GIS Chapter 1

Download as pdf or txt
Download as pdf or txt
You are on page 1of 14

Chapter One

Introduction to Geographic Information System


Objectives of the Unit

After completing this unit, you should be able to:

➢ Define Geographic Information system (GIS).

➢ Discuss historical development of Geographic Information system.

➢ Explain the main objectives of GIS and its Core elements.

➢ Explain the main Components of Geographic Information system.

➢ Explain the main application areas of GIS

1. Introduction
The technology of GIS has developed so fast over the past few decades and now it is accepted as an essential
tool for the effective use of geographic information.

Nowadays, there are many environmental problems like:

• Climate Change • Environmental degradation

• Unplanned Urbanization • Drought

• Soil erosion • Shortage of drinking water

• Deforestation • Political, Social, Economical

One of the problems to integrate these issues is the lack of means to link the data in comparable and
manageable sets. So, in order to overcome these difficulties, GIS offers entry of many types of data in a
single spatial framework and has capability of collection, storage, retrieval, analysis, manipulation, display
and integration of environmental, economic and social data in a single system.

1.1 Concept and Definition of Geographic Information System


Geographic Information System can be defined as in many ways according to capability and purpose for
which it is applied. In simple terms, GIS is a computer-based system for the capture, storage, manipulation,
retrieval and display of spatial data. From Geographic Information System;

1
Geographic implies real world, spatial realities; Information is data and their meaning and, System is
computer technology.

Why the term Geographic, Information and System?

• Geographic, because data collected is associated with some location in space.

• Information, because attributes or the characteristics (data), about the space is what we want to learn
about.

• System, because there must be a tie from the information to the geography in a seamless operation.

A Geographic Information System (GIS) - is a tool for making and using spatial information. It uses the
power of computer to pose and answer geographic questions. The user guides the program to arrange and
display data about places on the planet in a variety of ways - including maps, charts and tables. The
hardware and software allow the users to see and interact with data in new ways by blending electronic
maps and databases to generate color-coded displays. Users can zoom in (enlarge) and out of (reduce) maps
freely; add layers of new data, and study detail and relationships. It is also possible to define GIS as
computerized system that functions for: data collection, data input, data storage, data manipulation, data
analysis and data presentation (output) that helps in supporting decision makers to use it as a tool for
decision making process.

Fig 1. Interrelation between different functions of GIS

2
Sector Based Definitions of GIS

• GIS is a computerized tool for solving geographic problems for better decision support system (Planners
and Decision-Makers)

• GIS is a container of maps in digital form (General Public).

• GIS is a mechanized inventory of geographically distributed features and facilities for better transportation
and communication systems (Transportation/Utility Managers)

• GIS is a tool for revealing what is otherwise invisible in geographic information (Scientists or
Researchers).

• GIS is a tool for performing operations on geographic data that are too tedious or expensive or inaccurate
if performed by hand (Resource Managers/Planners).

However, GIS is more commonly defined as it is an information system that is used to input, store, retrieve,
manipulate, analyze, and display of geographically referenced data and its correspondence attribute
information in order to support decision making for the planning and management of land use, natural
resource, environment, urban facilities, transportation and other administrative records.

GIS as a System and Science

The abbreviation GIS is commonly used for the Geographic Information Systems, while GIS science is
used to abbreviate the science. The distinction is important, because the future development of GIS depends
on progress in GIS science. Since GIS is the tool with which we solve problems, we are mistaken if we
consider it as the starting and ending point in geographic reasoning “Geographic Information Science (GIS
science) is the basic research field that seeks to redefine geographic concepts and their use in the context
of geographic information systems. GIS science also examines the impacts of GIS on individuals and
society, and the influences of society on GIS. GIS science re-examines some of the most fundamental
themes in traditional spatially oriented fields such as geography, cartography, and geodesy, while
incorporating more recent developments in cognitive and information science. Geographic information
science (GIS science) is the academic theory behind the development, use, and application of geographic
information systems (GIS). It is concerned with GIS hardware, software, and geospatial data. GIS, on the
other hand, addresses problems and issues primarily through technological methodology (e.g. digital
mapping), and GIS science addresses fundamental issues raised by the use of GIS and related technologies.

Links between the different terms in GIS

3
Fig 2. Links between the different terms in GIS.

1.2 Historical Development of GIS


The first true GIS developed was the Canadian GIS (CGIS) headed by Roger Tomlinson (father of GIS),
which included the first digital land use maps of Canada. It was originated from computer -assisted
cartography and supported by the development of computer technology such as CPU, printer/plotter,
scanner, memory, GPS, communication

• Generally, the history of GIS is categorized in to three eras.

