.25 : 2 : 1
2.220 2.220 2.220
Choose a small number to multiply the mole ratio in order
to get the whole number mole ratio
Multiply by 4
C : H : O = 2.25 x 4 : 2 x 4 : 1 x 4
= 9: 8: 4
The empirical formula = C9H8O4

Once you’ve learnt how to convert one unit to another

according to the conceptual plan, you can evaluate
the empirical formula in a table format.
 Element C H O
% composition
by mass (g) 60.00 4.48 35.53

Relative atomic
mass 12.01 1.008 16.00

Number of
moles 4.996 4.44 2.220

Mole ratios 4.996 4.44 2.220

2.220 2.220 2.220
= 2.25 =2 =1
Simplest ratio
(x4) 9 8 4
Checkpoint 10
1. Methyl salicylate has a mass percent composition of 63.2% C, 31.6%
O and 5.26% H. The mass of one molecule of the compound is 2.53 x 10-
22 g. Determine the empirical formula and the molecular formula of methyl

salicylate.

2. The mass percent composition of an organic acid is given as 41.4% C,

3.47% H, 55.1% O. 0.05 mol of this acid has a mass of 5.80g. Determine
the empirical formula and the molecular formula of this acid.

3. An 0.648 g sample of isobutene contains 0.556g of carbon and the rest

is hydrogen. 0.5 mol of the isobutene has a mass of 28.5g. What is the
empirical formula and molecular formula of isobutene.

ans: (1) C8H8O3 EF&MF (2) CHO EF ; C4H4O4 MF (3) CH2 EF ;C4H8 MF
 1.8 Empirical and Molecular Formulae
1.8.2 Combustion Data

A common technique for analyzing compounds is to burn a

known mass of compound and weigh the amounts of
product made
 generally used for organic compounds containing C, H, O
• By knowing the mass of the product and composition of
constituent element in the product, the original amount of
constituent element can be determined
 all the original C forms CO2, the original H forms H2O, the
original mass of O is found by subtraction
• Once the masses of all the constituent elements in the
original compound have been determined, the empirical
formula can be found
 Example 11: Combustion of a 0.8233 g sample of a
compound containing only carbon, hydrogen, and
oxygen produced 2.445 g CO2 and 0.6003 g H2O.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound

Solution:
Let the empirical formula to be CxHyOz
Write a conceptual plan

g mol mol g g mol

CO2, H2O CO2, H2O C, H C, H O O

mol mol empirical

C, H, O ratio formula
Convert : g CO2 mol CO2 mol C
9 H2 O mol H2O 2 mol H
Use the following relationship:
Molar mass of CO2 = 12.01 + (16.00)2 = 44.01 g/mol
Molar mass of H2O = 2(1.008) + 16.00 = 18.02 g/mol
1mol CO2 = 1 mol C; 1mol H2O = 2 mol H
Calculate the grams of C and H using molar mass of C and H

Calculate the grams and moles of O

Mass of O = Mass of compound – (mass of C + mass of H)
= 0.8233 g – (0.6673 g + 0.06715 g) = 0.0889 g O
Mole ratio C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
Divide by the smallest mole
C : H : O = 0.05556 : 0.06662 : 0.00556
0.00556 0.00556 0.00556
= 10 : 12 : 1
The empirical formula = C10H12O
Checkpoint 11
1.An organic compound was found to contain only C, H, and Cl.
When a 1.50 g sample of compound was completely combusted in
air 3.52g of CO2 was formed. In a separate experiment the chlorine
in a 1.0 g sample of the compound was converted to 1.27 g of AgCl.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.
2. Ferrocene, first synthesized in 1951, was the first organic iron
compound with Fe-C bonds. An understanding of the structure of
ferrocene gave rise to new ideas about chemical bonding and led to
the preparation of many useful compounds, In combustion analysis
of ferrocene, which contains only Fe, C and H, a 0.9437 g of
sample produced 2.233 g of CO2 and 0.457 g of H2O. What is the
empirical formula of ferrocene?

ans: (1) C6H5Cl (2) C10H10Fe

 1.9 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants,
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield
1.9.1 Moles Ratios from Chemical Formulae
• Stoichiometry: the mole-to-mole ratio linking
substances involved in a chemical equation:
2C8H18(l) + 25O2(g)→16CO2(g) +18H2O(g)
– Interpret in terms of molecules or on a molar
scale.
– Mole-to-mole relationships can be used to solve
stoichiometry problems.
– Equations must be balanced.
 1.9 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants,
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield
1.9.2 Limiting Reactants

• In reality, one reactant may limit the amount of

product that can form.

• The limiting reactant will be completely used up

in the reaction.

