Organisational Behaviour

Organization
A consciously coordinated social unit,

composed of two or more people, that
functions on a relatively continuous basis to
achieve a common goal or set of goals.
Behaviour
The way in which someone conducts oneself
or behaves.
• Individual
• Team/Group
• Organization
Organizational behavior
Organizational behavior (OB) is a field of study
that investigates the impact that
individuals, groups, and structure have on
behavior within organizations for the purpose
of applying such knowledge toward
improving an organization’s effectiveness.
• understanding,
• prediction and
• management of human behavior in

organization.
Q&A
Which of the following best defines organizational behavior?
A) It involves the study of groups of people coming together for
collective bargaining.
B) It involves the study of what people do in a company and how it
affects the company's performance.
C) It involves analyzing different people in an industry with
independent profit-centered motives.
D) It involves developing exclusively the knowledge of managers
and senior-level employees.
E) It is a field which is not influenced by factors in the external
world.
Q&A
Which of the following determinants of behavior does organizational
behavior study?
A) profits
B) perks
C) individuals
D) collective bargaining
Organizational behavior is an applied behavioral
science built on contributions from a number of
behavioral area/disciplines.
• Psychology
• Social psychology
• Sociology
• Anthropology
Psychology
• to measure
• explain, and
• sometimes change the behavior of humans
Social psychology
a branch of psychology blends concepts from both
psychology and sociology to focus on peoples’
influence on one another.
Sociology
• study of group behaviour in organizations,
particularly formal and complex organizations
Anthropology
• study of societies to learn about human beings and
their activities
• cultures and environments

Major Behavioral Science Disciplines That
Contribute to OB
Q&A
_______ seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of humans
and other animals.
A) Meteorology
B) Anthropology
C) Sociology
D) Lexicology
E) Psychology
________ is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.
A) Anthropology
B) Psychology
C) Sociology
D) Psychiatry
E) Social psychology
Decision in OB
Intuition or Evidence-based?
• Intuition: “gut feelings” not necessarily

supported by research.
• Evidence-based: “scientific evidence”

Management Skills
• Technical Skills
• Human Skills
• Conceptual Skills
Technical Skills
• Technical skills encompass the ability to apply
specialized knowledge or expertise.
• You typically focus on the technical skills they have

learned through extensive formal education.
• civil engineers or
• oral surgeons
Human Skills
• The ability to understand, communicate with,
motivate, and support others, individually and in
groups, defines human skills.
• technically proficient but poor listeners,
• unable to understand the needs of others
• weak at managing conflicts

Conceptual Skills
• Mental ability to analyze and diagnose complex
situations
• Requires managers to identify problems, develop alternative
solutions to correct those problems, evaluate those
alternative solutions, and select the best one.
• Must be able to organize a plan of action and then execute

it.
• Ability to integrate new ideas with existing processes and

innovate on the job
Katz Model of Managerial Competencies
Q&A
Which of the following is true regarding technical skills?
A) They can be learned only through formal education.
B) They encompass the ability to apply specialized knowledge.
C) They are not required at all kinds of jobs.
D) They are monopolized by professionals.
E) They comprise the ability to understand and motivate people.
Joann Hayes is currently working on a project to tackle climate change. During the project, she
needs to find different options to replace the use of non-renewable energy and check the feasibility
of different renewable energy options before choosing the most practical one. Which of the
following skills does Hayes primarily need to use for these tasks?
A) human skills
B) interpersonal skills
C) conceptual skills
D) communication skills
E) interactive skills
Q&A
Joann Hayes is currently working on a project to tackle climate change. During
the project, she needs to find different options to replace the use of non-
renewable energy and check the feasibility of different renewable energy
options before choosing the most practical one. Which of the following skills
does Hayes primarily need to use for these tasks?
A) human skills
B) interpersonal skills
C) conceptual skills
D) communication skills
E) interactive skills
Q&A
Melissa Woods was recently hired as the campaign manager at an environmental
organization. She has a degree in environmental sustainability and possesses substantial
knowledge about the issue of global warming. She has the knowledge to lead the public
relations team of the organization. However, a few months later, the board of directors of the
organization expressed dissatisfaction with Melissa's performance and asked her to resign.
Which of the following, if true, best explains this situation?
A) Melissa had no prior experience in research and development.
B) Melissa had weak interpersonal and networking skills to run the project.
C) Melissa focused on her team’s results rather than how they achieved those results.
D) Melissa is not up-to-date about the feasibility of using different modes of renewable
energy.
E) Melissa had a diverse network of contacts established from her previous job.
Q&A
360.org, an organization working toward curbing climate change, recently conducted an
interview with Jessica for the position of a public relations officer. However,
interviewers Brenda and Laura are divided over whether Jessica should be given the job.
Brenda believes that Jessica does not have in-depth knowledge about the issue of
global warming and its impact. On the other hand, Laura feels that Jessica would be
perfect for the job because she has strong networking and interpersonal skills. Which of
the following, if true, would strengthen Laura's argument?
A) Gaining the support of corporate giants would comprise a large part of the job.
B) Jessica will need to prepare extensive reports about the issue of climate change.
C) The role will require Jessica to give presentations to environmental experts on