1) Era of Innovation (1957- 1977):

❖ It is the era where GIS is introduced to the world

❖ The most important events in the era of innovation were the foundation of ESRI (Environmental System
and Research Institute) and the launch of land sat I.

2) Era of Commercialization (1981-1999):

❖ It is the era where GIS is used to make a business.

❖ The main events of this era were the launch of ArcInfo, introduction of GPS operation (It is used for
navigation, surveying and mapping), and Internet GIS products.

3) Era of Exploitation (1999):

❖ It is the era where we are now

4
❖ It is distinct by a high number of GIS users

❖ Launch of IKONOS and QUICKBIRD satellites, and the introduction of Google earth and Mobile
mapping.

Origin of GIS

In general, GIS has its origins in various disciplines as shown in Fig 3.

Fig 3. Development of GIS

Broadcasting GIS

➢ Internet websites • www.geocomm.com

• www.gis.com • www.giscafe.com, Gis.about.com

• www.spatialnews.com

1.3 Objectives of GIS


GIS is developed to:

➢ Maximize the efficiency of planning and ➢ Eliminate redundant database


decision making.
➢ Enhance the integration of information from
➢ Provide efficient means for data distribution many sources.
and handling.
➢ Provide complex analysis for decision making.

5
➢ Generate new information. ➢ Maintain data consistency.

Considering those objectives, GIS have different functions for the user like capturing data, storing data,
querying data, analyzing data, displaying data and output data.

Capturing data: A GIS must provide methods for inputting geographic (coordinate) and tabular (attribute)
data. The more inputs are available the more versatile the GIS.

Storing data: A GIS should able to store geographic data in both vector and raster data formats.

Querying data: A GIS must provide utilities for finding specific features based on their locations or attribute
value.

Analyzing data: A GIS must have the ability to answer questions regarding the interaction of spatial
relationships between multiple data sets.

Displaying data: There must be tools for visualizing the geographic features using a variety of symbology.

Output data: Raster of display should be outputs in variety of formats such as maps, tables, reports and
graphs.

Why Use a GIS?

There are many reasons to use GIS in our day to day activities. The following are some of the reasons or
benefits to use it.

• Information from many different places can be • Data integration


stored and analyzed in the same database (data
• Capability of data processing and modeling
integration).
• Geospatial data and information are easier to
Examination of spatial relationships and patterns
search, analyze and represent
is much easier
• Geospatial data can be shared and exchanged
• Data stored in digital format, so physically more
freely
compact
• Time and money are saved
• Large quantities of data can be maintained and
retrieved at greater speeds • New capabilities (database queries, overlays for
new information)
• Lower cost of maintaining and retrieving data
• Linked graphic and non-graphic data
• Revision and updating are easier

6
• Better, quicker, and more accurate answers for Core elements of GIS
the public

GIS has three main core elements: a) create geographic data, b) analyze data, and c) represent data

a) Create geographic data: Is the way to understand GIS data, know the types and characteristics of spatial
data; to generate, organize, and document spatial data using different technologies

b) Analyze data: Is the way to understand analytical methods and use of them appropriately.

c) Represent data: Is the way to understand and use different classification methods and use different
symbolization strategies.

The key feature of GIS is the analysis of data to produce new information. Due to its strong analysis,
modeling and visualization capabilities, GIS provide answers for spatial questions.

1.4 Questions a GIS can answer


There is another way to describe GIS by listing the type of questions that the technology can (or should be
able) to answer. These include: locations, conditions, trends, patterns, modeling, non-spatial questions, and
spatial questions. There are five main types of questions that a GIS can answer:

Query for location: what is at………?

The first of these questions seeks to find out what exists at a particular location. Mapped data primarily
indicates where objects are located, but cannot explain why. A location can be described in many ways,
using, for example place name, postcode, or geographic reference such as longitude/latitude or x/y
coordinates. For example, an aerial photo may show that corn is growing vigorously in certain sections of
a field, but cannot explain why it does not grow well in other areas.

ii. Query for Condition: where is it…………?

The second question is the converse of the first and requires spatial data to answer. Frequently a GIS user
wants to discover whether the mapped data will meet certain conditions. That means instead of identifying
what exists at a given location, one may wish to find location(s) where certain conditions are satisfied (e.g.,
an un forested section of at-least 2000 square meters in size, within 100 meters of road, and with soils
suitable for supporting buildings).

iii. Trend analysis: what has changed since…………..?

The third question might involve both the first two and seeks to find the differences (e.g. in land use or
elevation) over time. This can help to address temporal changes of earth’s phenomena.

7
iv. Pattern analysis: what spatial patterns exist…………..?

This question is more sophisticated. One might ask this question to determine whether landslides are mostly
occurring near streams. It might be just as important to know how many anomalies there are those do not
fit the pattern and where they are located.

v. Modeling: what if……………..?

