Journal of Arid Environments (1997) 37: 23–32

On the causes and control of the waterlogging

phenomenon, Siwa Oasis, northern Western Desert,
Egypt

R. F. Misak†, A. A. Abdel Baki* & M. S. El-Hakim*

*Desert Research Institute, Mataria, Cairo, Egypt

†Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, PO Box 24885, 13109, Safat,
Kuwait

(Received 20 April 1995, accepted 3 January 1997)

Siwa Oasis (1000 km2) is today suffering an excessive rise in the subsoil water
levels. In 1962–1977, the rate of rise was 1·33 cm year–1 while in 1977–1990
it measured 4·6 cm year–1. Consequently, the fertile soils are subjected to
deterioration and salinization.
In the present study, the waterlogging phenomenon is comprehensively
evaluated through hydrogeologic survey, shallow ground-water drilling, field
measurements and laboratory investigations. The causative factors are
discussed. Among these, the non-manageable agricultural expansion, excess
irrigation water and deficiency of a drainage system are the most
important.
To overcome this serious problem a new agricultural strategy is recom-
mended. This strategy is entirely dependent on reliable water management
plans. To control the water balance in Siwa, the following are suggested: (i)
full utilization of the naturally flowing water, particularly through winter
cultivations; (ii) prevention of new ground-water drilling and control water
flow from old wells; (iii) usage of drainage water for afforestation projects; (iv)
introduction of new plant species having high capability to consume water
(biological drainage); and (v) improvement of the present drainage system.
©1997 Academic Press Limited

Keywords: waterlogging; Siwa Oasis; subsoil water; drainage system; water

management; afforestation; biological drainage

Introduction

Siwa Oasis is located in the northern Western Desert of Egypt, some 65 km east of the
Libyan–Egyptian Frontier and 300 km south of the Mediterranean Sea. It is limited by
longitudes 25° 18'–26° 5' E and latitudes 29° 5'–29° 20' N (Fig. 1).
Ground-water is one of Siwa Oasis’ most valuable resources. It is tapped from the
Miocene fractured limestone through hundreds of springs and flowing wells (total
discharge is at least 200,000 m3 day–1). However, due to the misuse of ground-water,
a continuous rise of the level of subsoil water, i.e. shallow, almost man-made water
0140–1963/97/010023 + 10 $25.00/0/ae970252 © 1997 Academic Press Limited
24 R. F. MISAK ET AL.

28° 32° 36°

32°
Mediterranean Sea

Siwa

28°

Re
dS
ea
24°

0 100 200 km

Figure 1. Location map of Siwa Oasis.

table, is occurring (waterlogging). Consequently, extensive patches are converted into

salt marshes.
The main objective of the present study is to evaluate the waterlogging phenomenon
through determining the causative factors (both physical and anthropogenic). Based
on this evaluation, recommendations to control this phenomenon are proposed.
To achieve the main objective of the present work, the following items were
undertaken: (i) hydrogeologic survey and updating of the hydrogeologic information;
(ii) chemical analyses of representative ground-water samples (N = 59); (iii) field
observation to elucidate the significance of the physical features and human activities
on the discussed phenomenon; and (iv) drilling of 35 observation wells to measure and
monitor the water levels in the different portions of the oasis.

Physical setting

Siwa Oasis is characterized by extreme aridity where very low rainfall (average 9·5 mm
year–1), high evaporation rate (17 mm day–1 in July to 5·2 mm day–1 in December) and
high summer temperature (maximum 37·7°C in July) are recorded. Intermittent
floods, originating from the northern tableland take place every several years. In the
last 60 years, severe floods took place in 1928, 1985 and 1987.
The area of study is characterized by low relief; surface elevation ranges generally
from zero to 18 m below sea level. In Siwa two main geomorphic units are
distinguished, each with its own land features. These units are the bounding uplands
and the Siwa floor (Fig. 2). The bounding uplands are represented by the northern
tableland ( + 100 m to + 150 m) and the southern sand dunes (zero to + 80 m). The
Siwa floor (zero to –18 m) displays numerous landforms. These include the salt
marshes (Sabkha), the lakes and the Hatiyat (cultivated lands) (Fig. 3).
 OASIS WATERLOGGING, EGYPT 25