renewable modes of energy.
D) Jessica had negligible experience in research and development.
E) Jessica has weak analytical skills to solve problems associated with implementing
options of renewable energy.
Management Roles
• In the late 1960s, Henry Mintzberg, undertook a
study of five executives to determine what they did
on their jobs.
• On the basis of his observations, Mintzberg
concluded that managers perform three main roles
(1) interpersonal
(2) informational
(3) decisional
Interpersonal roles
• Figurehead: required to perform a number of
routine duties of a legal or social nature (Symbolic
in nature)
• Leader: hiring, training, motivating, and disciplining
employees
• Liaison: Maintains a network of outside contacts
who provide favors and information (Suppose, a
sales manager has contacts with other sales
executives through a marketing trade association)
Informational Roles
• Monitor: Collect information from outside organizations
and institutions (typically by scanning the news media,
internet, and talking with other people to learn of changes
in the public’s tastes, what competitors may be planning,
and the like.
• Disseminator: transmit information to organizational
members
• Spokesperson: represent the organization to outsiders
(Transmits information to outsiders)
Decisional Roles
• Entrepreneur role: managers initiate and oversee new
projects that will improve their organization’s performance
(Searches organization and its environment for
opportunities and initiates projects to bring about change)
• Disturbance handler: Responsible for corrective action
when organization faces important, unexpected
disturbances
• Resource allocator: Makes or approves significant
organizational decisions (allocating human, physical, and
monetary resources)
• Negotiator role: Responsible for representing the
organization at major negotiations (discuss issues and
bargain with other to gain advantages)
Q&A
________ get things done through other people. They make decisions, allocate
resources, and direct the activities of others to attain goals.
A) Assistants
B) Managers
C) Secretaries
D) Interns
E) Apprentices
According to Henry Mintzberg, a factory supervisor giving a group of high school

students a tour of the plant may be termed as a ________.
A) leader
B) figurehead
C) resource allocator
D) negotiator
E) disturbance handler
According to Mintzberg's classification of managerial roles, the role of a(n)

________ is to transmit information received from outsiders or from other
employees to members of the organization
Q&A
Ellen Ortiz works as a sales manager at a telecom firm. The company
has recently launched a new product in the market. Her work in the
next few weeks involves sharing knowledge about the product with
her team members. She will also need to inspire them to reach their
sales targets and clarify any doubts about the new product. Which of
the following roles is Ortiz playing?

Q&A
Regina George works as a campaign manager in a not-for-profit organization
in Hampshire. For the upcoming campaign against genetic engineering, she
is networking with managers who are working on the issue of food safety.
Through her network of contacts, she strives to gain information about the
stakeholders in the food industry and other lobby groups. Which of the
following roles is George most likely to be playing according to Mintzberg's
classification of managerial roles?

Q&A
Annette Simpson works for a fashion house in Paris and is preparing for the
company's upcoming line of winter clothing. She is currently researching
online to know what is in vogue this season. In addition, she is also
networking with contacts from the press and fashion magazine editors to
understand the changing tastes of consumers. Which of the following roles is
Simpson playing according to Mintzberg's classification of managerial roles?

OB Model
• A model is an abstraction of reality, a simplified
representation of some real-world phenomenon.
INPUT------------→PROCESS-----------→OUTPUT
Variables
Variables represent the measurable traits
that can change over the course of a scientific
experiment.
• Independent Variable
• Dependent Variable
Types of Variables
Independent variable
The independent variable is the cause. Its value is

independent of other variables in your study.
Dependent variable
The dependent variable is the effect. Its value

depends on changes in the independent variable.
OB Model
INPUT: Ability to impact other variables.
PROCESSES: Processes are actions that individuals, groups,
and organizations engage in as a result of inputs and that lead
to certain outcomes.
• If inputs are like the nouns in organizational behavior,
processes are like verbs.
• Defined as actions that individuals, groups, and organizations
engage in as a result of inputs, and that lead to certain
outcomes.
OUTPUT: Outcomes are the key variables that you want to
explain or predict, and that are affected by some other
variables.
OB Model
Challenges and Opportunities of OB
• Responding to economic pressure
– In tough economic times, effective management is an asset.
– In good times, understanding how to reward, satisfy, and
retain employees is at a premium.
– In bad times, issues like stress, decision making, and coping
come to the forefront.
• Responding to globalization
• Increased foreign assignments.
• Working with people from different cultures.
• Overseeing movement of jobs to countries with low-
cost labor.
• Adapting to differing cultural and regulatory norms.
OB POLL Percentage of Men and Women Working
Sources: Based on U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Women in the Labor Force: A Datebook,” 2014,
www.bls.gov/opub/reports/cps/women-in-the-labor-force-adatabook-2014.pdf; and U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, “Economic
News Release,” 2013, http://www.bls.gov/news.release/ecopro.t02.htm.
• Managing workforce diversity
• Workforce diversity – organizations are becoming more
heterogeneous in terms of
• gender,
• age, race,
• ethnicity,
• sexual orientation, and inclusion of Workforce other
diverse groups.
• Improving customer service
• Service employees have substantial interaction with
customers.
• Employee attitudes and behavior are associated with
customer satisfaction.
• Need a customer-responsive culture.
• Improving people skills
• People skills are essential to managerial effectiveness.
• OB provides the concepts and theories that allow

managers to predict employee behavior in given situations.
Using social media at work
• Policies on accessing social media at work.
• When, where, and for what purpose.
• Impact of social media on employee well-being.

• Enhancing employee well-being at work
• The creation of the global workforce means work “no
longer sleeps”.
• Communication technology has provided a vehicle for
working at any time or any place.
• Employees are working longer hours per week.
• The lifestyles of families have changed—creating conflict.
• Balancing work and life demands now surpasses job
security as an employee priority.
• Creating a positive work environment
• Positive organizational scholarship is concerned with how
organizations develop human strength, foster vitality and
resilience, and unlock potential.
• This field of study focuses on employees’ strengths versus

their limitations, as employees share situations in which
they performed at their personal best.
• Typical employee is getting older
• Corporate downsizing and the heavy use of temporary workers
• Global competition requires employees to become more flexible
and cope with rapid change.
• Improving Ethical Behavior
Approaches to organizational
behavior
Human resource approach
• The human resource approach is also known as a
"supportive approach”
• It is concerned with the growth and development
of people towards a higher level of competency,
creativity, and fulfilment because people are a
central resource in any organisation and society.
• Thus, people contribute to the success of the
organisations.
Contingency Approach
• This approach asserts that different situations
require different responses regarding behavioural
practices
• Leadership analyses each individual situation,
identify the variables, and determine what works
best to achieve an objective.
Productivity Approach
• Productivity which is the ratio of output to input, is
a measure of effectiveness.
• Productivity measures level of output produced
and how efficiently one produces the desired
output.
• The greater the output with the same resources,
the higher the manager’s efficiency.
System approach
• Organizations as an inter-related and united
system.
• Managers treat organization as a whole group
• Activities of any department affects other
departments
• Everybody is responsible in the system
Questions
1. To what extent can individual business decisions (as opposed to
economic forces) explain the deterioration in working conditions for
many workers?
2. Do business organizations have a responsibility to ensure that employees