"What if…" questions are posed to determine what happens, for example, if a new road is added to a
network or if a toxic substance seeps into the local ground water supply. Answering this type of question
requires both geographic and other information (as well as specific models). GIS permits spatial operation.

In addition to all these capabilities, GIS can also handle related to non- spatial issues. For instance, "What's
the average number of people working with GIS in each location?" is non-spatial question.

1.5 Components of GIS


A GIS is comprised of hardware, software, data, humans, network and a set of organizational protocols
called method that make it possible to enter, manipulate, analyze, and present information that is tied to a
location on the earth’s surface (Figure 3). These components must be well integrated for effective use of
GIS, and the development and integration of these components is an iterative and ongoing process.

Fig 3. Components of GIS

A. People

People refer users and can be considered as the component of GIS who actually makes the GIS work. GIS
technology has limited value without the people who manage the system and develop plans for applying it

8
to real-world problems. Most GIS also require trained personnel to use them, and a set of protocols guiding
how the GIS will be used. People in GIS usually include excess of positions including GIS managers,
database administrators, application specialists, systems analysts, and programmers. They are responsible
for maintenance of the geographic database and provide technical support. People also need to be educated
to make decisions on what type of system to use. People associated with a GIS can be categorized into:
viewers, general users, and GIS specialists

B. Hardware

Hardware consists of the computer system on which the GIS software will run. It is the computer on which
a GIS operates. Today, GIS runs on a wide range of hardware types, from centralized computer servers to
desktop computers used in stand-alone or networked configurations. That means the choice of hardware
system range from 300MHz Personal Computers to Super Computers having capability in Tera storage
capacity. Normally large storage capacity hardware does have high speed of data execution.

Components of hardware

The central processing unit forms the backbone of the GIS hardware. Other components include scanner,
digitizer board, printer, plotter, and storage devices. All these components should be connected to the CPU.
The above mentioned hard wares are discussed below.

Fig 4. Components of hardware

9
Scanner – it is input device that converts a picture in analogue format into a digital image for further
processing. The output of scanner can be stored in many formats e.g. TIFF, BMP, JPG etc.

ii. Digitizer – it is input device used for vectorization (it is a process of converting raster into vector format)
of a given map objects. Features either on paper map or digital map selectively can be traced using digitized.

iii. Printers and plotters - are the most common output devices for a GIS hardware setup.

iv. Storage devices - Storage devices are hardware designed to store information. There are two types of
storage devices used in computers; a 'primary storage' device and a 'secondary storage' device. A storage
location that holds memory for short periods of times is an example of a primary storage device for example,
computer RAM. On the other hand, storage medium that holds information until it is deleted or overwritten
is an example of secondary storage devices. Examples include floppy disk drive or a hard disk drive.

The essential hardware elements for effective GIS operations include:

a) The presence of a processor with sufficient power to run the software

b) Sufficient memory for the storage and backup of large volumes of data

c) A good quality, high resolution color graphics screen or monitor and

d) Data input and output devices, like keyboards, printers and plotters.

C. Software

Software that is used to create, manage, analyze and visualize geographic data, i.e. data with a reference to
a place on earth, is usually denoted by the umbrella term ‘GIS software’. Typical applications for GIS
software include the evaluation of places for the location of new stores, the management of power and gas
lines, the creation of maps, the analysis of past crimes for crime prevention, route calculations for transport
tasks, the management of forests, parks and infrastructure, such as roads and water ways, as well as
applications in risk analysis of natural hazards, and emergency planning and response. For this multitude
of applications different types of GIS functions are required and different categories of GIS software exist,
which provide a particular set of functions needed to fulfill certain data management tasks.

GIS software provides the tools to manage, analyze, and effectively display and disseminate spatial data
and spatial information. Main function of GIS software are analytical functions that providemeans for
deriving new geo-information from existing spatial and attribute data. GIS by necessity involves the
collection and manipulation of the coordinates the GIS professionals use to specify location. It is also must
to collect qualitative or quantitative information on the non-spatial attributes of our geographic features of

10
interest. These processes need tools to view and edit these data, manipulate them to generate and extract
the information we require, and produce the materials to communicate the information developed. GIS
software provides the specific tools for some or all of these tasks.

In GIS software geographic objects that have the same geometric and attribute representation are typically
grouped in so-called ‘layers’ to simplify data management tasks. For instance, all buildings that are
represented by polygons and have information on owner and construction year are grouped in a layer
‘buildings’. The typical graphical user interface of a GIS software package that includes the concept of
geometries (map view) connected to values in tables (attribute view); as well as layers that contain one class
of objects (e.g. rivers).