Siwa floor
(below sea level)
High peripheries
Sabkha (dry and wet)
Lakes and ponds
Hatiyat (cultivated patches)
Residual hills and benches
Zero level
Bounding uplands (sea level – 120 m a.s.l.)
Northern tableland
Dissected hilly area Sand dunes
Cliffs 0 2 4 6 km

Figure 2. Geomorphologic map (Siwa Oasis).

m A A
100 S N
90
Southern Northern
80 edge tableland
70 Siwa Oasis
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
4 3 2 1
–10
–20

1 Sabkha (salt marsh) Aeolian sand 0 500 1000 1500 m

2 Aghormi Lake Lagoonal deposits
3 Hatiyet Aghormi Limestone
4 Isolated interbeds Shale and marl, limestone

Figure 3. North–south section of Siwa Oasis.

26 R. F. MISAK ET AL.

In Siwa Oasis, the surface is occupied by sedimentary rocks ranging in age from
Middle Miocene to Recent. The surface section is differentiated as follows from top to
base.

Pleistocene–Holocene

(i) Aeolian sand (of variable thickness): forming sand dunes and sand
sheets, bounding the southern peripheries of Siwa.
(ii) Alluvial deposits (1–3 m thick); developed into sand, sandy clay and clay,
dominant in the cultivated lands.
(iii) Lagoonal deposits (Sabkha); developed into sand and clay cemented by
salt material, dominating the low-lying areas surrounding the salt lakes.

Middle Miocene

The Middle Miocene section has a thickness of about 94 m and is composed of chalky
limestone, marl, shale and dolomite. It has been distinguished into the upper El Daffa
group, the middle Siwa escarpments group and the lower Oasis group (El-Gindi & El-
Askary, 1969).

Hydrogeologic setting

In Siwa Oasis, the ground-water is encountered in the following water-bearing

horizons: the unconsolidated surficial deposits (Pleistocene-Holocene); including the
lagoonal deposits, the drift sand, the weathered bed rock and the alluvium; the
fractured limestone (Miocene).
The ground-water of the unconsolidated deposits occurs mostly under perched
condition, where an impermeable horizon lies at shallow depth (maximum 2 m deep).
It results from the infiltration of excess irrigation and drainage waters. Locally in low
lands, the mentioned ground-water is recharged through upward leakage from the
underlying fractured limestone.
As indicated from the depth to water map (Fig. 4), the ground-water of the
unconsolidated deposits, i.e. subsoil water, exists at a shallow depth ranging from less
than 50 cm to 100 cm. The depth to water is controlled mainly by the topographical
irregularities of the oasis floor.
On the other hand, the fractured limestone water-bearing horizons represent the
main source of water supply in Siwa Oasis through natural springs. These springs are
arranged into several lines coinciding with the main fracture system (mainly NW–SE).
From east to west, these lines are (Misak et al., 1988):
Ain Quresht–Ain Abu Shrouf line
Ain El Shefa–Gebel El Dakrour–Ain El Maghaz line
Gebel El Shari–G. Khamisa line
Ain Hag Ali–Ain Abdel Gabbar line
The former line is considered the most important since it includes a number of major
springs, e.g. Quresht, Abu Shrouf, El Naqb, El Deriat and Zeitoun. The total daily
discharge of these springs reaches 101·000 m3 (Parsons, 1963).

Water level measurements

In the present study, the water level in the shallow water-bearing horizons, i.e. subsoil
water, was detected and periodically measured (November 1987–December 1989).
For this purpose 35 observation wells (piezometers) were drilled (Fig. 5).
 OASIS WATERLOGGING, EGYPT 27

25°20' 25°30' 25°40' 25°50' 26°00'

N
29°20'

29°10'

0 2 4 6 km

Figure 4. Depth to subsoil water in Siwa Oasis: (C) = < 50 cm; (A) = 50–75 cm;
( ) = 75–100 cm; (B) > 100 cm.