have secure jobs with good working conditions, or is their primary
responsibility to shareholders?
3. What alternative measures of organizational performance, besides share

prices, do you think might change the focus of business leaders?
4. What do you think the likely impact of the growth of temporary

employment relationships will be on employee attitudes and behaviours?
Motivation
Concepts and Applications
The term motivation can be traced to the Latin word

movere, which means
“to move”
Motivation
A recent Gallup poll revealed one reason—a majority of U.S.
employees (54 percent) are not actively engaged in their work, and
another portion (17 percent) are actively disengaged.
In the United States alone, self-improvement and motivational

services is an $11 billion market that is expected to grow 5.1
percent on average until 2027
Three Key Elements of Motivation
• Motivation is the processes that account for an
individual’s
✓ intensity,
✓ direction, and
✓ persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
• The level of motivation varies both between individuals

and within individuals at different times.
Three Key Elements of Motivation
• The three key elements of motivation are:
1. Intensity: concerned with how hard a person tries.
2. Direction: the orientation that benefits the

organization.
3. Persistence: a measure of how long a person can

maintain his/her effort.
Q&A
The ________ dimension of motivation measures how long

a person can maintain effort.
The ________ element of motivation describes how hard a

person tries.
The level of motivation varies both between individuals and

within individuals at different times T/F
Motivation
POLL
REASONS OUTCOMES
for lack of due to a lack
Motivation of Motivation
Classic Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s need theory
• It has received wide recognition, particularly among
practicing managers.
• It is intuitively logical and easy to understand and some

research has validated it.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of
Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Higher-order needs are satisfied internally (within the person), whereas Lower-
order needs are predominantly satisfied externally (by things such as pay,
union contracts, and tenure).
Q&A
The church you go to every Sunday is made up of people who have very
different lifestyles and are at different stages in their life. Joanna is a 23-
year-old single parent who works for minimum wage and shifts from motel
to motel for accommodation. Josephine is a single, 45-year-old woman who
earns a decent salary and has few interests and friends outside her office.
Jonathan is 60 years old, extremely wealthy, has a loving family, and enjoys
his work. You have decided to apply Maslow's hierarchy of needs to
determine what motivates each of these individuals.
Which of the following needs would most likely motivate Joanna?

Which of the following needs would most likely motivate Josephine?
Which of the following needs would most motivate Jonathan?
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Existence needs: include physiological and material safety needs.

These needs are satisfied by material conditions and not through
interpersonal relations or personal involvement in the work setting.
Relatedness needs include social safety and social esteem needs.

These needs are satisfied through exchanging thoughts and feelings
with other people.
Growth needs include self-esteem and self-actualization needs.

These needs tend to be satisfied through one’s full involvement in work
and the work setting.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Hertzberg two-factor theory
(motivation-hygiene theory)
A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and

associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction.
Hertzberg two-factor theory
Criticisms of Herzberg’s theory:
• Limited because it relies on self-reports.
• Reliability of methodology is questioned.
• No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.

Are you a high achiever?
You have one beanbag and five targets set up in front of
you, each farther away than the last.
• Target A sits almost within arm’s reach. If you hit it, you get $2.
• Target B is a bit farther out, but about 80 percent of the people
who try can hit it. It pays $4.
• Target C pays $8, and about half the people who try can hit it.
• Very few people can hit Target D, but the payoff is $16 for those
who do.
• Finally, Target E pays $32, but it’s almost impossible to achieve.
Which would you try for?

McClelland’s Theory of Needs
– McClelland and subsequent researchers focused most of
their attention on nAch.
– High achievers perform best when they perceive their probability

of success as 0.5—that is, a 50–50 chance.
– They dislike gambling with high odds because they get no

achievement satisfaction from success that comes by pure
chance.
– Similarly, they dislike low odds (high probability of success)

because then there is no challenge to their skills. They like to set
goals that require stretching themselves a little.
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
– The theory focuses on three needs:
▪ Need for achievement (nAch): drive to excel, to achieve
in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.
(how much people are motivated to excel at the tasks
they are performing, especially tasks that are difficult.)
▪ Need for power (nPow): need to make others behave in
a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.
(social power seeker : need to control things, especially
other people.)
▪ Need for affiliation (nAfl): desire for friendly and close

interpersonal relationships.
Q&A
You manage a department of five employees. You have identified that Joe has a high need
for achievement, Mary has a high need for power, and Tim has a high need for affiliation.
Sarah scored high on the need for power and low on the need for affiliation. Doug scored
low on both need for power and need for affiliation.
Which of these five employees is most likely to be suitable for a new assignment that
involves a high degree of personal responsibility and feedback?
A) Joe
B) Mary
C) Tim
D) Sarah
E) Doug
Q&A
You manage a department of five employees. You have identified that Joe has a high need
for achievement, Mary has a high need for power, and Tim has a high need for affiliation.
Sarah scored high on the need for power and low on the need for affiliation. Doug scored
low on both need for power and need for affiliation.
Which of these five employees is most suitable for handling your responsibilities when you
are on vacation?
A) Joe
B) Mary
C) Tim
D) Sarah
E) Doug
Q&A
Erika wants to become the head of the HR department. Although the role
comes with a generous salary hike and will put her in charge of several
subordinates, she is mainly pursuing this position because she believes
she can do the job better than anyone else and wants people to know
this. According to McClelland's theory of needs, which of the following
needs is Erika primarily driven by in this case?
A) the need for stability

B) the need for achievement
C) the need for security
D) the need for affiliation
E) the need for power
Motivation
Content-Based: (Reason)
• Motivation as the product of internal drives that compel an individual to act
or move (hence, “motivate”) toward the satisfaction of individual needs
• Content (or need) theories of motivation focus on factors internal to the

individual that energise and direct behaviour.
Self- Determination
Theory
Process-Based:
• The process theories are concerned with determining how individual
behaviour is energised, directed, and maintained in the specifically
willed and self-directed human cognitive processes.
• to explain how and why our motivations affect our behaviors
• Expectancy Theory
• Goal- Setting Theory
• Equity Theory
Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Consider what led you to choose your specialization

(HR/IB/Fin/Opr/Mkt).
▪ Did you feel like you had a choice in the matter?