• The reactant that is not limiting is in excess –

some of this reactant will be left over.
1.9 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants,
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield

C2H4 + H2O → C2H5OH

Interpret in terms of molecules or on a

molar scale.
1.9 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants,
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield

3C2H4 + 3H2O → 3C2H5OH

1.9 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants,
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield

2 unreacted
H2O molecules remain
 1.9 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants,
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield
3C2H4 + 5H2O → 3C2H5OH + 2H2O

Limiting reagent: C2H4 Excess reagent: H2O

The calculated amount of product is always based on the
limiting reagent.
 1.9 Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants,
Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield
1.9.3 Theoretical Yield and Percentage Yield

% yield = actual yield x 100%

theoretical yield

– The calculation may be done in either grams

or moles.
– But units must be the same for both yields.
– The actual yield can never be more than the
theoretical yield.
Example 12 : When 28.6 kg of C are allowed to react with
88.2 kg of TiO2 in the reaction below, 42.8 kg of Ti are
obtained. Find the limiting reactant, theoretical yield, and
percent yield.

TiO2 (s)  2 C(s)  Ti(s)  2 CO(g)

}
kg
C smallest
amount is
from
limiting
kg reactant
TiO2

smallest
mol Ti
Relationship required :
1000 g = 1 kg
Molar Mass TiO2 = 79.87 g/mol
Molar Mass Ti = 47.87 g/mol
Molar Mass C = 12.01 g/mol
1 mole TiO2 : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)
2 mole C : 1 mol Ti (from the chem. equation)

limiting reactant
smallest moles of Ti
 theoretical yield

limiting reactant = TiO2, theoretical yield = 52.9 kg

percent yield = 80.9%
Because Ti has lower molar mass than TiO2, the T.Y. makes sense and
the percent yield makes sense as it is less than 100%
Checkpoint 12
How many grams of NH3 can be produced from the reaction of
28g of N2 and 25g of H2? How much of the excess reagent is
left over?

ans: 34.0 g NH3, 19.0g H2 excess

 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
1.10.1 The Concentration of Solutions

SOLUTION
homogeneous mixture

SOLUTE SOLVENT
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry

• Solution concentration is the ratio of the amount of

solute to the volume of solution.
n is the number
of moles
(recall M = m/n)
The units of c
C= n
are mol L-1 V V is the volume
(in Litres)

• Concentration of a solute X is represented as [X].

• Molarity ( molar concentration) has the units mol L–1
(abbreviated M).
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
1.10.2 Applications of Solution Stoichiometry

Typical ‘tools of the trade’ for chemists.

 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry

In a dilution, the number of

moles of solute does not
change only the volume of
solute changes.

n(initial) = n(final)
or n1 = n2
Hence c1V1 = c2V2
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry

• Ionic compounds dissociate into their constituent

ions when dissolved in water.
• An aqueous solution of 0.10M CaBr2 means that
each litre of solution contains the dissociated
ions, Ca2+ and Br– :

CaBr2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Br– (aq)

 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry

CaBr2(s) → Ca2+(aq) + 2Br– (aq)

Identify the molar relationship

In 0.10M CaBr2, the concentration of Ca2+ is 0.10M

and the concentration of Br– is 0.20M
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry

• Spectator ions are aqueous ions that don’t

participate in reactions :

2AgNO3(aq) + CaBr2(aq)→2AgBr(s) +Ca(NO3)2(aq)

• The NO3– and Ca2+ ions don’t take part in the

reaction.
Q. What is the net ionic equation?
A. Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq) → 2AgBr(s)
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry

1.10.3 Stoichiometry of Solutions

• Because molarity relates the moles of solute to

the liters of solution, it can be used to convert
between amount of reactants and/or products in
a chemical reaction
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
Solution: Conceptual Plan

Vol, Molarity Mol HNO3 Mol Cu g Cu

HNO3 Mol = M x V Mol Cu = 3 g Cu = mol Cu x MM Cu
Mol HNO3 8

Relationships: MM Cu = 63.55 g/mol

(a) g Cu = (0.5 mol/L x 0.04 L)HNO3 x 3 mol Cu x 63.55 g

8 mol HNO3 1 mol
= 0.48 g

(b) Mol HNO3 Mol NO

Mol NO = 2 = 1
Mol HNO3 8 4

Mol NO formed = (0.5 x 0.04)mol HNO3 x 1 mol NO

4 mol HNO3
= 0.005 mol
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
Gas-Formation Reactions
When there are no gaseous reactants, the formation of an
insoluble or slightly soluble gas provides a driving forces for a
type of reaction that we call a gas-formation reaction.

Example #: When excess of sulfuric acid reacts with x g

of zinc, 500 mL of hydrogen gas is evolved at stp.
Calculate the value of x
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
Gas-Formation Reactions

Solution :
Zn (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

Mol of H2 = 500 mL » 0.5 dm3 x 1 mol = 0.022 mol

22.4 dm3

Mol of Zn = 0.022 mol x 65.39 g/mol = 1.44 g

 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
Gravimetric Analysis

 is an analytical technique based on the measurement of

mass.
 dissolve unknown substance in water and react it with
known substance to form participate ( techniques is applied to
ionic compounds
formation
isolation and drying
mass determination of a precipitate
1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
Acid-Base Titration
Example 13 : How many milimeters (mL) of a
0.610 M NaOH solution are needed to neutralize
20.0 mL of 0.245 M H2SO4 solution?
2 NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + 2 H2O(l)?
Let Molarity of H2SO4 = Ma, Molarity of NaOH = Mb
Volume of H2SO4 = Va, Volume of NaOH = Vb
Stoichiometry coeffient a, b = 2,1 for H2SO4, NaOH, resp.
Use the relatioship
MaVa = a
MbVb b
0.245 M x 20.0 mL = 1
0.610 M x Vb 2
Vb = 2 x 0.245 M x 20 mL = 16.1 mL
0.610 M
1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
Redox Titration
Redox reactions involve the transfer of
electrons,