Recording of ground-water levels was carried out in November 1987, July 1988,
March 1989, July 1989 and December 1989. Based on these measurements a depth to
water map for November 1987 and ground-water fluctuation graphs from November
1987 to December 1989 were drawn (Figs 4, 6 and 7).
The depth to water map (Fig. 4) indicates that the depth generally varies from 75 to
100 cm in the peripheral parts of Siwa to less than 50 cm in the low lying parts where
waterlogging is more significant. On the other hand, the ground-water fluctuation
graphs (Figs 6 and 7) indicate that most of the wells showed decline in July 1988 and
July 1989 while they exhibited a marked rise in November 1987, March 1989 and

25°20' 25°30' 25°40' 25°50' 26°00'

N
29°20'

29°10'

0 2 4 6 km

Figure 5. Well location map. (·) indicates location of piezometer.

28 R. F. MISAK ET AL.

December 1989. A resultant rise varying between 4 cm and 44 cm (average 23 cm) is

seen from November 1987 and July 1988 to December 1989 (wells 2, 3, 9, 11, 13, 16,
22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28, 31, 32 and 33). These wells are restricted to the central lower
part of Siwa Oasis, Khamisa-Ain El Rahma sector, G. Dakrour – Aghormy sector and
El Debeiba sector. The central lower part of Siwa is the most affected part among the
mentioned sectors. As indicated from a north–south profile crossing this part (Fig. 8),
both the ground-water levels and the water levels of the drains are nearly identical due
to waterlogging and deficiency of the drains. Furthermore, measurement of the
shallow ground-water levels in Siwa in the period from 1962 to 1987 by Parsons
Company (1963), the Arabic Organization for Agricultural Development (1977) and
the present authors (1987) indicates excessive rising. This is seen in Fig. 9 which
shows that the average rate of rise of ground-water is 1·33 cm year–1 in 1962–1977 and
4·6 cm year–1 in 1977–1987. This indicates that the rate of rise shows a rapid increase.
Based on field investigations and results of shallow drilling, the causative factors of
waterlogging are discussed.
(i) The northern elevated tableland ( + 100 m to + 150 m) acts as a catchment area
for the intermittent floods taking place every several years. These floods are directed
towards Siwa Oasis through several drainage lines.
(ii) The topography of Siwa indicates the presence of three different levels. These are
the higher (above sea level), middle (from sea level to about –15 m) and lower level
(from about –15 m to –18 m). The lower level acts as a discharging area for both the
middle and upper levels. Therefore, it is converted into marshes and lakes. Locally, the

Time
March 89
July 88

July 89
Nov 87

0 Dec 89

20 W.24

40 W.5
W.4 W.9
60
W.11
W.15
80 W.22
Depth to water (cm)

W.23
W.16
100 W.13
W.3
120

140 W.2

160

180

200

220

Figure 6. Graph of ground-water level fluctuation at various wells (W).

 OASIS WATERLOGGING, EGYPT 29

marshes are fed by upward leakage from deeper aquifers and at the same time they
recharge the topographically low areas towards the lakes.
(iii) The presence of an impermeable clay bed at shallow depth below land surface
(maximum 2 m) prevents the vertical infiltration of irrigation water. Therefore, it seeps
laterally towards low areas forming water ponds and marshes.
(iv) Cultivated lands (hatiyat) exist at variable levels from the floor of the oasis. The
difference in elevation between the hatiyat and the lakes controls the depth of the
subsoil water (drainage water) in the hatiyat. It is noticed that the greater the
difference, the larger the amount of water draining from the hatiyat. Thus, hatiyat
Zeitoun, for example, which is about 4 m higher than Quresht lake, has good drainage
while in hatiyat Aghormy the surface elevation in some parts is less than 1 m from
Aghormy lake so it badly suffers from waterlogging and salinization.

Time

March 89
July 88

July 89
Nov 87

Dec 89
0

20

40

60

80

100
Depth to water (cm)

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

Figure 7. Graph of ground-water level fluctuation at various wells (W). (––) = W25;
(d) = W26; (– – –) = W27; (…) = W28; (s) = W30; (m) = W31; ( — - — ) = W32;
(j) = W33; (– – –) = W34; ( — ·· — ) = W35.
30 R. F. MISAK ET AL.

m
–10 N S

–11

Main drain
–12
–13
–14 P12 P11 P10 P24 P19
–15

Drain
–16
–17
–18
–19
–20 Ground surface
Water level
P10 Piezometer No. 10

0 1000 2000 3000 4000 m

Figure 8. North–South profile of Siwa Oasis.