▪ Did you feel free to explore and choose a specialization that
was right for you?
▪ Were others pressuring you to choose a specialization?
▪ Did you feel like you had the support of your parents, friends,
and teachers?
Self-determination theory (SDT)
Self-determination theory (SDT) proposes that employees’ well-being

and performance are influenced by the nature of their motivation for
certain job activities.
A meta-theory of motivation at work that is concerned with autonomy,

intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and the satisfaction of
psychological work needs.
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy: the effort–performance relationship.
The degree to which the individual believes exerting a given amount of
effort will lead to performance.
Instrumentality: the performance–reward relationship
The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular
level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
Valence: the rewards–personal goals relationship
The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s
personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards
for the individual.
Expectancy Theory
Q&A
Logan is an employee who processes health insurance forms. Initially he was
criticized by his supervisor for sloppy work, but thereafter he improved considerably.
Now he consistently processes his forms without errors and even does more than
his fair share of work. However, Logan's supervisor has not responded to the extra
effort he has put in, giving him no praise or monetary benefits. This leads Logan to
believe that his supervisor is biased against him.
According to the expectancy theory, in this situation, there is a problem in the

________ relationship.
A) rewards-personal goals
B) performance-awareness
C) performance-reward
D) performance-objectives
E) performance-achievement
If employees can participate in the setting of their own goals,

will they try harder?
Goal- Setting Theory
A theory that intentions to work toward a goal is considered a

major source of work motivation and leads to higher
performance.
Self-Determination Theory vs. Goal-
Setting Theory
Cascading of Objectives
Lee is a student working toward a bachelor’s degree in finance. Lee has
accepted a summer internship in the finance department at a pharmaceutical
company and is quite pleased with the pay: $20 an hour is more than other
students in the cohort receive for their summer internships. At work Lee
meets Kai, a recent graduate working as a middle manager in the same
finance department.
Kai makes $30 an hour and is dissatisfied. Specifically, Kai tells Lee that
compared to managers at other pharmaceutical companies, this position
pays much less. “It isn’t fair. I work just as hard as they do, yet I don’t make
as much. Maybe I should go work for the competition?” How could someone
making $30 an hour be less satisfied with their pay than someone making
$20 an hour and be less motivated as a result?
According to equity theory, employees compare what they get from their job
(their “outcomes,” such as pay, promotions, recognition, or a bigger office) to what
they put into it (their “inputs,” such as effort, experience, and education).
They take the ratio of their outcomes (O) to their inputs (I) and compare it to the
ratio of others, usually someone similar like a coworker or someone doing the same
job.
Model of Organizational Justice
Q&A
Which of the following theories proposes that people prefer to feel they
have control over their actions, so anything that makes a previously
enjoyed task feel more like an obligation than a freely chosen activity will
undermine motivation?
A) self-serving theory
B) motivation-hygiene theory
C) two-factor theory
D) self-determination theory
E) goal setting theory
Q&A
Rachel's parents used to pay her an allowance every week to feed the cats and to do a
few other chores around the house. However, once her mother lost her job, her parents
stopped giving her an allowance. Although Rachel quit making her bed every morning,
she still continued to feed the cats. Which of the following best explains why Rachel
continues to feed the cats?
A) Without the extrinsic reward, the task itself is eliminated.

B) With the extrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on internal motivation.
C) Without the intrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on external motivation.
D) Without the extrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on internal motivation.
E) With the intrinsic reward, the execution of the task relies on external motivation.
Q&A
Karen graduated from college four years ago and has been working at
Betaphy Inc. ever since. She has consistently received good performance
evaluations for the quality of her work. She recently found out that her
company hired a fresh college graduate with no experience at a salary
higher than hers. Which of the following theories will Karen most likely use
to evaluate this situation?
A) reinforcement
B) goal setting
C) equity
D) expectancy
E) operant conditioning
Q&A
Jim is a salaried employee whose job is to develop content for online Web
sites. He discovers that he is paid substantially more than his colleagues
even though their jobs and levels of performance are very similar.
According to the equity theory, what impact is this discovery most likely to
have on his behavior and performance?
A) He will reduce the amount of work that he does on a daily basis.
B) He will compare his earnings to those of another group of employees.
C) He will increase his productivity and/or the overall quality of his work.
D) He will seek a position within the company commensurate with his pay.
E) He will begin to look for a position outside of the company.
Motivating by Job Design:
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM)
A survey of nearly three thousand working parents in the UK found that

78 percent were working beyond their contracted hours (despite having
children to care for), mainly for workload reasons or because it was part
of the culture to work overtime.
Commenting on the results, one manager noted that employers

should “really rethink job design to tackle the problem of
overworking.
Motivating by Job Design
A survey of nearly three thousand working parents in the UK found that