Typical Tasks Accomplished with GIS Software

Before any geographic analysis can take place, the data need to be derived from field work, maps or satellite
imagery, or acquired from data providers. Hence, data need to be created, and - in case something has
changed – the data should be edited, and then stored. If data are obtained from other sources they need to
be viewed and eventually integrated (conflation) with existing data. To answer particular questions, e.g.
who is living in street X and is affected by the planned renewal of a power line, the data are queried and
analyzed. However, some specific analysis tasks may require a data transformation and manipulation before
any analysis can take place. The query and analysis results can finally be displayed on a map. In general,
the GIS software functional elements include:

✓ Data input ✓ Data analysis, manipulation, and modeling

✓ Data storage and database management ✓ Data output

✓ Data pre-processing/ processing

Reading assignment, explain in detail about GIS software functional elements?

There are many public domain and commercially available GIS software packages, and many of these
packages originated at academic or government-funded research laboratories. The Environmental Systems
Research Institute (ESRI) line of products, including Arc/Info, is a good example. Much of the foundation
for Arc/Info was developed during the 1960s and 1970s at Harvard University in the Laboratory of
Computer Graphics and Spatial Analysis. Other GIS software’s in use are Arc GIS, IDRISI, and EARDAS
IMAGINE.

D. Data

11
Geographic data and related tabular data can be collected in-house or purchased from other organizations
and can be compiled to custom specifications and requirements, or occasionally purchased from a
commercial data provider. A GIS can integrate spatial data with other existing data resources, often stored
in a corporate Database management system (DBMS). The integration of spatial data (often proprietary to
the GIS software), and tabular data stored in a DBMS is a key functionality afforded by GIS. Like all useful
data, geographic data is expected to possess desirable properties of accuracy, timeliness,
comprehensiveness, acceptable cost etc. Other general issues relating to geographic data include spatial
extent (the area covered), scale (the detail in the system), the large volume (both attribute data and graphic
data can make large storage demands), diversity (data of interest plus background data), collection cost
(despite technological advances, field collection of data can still be very labor intensive), etc. Scale is
important not only for graphic representation in map form but also as it impacts on other issues such as map
coverage extent, data volume and data collection. The concept of a data model is central to any discussion
of geographic data i.e. there is need to convert/translate the complexity of the real world into a simplified
model. This model, in turn, should preferably be amenable to the recording of data in a computer eg. as a
field in a table. A data model in GIS consists of a measurement framework and a scheme for representation
(spatial, temporal and attribute). Measurement metrics of attribute data (e.g. nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio
etc) has important implications for operations involving attribute data manipulation. Need to understand
that within this framework the data collection procedure and the collection unit used can seriously impact
on data quality.

Major sources of geographic information: maps, aerial photographs, remotely sensed imagery and digital
datasets available from various vendors. It is important to note the source of all data sets and keep in mind
issues such as scale, resolution, map projection, and date. These elements should

be recorded in a metadata record, which documents different aspects of a data set, including source,
projection, and contact information.

E. Procedures /Applications Procedures

Include how the data will be retrieved, input into the system, stored, managed, transformed, analyzed, and
finally presented in a final output. The procedures are the steps taken to answer the question need to be
resolved. The ability of a GIS to perform spatial analysis and answer these questions is what differentiates
this type of system from any other information systems. Generally,

• Analysis requires well-defined, consistent methods to provide accurate and reproducible results.

12
• Whether the application is simple data tracking or complex multidimensional analysis, a GIS should be
designed with the potential applications in mind.

• Applications of geographic information to real world problem solving is the heart of any GIS.

1.6 Application Areas of GIS


GIS are now used extensively in government, business, and research for a wide range of applications
including:

• Land registration and administrations • Marketing and demographic analysis

• Utility and infrastructure planning • Locational analysis

• Land registration and administrations • Habitat studies, and

• Real estate analysis • Tax appraisal

• Land use planning • Archaeological analysis

❑ In natural resource management

➢ Watershed management ➢ Land cover change analysis

➢ Mineral and other resource exploration and ➢ Mining


utilization
➢ Land use planning
➢ Forest resource monitoring
➢ Protected area management
➢ Agricultural land suitability analysis

In Industry and Urban Planning

➢ Transportation analysis ➢ Utilities and communications

➢ Locating underground pipes and cables ➢ Planning facility maintenance

➢ Engineering ➢ Project planning and analysis

➢ Balancing loads in electrical networks ➢ Tracking energy use

➢ Residential and commercial land suitability analysis

❑ In Environmental Protections

13
➢ Erosion risk analysis

➢ Healthcare analysis

➢ Drought analysis

➢ Crime analysis

➢ Landslide analysis

➢ Hazard analysis and mapping

❑ In Military

➢ Training ➢ Command and control


➢ Intelligence gathering
❑ In Business

➢ Banking and insurance ➢ Delivery of goods and services

➢ Retails and market management

14

You might also like