Ground-water quality

The subsoil water

Ground-water samples collected from 19 observation wells were chemically analysed

0 Land surface
Average ground-water level (cm)

50

100

150

1962* 1977† 1987‡

Figure 9. Ground-water level in Siwa Oasis (1962–1987). *Parson (1963); †Arab Organization
for Agricultural Development (1977); ‡Present study (1987).
 OASIS WATERLOGGING, EGYPT 31

25°20' 25°30' 25°40' 25°50' 26°00'

N
29°20'

29°10'

0 2 4 6 km

Figure 10. Salinity zonation map of subsoil water in Siwa Oasis (Nov 1987). (B) = 5–10 g l–1;
( = 10–20 g l–1; ( ) = 20–40 g l–1; (C) = > 40 g l–1; (..)) = < 5 g l–1.

(November, 1987). Total dissolved solids concentration of these samples (salinity) is

shown in Fig. 10.
The ground-water salinity varies widely from less than 5 g l–1 to 40 g l–1. The
determined values reveal that salinity increases progressively towards the central low
area surrounding the lakes. This increase is governed by the following factors: (i) the
lithology of water-bearing deposits (clay facies mixed with fine quartz sand and rich
saliferous materials); (ii) the depth to water from land surface (less than 50 cm in low
area to about 100 cm in the peripheries); and (iii) the rate of evaporation (high in
summer, 17 mm day–1).

The fractured limestone water

Chemical analyses of 40 ground-water samples collected from representative springs

and wells (May and November 1987) indicate four salinity zones (Fig. 11). These are
(from south and south-west to north and north-east): (i) freshwater zone (less than
1500 p.p.m.); (ii) freshwater – moderately saline water zone (1500–3000 p.p.m.); (iii)
moderately saline – saline water zone (3000–5000 p.p.m.); and (iv) saline – highly
saline water zone ( > 5000 p.p.m.).
Generally, variation in the salinity of the fractured limestone water can be attributed
to: the lithological and hydrological properties of the water-bearing zones; the depth of
the feeding source; and the density of the effective fractures.

Recommendations

In order to control and lower the water level in Siwa Oasis, a new agricultural strategy
is recommended. The framework of this strategy is outlined through the following
items: (1) Minimization of the amounts of water flowing into the lakes (from surface
drains, springs and subsoil water) by carrying out the following: (a) full utilization of
the naturally flowing water in irrigation, particularly that of Quresht and Abu Shrouf
32 R. F. MISAK ET AL.

25°20' 25°30' 25°40' 25°50' 26°00'

N
29°20'

29°10'

0 2 4 6 km

Figure 11. Salinity zonation map of Middle Miocene Aquifer in Siwa Oasis. ( ’’’’
’’’’ ) = > 1500
p.p.m.; ( ) = 1500–3000 p.p.m.; ( ) = 3000–5000 p.p.m.; (C) = 5000 p.p.m.
’’’’

springs (77·000 m3 day–1); (b) prevention of new ground-water drilling and control of
the natural flow of already drilled water wells (wellhead taps); (c) use of the moderately
saline water (3000–5000 p.p.m.) of some drains for afforestation projects at sand
dunes and establishment of shelter belts in local cultivations; and (d) planting of water-
loving trees and shrubs of high ability to consume water, i.e. biological drainage
method. The most promising plants are Eucalyptus sp., Acacia sp., Tamarix sp., and
Medicagosative. The latter is considered to be the most effective plant type.
(2) Introduction of ration-type rotation on irrigated lands including 2–3 years of alfa
alfa as a compulsory rotation member.

References

Arab Organization for Agricultural Development (1977). Feasibility Study of Siwa Oasis Project.
Khartoum.
El-Gindi, A.R. & El-Askary, M.A. (1969). Stratigraphy, Structure and Origin of Siwa
Depression. Western Desert of Egypt. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, 53: 603–625.
Misak, R.F., Abdel Baki, A.A. & El-Haki, M.S. (1988). Groundwater Resources in Siwa Oasis.
First Conference on Environmental Studies and Research, Institute of Environmental Studies and
Research. Cairo: Ain Shams Univ. 16 pp.
Parsons (1963). The Ralph M. Parsons Engineering Company. Final Report, Siwa Area, New
Valley Project, Western Desert of Egypt.