78 percent were working beyond their contracted hours (despite having
children to care for), mainly for workload reasons or because it was part
of the culture to work overtime.
Commenting on the results, one manager noted that employers

should “really rethink job design to tackle the problem of
overworking.
Motivating by Job Design:
A model proposing that any job can be described in terms of five core
job dimensions:
• skill variety,
• task identity,
• task significance,
• autonomy, and
• feedback.
Skill variety: The work of a garage owner-operator who does electrical repairs,
rebuilds engines, does bodywork, and interacts with customers scores high on skill
variety. The job of a body shop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day scores low
on this dimension.
Task identity: A cabinetmaker who designs furniture, selects the wood, builds the
furniture, and finishes the pieces has a job that scores high on task identity. A job
scoring low on this dimension would involve operating a lathe solely to make table
legs.
Task significance: The job of a nurse helping patients in a hospital intensive care
unit scores high on task significance; sweeping floors in a hospital scores low.
Autonomy: Sales managers who schedule their own work and tailor their sales
approach to each customer without supervision have highly autonomous jobs.
Feedback: Direct and clear information about your own performance.
Motivating by Reward
• Variable-Pay Programs
• Pay-for-Performance
• Profit-Sharing Plan
• Employee Stock Ownership Plan
• Employee Recognition Programs

Perception,
Individual Decision Making
Perception
• Perception is a process by which we organize and interpret
sensory impressions to give meaning to our environment.
• What we perceive can be substantially different from

objective reality.
Perception
Factors That Influence Perception
• Individual factors (Factors in the perceiver)

• Factors in the situation (Setting)
• Factors in the target (Objects)
Perception
Individual factors (Factors in the perceiver)

• Attitudes
• Motives
• Interests
• Experience
• Expectations
Perception
Factors in the situation (Setting)

• Time
• Work setting
• Social setting
Perception
Factors in the target (Objects)

• Motion
• Sounds
• Size
• Background
• Proximity
• Similarity
Q&A
________ is the process by which individuals organize and interpret their
sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.
A) Sensation
B) Impression
C) Apprehension
D) Attribution
E) Perception
Which of the following statements is true regarding perception?

A) Perception of reality is independent of one's personality.
B) Our perception of a target is not affected by the context of the situation in
which the perception is made.
C) Our perception of reality can be different from the objective reality.
D) Our perception of reality is independent of our past experiences.
E) We form a perception of a target by looking at it in isolation.
Q&A
David Myers is of the opinion that people who drive SUVs are rash drivers.
He feels that people driving SUVs do not respect road rules and always
violate traffic regulations. What personal factor is most likely to be
affecting Myers' perception of SUV drivers?
A) his financial background
B) his expectations
C) his interest
D) his motive
E) his personality
Extremely attractive or unattractive individuals are most likely to be noticed in

a group. Which of the following statements best describes the reason behind
this?
A) Our perception of reality depends on our past experiences.
B) Our perception of reality depends on our personality.
C) We don't look at targets in isolation.
D) The time at which we see an object can influence our perception of the
object.
E) Our motives and expectations affect our perception of a target.
Q&A
During team meetings, Amber Downing always notices that
Rhona Law tends to ask many questions and suggest ideas at
each discussion. However, Law stands out in the meetings
only because she is the only one making suggestions. If both
of them were part of team meetings where almost all
members made suggestions and asked questions, Law would
not have drawn as much attention from Downing. Which of
the following factors has most likely influenced Downing's
perception of Law?
A) expectation
B) interest
C) past experience
D) context
E) motive
Q&A
Monica Walden feels that people who use plastic bags are insensitive toward
the environment. She believes that people have a certain obligation toward
their environment and should take it upon themselves to protect and
preserve it. Which of the following factors has most likely influenced
Walden's perception of plastic bag users?
A) location
B) time
C) characteristic of the target
D) expectation
E) context
Q&A
Alicia Akers works as a marketing executive. She always talks in a high pitch
and often draws a lot of attention wherever she is. Which of the following
statements best explains the reason behind people noticing Akers?
A) Perception of reality depends on the perceiver's past experiences.

B) Perception of reality depends on the perceiver's personality.
C) Characteristics of the target affect people's perception.
D) The time at which we observe behavior affects perception.
E) Motives and interests of the perceiver affects perception of behavior.
Perception
Attribution Theory
• Attribution theory tries to explain the ways we judge people
differently depending on the meaning we attribute to their
behavior.
• Such as determining whether an individual’s behavior is
internally or externally caused.
Internally caused behaviors are those an observer believes to be under the

personal behavioral control of another individual (e.g., coming to work late
because the coworker is lazy).
Externally caused behavior is what we imagine the situation forced the individual
to do (e.g., coming to work late because of bad traffic)
Q&A
According to the attribution theory, ________ is one of the
three main factors which attempt to determine an individual's
behavior.
A) distinctiveness
B) perverseness
C) flexibleness
D) resilience
E) timorousness
Q&A
Janice Yoder works in an environmental campaigning organization
and often needs to interact with a large team for project
implementation activities. However, she always finds it difficult to
work as a part of a team. She always seems to have major
disagreements with team members which lead to antagonistic
relations between them. Though she has moved from one team to
another, her relations with colleagues always seem to be hostile
and cold. How would the attribution theory describe this behavior?
A) low on consensus
B) high on reliability
C) high on adaptability
D) high on consistency
E) low on distinctiveness
Perception
Bias in Attribution
Self-serving bias
The tendency for individuals to attribute their own
successes to internal factors and put the blame for
failures on external factors.
Perception
Issues in Judging Others
Selective perception
The tendency to choose to interpret what one sees
based on one’s interests, background, experience, and
attitudes.
Perception
Halo effect
The tendency to draw a positive general impression
about an individual based on a single characteristic.
Horns effect
The tendency to draw a negative general impression
about an individual based on a single characteristic.
Perception
Contrast effect:
Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that is affected
by comparisons with other people recently
encountered who rank higher or lower on the same
characteristics
Decision Making in Organizations
OB improves the way we make decisions in organizations by
addressing both perceptual and decision-making errors.
• The Rational Model,
• Bounded Rationality, and
• Intuition
The rational decision-making model: A decision-
making model that describes how individuals should
behave to maximize some outcome.
1. Define the problem.