Titration between reducing agent

against oxidizing agent

The equivalence point is reached when

reducing agent is completely oxidized by
the oxidizing agent.
Two common oxidizing agents
MnO4-  Mn2+
Purple light pink

Cr2O72-  Cr3+
Orange yellow green
Example 14: A 16.42-mL volume of 0.1327 M KMnO4
solution is needed to oxidize 25.00 mL of a FeSO4
solution in an acidic medium. What is the concentration
of the FeSO4 solution in molarity? The net ionic equation
is
5Fe2+ + MnO4- + 8H+  Mn2+ + 5Fe3+ + 4H2O

Solution
Example 15:
Iodate (V) ions react with acidified iodide ions as shown
below:
IO-3 + 5I- + 6H+  3I2 + 3H2O

The iodine released is then reacted with thiosulfate ions as

given below:
I2 + 2S2O32-  2I- + S4O62-

60 mL of 0.2 M iodate (V) ions reacted with excess acidified

iodide ions. If all the iodine liberated reacted with x mL of 0.4
M of thiosulfate ions, calculate the value of x
Moles of iodate (V) ions

IO3- = 0.2 x 60 = 0.012 mol

1000

Moles of iodine liberated is

1 mol IO3-  3 mol I2

If 0.012 mol IO3-  0.012 mol IO3- x 3 mol I2 = 0.036 mol

1 mol IO3-

1 mol I2 reacted with 2 mol S2O32-

Then, 0.036 mol I2 will react with  0.036 mol I2 X 2 mol S2O32- = 0.072 mol
1 mol I2

Molarity of S2O32- (x) is 0.072 mol x 1000 = 18 mL

0.4 mol/L
 1.10 SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY

1.10.4 Concentrations Expressions

1. Percent Mass (%w/w)

2. Percent Volume (%v/v)
3. Percent Mass per Volume (%w/v)
4. Molality (mol/kg)
5. Mole Fraction (XA)
1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
Percent Concentration
 1.10 Solution Stoichiometry
Mass Percent (% w/w )

 Concentrations show the relationship between the amount

of solute and the amount of solvent
– 12%(w/w) sugar solution: 12 g sugar per 100 g solution
or 12 kg sugar 1n 100 kg solution
– 22%(v/v) ethanol solution: 22 mL EtOH per 100 mL
solution
 Example 16 : What volume of 10.5% by mass soda
contains 78.5 g of sugar?
Density of the solution 1.04 g/mL
Given: 78.5 g sugar
Find: volume, mL
Conceptual g solute g sol’n mL sol’n
Plan:

Relationships: 100 g sol’n = 10.5 g sugar, 1 mL sol’n = 1.04 g

Solve:

Check: the unit is correct, the magnitude seems reasonable as the

mass of sugar  10% the volume of solution
 Molality and Mole Fraction
Molality
 Moles of solute per 1 kilogram of solvent
defined in terms of amount of solvent, not solution
like the others
 Does not vary with temperature
because based on masses, not volumes
 Molality and Mole Fraction
Mole Fraction, XA
 The mole fraction is the fraction of the moles of one
component in the total moles of all the components of the
solution
 Total of all the mole fractions in a solution = 1
 Unitless
 The mole percentage is the percentage of the moles of
one component in the total moles of all the components
of the solution
= mole fraction x 100%
Example 17: Calculate the molarity and molality
of a solution prepared by mixing 17.2 g of
C2H6O2 with 0.500 kg of H2O to make 515 mL of
solution? What is the mol fraction of C2H6O2 in
the solution?
Solution: Conceptual Plan:

g C2H6O2 mol C2H6O2

M
mL sol’n L sol’n

M = mol/L, 1 mol C2H6O2 = 62.07 g, 1 mL = 0.001 L

 0.2771
Molality   0.554 m or 0.554 mol kg 1
0.5
0.5 x 1000
Mol H 2 O  mol  27.753mol
18.016

Total mol = 0.2771 + 27.753 mol = 28.03 mol

0.2771
Χ C2 H 6O 2   9.89 x 103
28.03
Checkpoint 13
1. Calculate the mass of solute and mass of solvent (water)
from each prepared solution

a) 125 g of 1.0% of NaNO3

b) 300 g of 0.115m of C2H6O2
c) 125 mL of 0.1M of NaNO3

2. Calculate the amount of water (in grams) that must be

added to 5.00g urea (NH2)2CO in preparation of a 16.2% by
mass solution

3. The density of a 2.45 M aqueous solution of methanol

(CH3OH) is 0.976 g/mL. What is the molality of the solution?
(MW= 32.04g)
THANK YOU