2. Identify the decision criteria.
3. Allocate weights to the criteria.
4. Develop the alternatives.
5. Evaluate the alternatives.
6. Select the best alternative.
we cannot solve complex problems with full rationality,
we operate within the confines of bounded rationality
Bounded Rationality: Simplified process of making

decisions by perceiving and interpreting the
essential features of problems without capturing their
complexity.
we cannot solve complex problems with full rationality,
we operate within the confines of bounded rationality
Intuition: Perhaps the least rational way of making

decisions is intuitive decision making, an unconscious
process created from distilled experience.
Common Biases and Errors in
Decision Making
Overconfidence Bias: We tend to be too confident
about our abilities and the abilities of others, but we are
usually not aware of this overconfidence bias.
Anchoring Bias: Similar to the halo and horns effects
Confirmation bias represents a case of selective

perception.
Common Biases and Errors in
Decision Making
Randomness error: The tendency of individuals to
believe that they can predict the outcome of random
events.
Anchoring Bias: Similar to the halo and horns effects
Confirmation bias represents a case of selective

perception.
Max’s Burgers: The Dollar Value of Ethics
Max’s Burgers: The Dollar Value of Ethics
Questions
1. Does the decision to accept or refuse the frozen meat shipment call
for ethical or legal considerations? Why?
2. Identify the stakeholders who will be influenced by the decision to
accept or refuse the frozen meat shipment.
3. What type of decision-making framework would you advise the
warehouse manager to adopt in order to help him reach an optimal
decision? How will your suggestion help?
Personality
Introduction and Framework
Personality
Is it Personality?
• person has charm
• a constantly smiling face
• height of individual
Personality
Is it Personality?
Thinking of one of your coworkers, you might think
they are
“fun”, “outgoing”, “hard-working”
or maybe you think they are
“lazy”, “close-minded”
Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior

(personality traits)
Personality
• Personality is the sum total of ways in which an
individual reacts to and interacts with others
• Dynamic concept describing the growth and

development of a person’s whole psychological
system
Personality
Can we measure an Individual’s

Personality?
• 89 of the Fortune 100 companies

• 57 percent of all large U.S. companies use them
Personality
• Prior studies have shown personality tests are useful in hiring
decisions and help managers forecast who is best for a job.
• The most common means of measuring personality is through self-
report surveys.
• This presents a problem of applicants and candidates “faking” their
responses to the personality test, although there are ways to
design personality tests to lower the chances this will happen.
Personality
Q &A
________ is the sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with
others.
A) Talent
B) Skill
C) Knowledge
D) Heredity
E) Personality
Esther Lugo has gone for an interview at an advertising firm in Manhattan and has
been asked to complete a self-report survey to help interviewers understand if she
is the right candidate for the job. From the interview, they have found that she is
extroverted, empathic, scrupulous, and cooperative in nature, which are key
characteristics needed for the job. These characteristics about Lugo indicate her
________.
A) talent
B) skill
C) knowledge
D) genealogy
E) personality
Q &A
________ is the sum of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with
others.
A) Talent
B) Skill
C) Knowledge
D) Heredity
E) Personality
Esther Lugo has gone for an interview at an advertising firm in Manhattan and has
been asked to complete a self-report survey to help interviewers understand if she
is the right candidate for the job. From the interview, they have found that she is
extroverted, empathic, scrupulous, and cooperative in nature, which are key
characteristics needed for the job. These characteristics about Lugo indicate her
________.
A) talent
B) skill
C) knowledge
D) genealogy
E) personality
Q &A
Tracy Winter works at a publishing firm in London and recently received an e-mail
from the human resource department of her company asking her to study the
behavior of a colleague, Cindy Camp, including her attention toward her work.
Winter now needs to scrutinize Camp's behavior and notice if she is free from
distractions and pays sufficient attention to her tasks. Which of the following is
Winter conducting?
A) observer-ratings survey
B) informational interview
C) knowledge survey
D) participant observation
E) focus group survey
Which of the following statements is true about personality?

A) Personality is free from the influence of the environment.
B) Personality remains constant over time.
C) Personality can be measured solely through personal interviews.
D) Personality is influenced by hereditary factors.
E) Parents highly influence the development of their offspring's personality.
Personality assessment
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
• It is the most widely used personality assessment instrument in
the world.
• 100-question personality test (asks people how they usually
feel or act in particular situations)
• MBTI has been widely used by organizations including Apple,
Citigroup, 3M Co., and many hospitals and educational institutions.

Extraverted (E) versus Introverted (I)
• Extraverted individuals are outgoing, sociable, and
assertive.
• Introverts are quiet and shy.

Sensing (S) versus Intuitive (N)
• Sensing types are practical and prefer routine and order.
• Intuitive relies on unconscious processes and look at the
“big picture”
Thinking (T) versus Feeling (F)
• Thinking types use reason and logic to handle problems.
• Feeling types rely on their personal values and
emotions.
Judging (J) versus Perceiving (P)
• Judging types want control and prefer their world to be
ordered and structured.
• Perceiving types are flexible and spontaneous.

• The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most
widely used personality framework.
• Individuals are classified as:
– Extroverted or Introverted (E or I)
– Sensing or Intuitive (S or N)
– Thinking or Feeling (T or F)
– Perceiving or Judging (P or J)
▪ INTJs are visionaries.
▪ ESTJs are organizers.
▪ ENTPs are conceptualizers.
The Big Five Model
– five basic dimensions and encompass most of the
significant variation in human personality.
– test scores of these traits help in predicting how

people behave in a variety of real-life situations
Q&A
According to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
classification, people belonging to the ________ type
are practical and prefer routine and order and focus
on details.
A) sensing
B) extraverted
C) feeling
D) perceiving
E) intuitive
Q&A
According to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
classification, people belonging to the ________ type
are flexible and spontaneous.
A) thinking
B) judging
C) introverted
D) sensing
E) perceiving
Q&A
Ellen Athers works as a communication executive at a
travel house. She is known to be friendly with her
colleagues and interacts with them regularly to build
strong work relationships. She knows that her rapport
with her co-workers is a crucial part of her work and
invests time in these relationships. In addition, she is
assertive in making decisions, and colleagues take her
decisions seriously. Which of the following types is Athers
most likely to be characterized as according to the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) classification?
A) perceiving
B) brooder
C) extraverted
D) introverted
E) solitary
Q&A
Valerie Sinclair, a climate campaigner at an
environmental organization, invariably uses rationale to
make decisions for project implementation. She believes
that the right decisions can be made only through
scrutiny and analysis. Each time she needs to make a
decision, she weighs all options before taking action.
Which of the following is a characteristic of Sinclair's
personality type according to the Myers-Briggs Type
Indicator (MBTI) classification?
A) intuitive
B) introverted
C) thinking
D) feeling
E) perceiving
The Big Five Model
– Extraversion
– Agreeableness
– Conscientiousness
– Emotional stability
– Openness to experience
The Big Five Model
Extraversion:
The extraversion dimension captures our comfort level

with relationships, and extraverts tend to be sociable.
Agreeableness:
Highly agreeable people are cooperative, warm, and
trusting.
People who score low on agreeableness are cold,

disagreeable
The Big Five Model
Conscientiousness:
• The conscientiousness dimension is a measure of
reliability.
• A highly conscientious person is responsible, organized,
dependable, and persistent.
• Those who score low on this dimension are easily
distracted, disorganized, and unreliable.
The Big Five Model
Emotional stability
• The emotional stability dimension—taps a person’s ability
to withstand stress.
• People with positive emotional stability tend to be calm,
self-confident, and secure.
• Those with high negative scores tend to be nervous,
anxious, depressed, and insecure.
The Big Five Model
Openness to experience:
• Extremely open people are creative, curious, and
sensitive.
• Those at the other end of the category are conventional
and find comfort in the familiar.
Model of How Big Five Traits Influence OB Criteria
Q&A
People scoring high on the ________ dimension of
the Big Five model are more likely to be socially
dominant, "take charge" people than those who
score low.
A) agreeableness
B) conscientiousness
C) openness
D) extraversion
E) emotional stability
Q&A
Marina Lyon works as a reservation executive at a travel
and tourism company. Though her job requires her only
to efficiently book flight tickets for customers, she has
also opted to undergo training to learn the process of
hotel reservations. In addition, every evening she reads
travelogues to be aware of upcoming travel destinations
and trends. She loves the industry she works in and is
eager to learn as much as she can. Considering the
information given in this case, which dimension of the
Big Five model best describes Lyon's personality?
A) extraversion
B) agreeableness
C) conscientiousness
D) openness to experience
E) emotional stability
How Long Should You Wait Before Deciding If a Job Is Not a Good Fit?
Know yourself
Personality assessment- MBTI
Group Dynamics and Teams
Group
Two or more individuals, interacting

and interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular
objectives
Group
Formal group: A designated work group
defined by an organization’s structure.
Informal group: A group that is not defined by

an organization’s structure; such a group
appears in response to other needs, such as
social clubs or interest groups.
Why Do People Form Groups?
Social identity theory
Perspective that considers when and

why individuals consider themselves
members of groups.
Similarity: people who have the same

• Values
• Characteristics
• Demographic similarity
Uncertainty reduction:
Status: Because people use identities to define themselves
and increase self-esteem, it makes sense that they are most
interested in linking themselves to high-status groups.
• Graduates of prestigious universities will go out of their way to
emphasize their links to their alma maters and are more likely
to donate.
• People are likely to not identify with a low-status organization
and will be more likely to quit in order to leave that identity
behind.
The Five-Stage Model
Stage 1
Forming stage
• It is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the
group’s purpose, structure, and leadership.
• This stage is complete when members have begun to
think of themselves as part of a group.
Stage 2
Storming stage
• It is one of intragroup conflict. Members accept the
existence of the group but resist the constraints it
imposes on individuality.
• There is conflict over who will control the group.
• When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively
clear hierarchy of leadership within the group.
Stage 3
Norming stage
• close relationships develop and the group demonstrates
cohesiveness.
• There is now a strong sense of group identity
Stage 4
Performing stage
• The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted
• Group energy has moved from getting to know and
understand each other to performing the task at hand.
• For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage
in development
Stage 5
Adjourning stage
• wrapping up activities
• preparing to disband
Group Property
Roles: Group members are actors, each playing a role.
Role perception: An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to

act in a given situation.
Role expectations are how others believe you should act in a given
context. (Psychological contract)
Group Property
Norms: acceptable standards of behaviour shared

by their members
Role perception: An individual’s view of how he or she is supposed to

act in a given situation.
Role expectations are how others believe you should act in a given
context. (Psychological contract)
Group Properties
Status: a socially defined position or rank given to

groups or group members by others
Size: Count
Diversity: race, gender
Cohesiveness: the degree to which members are attracted

to each other and motivated to stay in the group.
Q&A
Which of the following is true regarding formal groups?
A) They are natural formations that arise in response to
the need for social contact.
B) They lack clearly defined structures and roles for their
members.
C) They have negligible impact on employee performance
and behavior.
D) A group of people who come together to protest
against a new law make up a formal group.
E) They are marked by stipulated behaviors in pursuit of
organizational goals.
Q&A
Which of the following differentiates between formal and
informal groups?
A) The timeline of reference for formal groups is greater than
that for informal groups.
B) The impact of formal groups on organizational performance
is less than that of informal groups.
C) Formal groups pursue the goal of social contact, while
informal groups have definite organizational goals to attain.
D) Formal groups are typically smaller in size when compared
to informal groups.
E) Formal groups involve clearly defined tasks and roles, while
informal groups are neither formally structured nor
organizationally determined.
Q&A
In the context of the social identity theory, people
have ________ to the failure or success of group
members.
A) angry reactions
B) lack of empathy or pride
C) emotional withdrawal
D) lack of reaction
E) emotional reactions
Q&A
Which of the following is true with regard to the social
identity theory?
A) It proposes that members take personal pride in
accomplishments but dissociate from the group in the event
of any offenses or failures.
B) It proposes that people have emotional reactions to the
failure or success of their group because their self-esteem is
tied into the group's performance.
C) It proposes that people develop only one social identity in
childhood that becomes more defined and concrete in the
course of their lives.
D) It proposes that social identities can never be detrimental
as they have no effect on how members of an ingroup view
members of an out-group.
E) It proposes that members of an ingroup are viewed as
being homogeneous, while members of an out-group are
seen as being heterogeneous.
Group vs Team
Work group: A group that interacts primarily to share

information and to make decisions to help each group
member perform within his or her area of responsibility.
Work team: A group whose individual efforts result in

performance that is greater than the sum of the individual
inputs.
Why are teams popular?
• Teams can achieve feats an individual could never
accomplish.
• Teams are flexible and responsive to changing events.
• They can quickly assemble, deploy, refocus, and

disband.
• They are an effective means to democratize

organizations and increase employee involvement.
• They introduce a collaborative mindset.

Group vs Team
Types of Teams
Teams
Problem-solving Teams
• teams rarely have the

authority to unilaterally
implement any of their
suggestions.
Teams
Self-managed work teams
employees (typically 10 to 15 in
number) who perform highly
related or interdependent jobs
and take on many of the
responsibilities of their former
supervisors.
Teams
Cross functional work teams
Starbucks created a team of individuals from production,
global PR, global communications, and U.S. marketing
to develop its Via brand of instant coffee. The team’s
suggestions resulted in a product that would be cost-
effective to produce and distribute and that was
marketed through a tightly integrated, multifaceted
strategy.
Teams
Virtual teams
• use computer technology

to unite physically
dispersed members and
achieve a common goal.
Team Effectiveness Model
Q&A
Which of the following terms indicates the tendency

of individuals to spend less effort when working
collectively?
A) groupthink
B) collective efficacy
C) social loafing
D) groupshift
E) social facilitation
Q&A
What is the primary purpose of a work group?

A) to generate positive synergy
B) to improve collective performance
C) to inculcate a climate of trust
D) to share relevant information
E) to enhance team efficacy
Q&A
Which of the following statements best defines a work
group?
A) A work group performs at a level greater than the sum of
its inputs from individual members.
B) A work group interacts primarily to share information,
rather than to engage in work that requires joint effort.
C) A work group consists of members who work together and
generate positive synergy through coordinated effort.
D) A work group consists of members having complementary
skills that are applied in a coordinated fashion to the task at
hand.
E) A work group involves individual and mutual accountability
regarding results and outcomes.
Q&A
A work team is characterized by ________.
A) the goal of sharing information
B) the presence of neutral to negative synergy
C) the availability of complementary skills among
members
D) the individual accountability for outcomes and results
E) the mere accumulation of individual efforts
Q&A
A work team is characterized by ________.
A) the goal of sharing information
B) the presence of neutral to negative synergy
C) the availability of complementary skills among
members
D) the individual accountability for outcomes and results
E) the mere accumulation of individual efforts
Q&A
Which of the following statements is true regarding a
work team?
A) Work teams are rarely used in organizations today.
B) Work teams are generally less flexible than traditional
departments.
C) Work teams generate positive synergy through
coordinated effort.
D) Work teams are less responsive to changes in the
internal and external environment of the company.
E) Work teams involve members of random and varied
skill sets.
Q&A
The supervisors of the production division of one of the branches
of Georgia Mills have been informed of some irregularities noticed
in inventory of raw materials by some trusted subordinates. To get
a clearer picture, the supervisors had a quick meeting with the
subordinates who reported the matter over lunch. The
subordinates recommended rotating the schedule of employees
who account for the incoming and used up stock so as to pinpoint
the defaulting employee. The supervisors agreed that this was a
good strategy but admitted that the matter must be escalated to
the production manager before such a change can be
implemented. They followed up this meeting with subsequent
sessions to evaluate how the change worked. The supervisors and
subordinates form a(n) ________ team in this scenario.
A) cross-functional
B) independent
C) problem-solving
D) virtual
E) self-managed
Q&A
Nick, the director of manufacturing at a large electronics
company, has created a team of eleven employees from
quality control for working on high priority projects. Nick
gives the team members the responsibility of planning
and scheduling their own work and making all functional
decisions. Also, members of this team evaluate each
other's performance. This is an example of a ________
team.
A) problem-solving
B) self-managed work
C) cross-functional
D) virtual
E) task-resolution
Leadership
Leadership
• the ability to influence a group toward the achievement
of a vision or set of goals
• Discuss the roles of leaders in creating ethical organizations.

• Describe how leaders can have a positive impact on their
organizations through building trust and mentoring.
• Identify the challenges to our understanding of leadership.
Poll
Do you agree…..
All leaders are managers
All managers are leaders
Trait theory
Trait theories of leadership that consider
▪ personal qualities and
▪ characteristics
that differentiate leaders from non-leaders.
• Situational features
Trait theory
Relationship with leadership
• Personality Traits (e.g., Dark, Proactive)

• Emotional Intelligence (empathy)
1) Leadership is best defined as ________.
A) the ability to merely project one's abilities in the lack of actual
accomplishments
B) the ability to reduce the dependence of team members on each
other
C) the ability to induce the team members to focus on individual
goals rather than collective goals
D) the ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision
or set of goals
E) the ability to use factors like training and experience to reduce
dependence on formal leadership
Which of the following is a desirable feature of leadership?
A) one-directional influence from the leader to the follower
B) coercive power and authority
C) lack of freedom
D) passivity of followers
E) coexistence of leaders and managers
Trait theories of leadership focus on ________.
A) the special relationship that leaders establish with a small group
of their followers
B) the personal qualities and characteristics that differentiate leaders
from nonleaders
C) the way the leader makes decisions
D) the extent to which followers are willing and able to accomplish a
specific task
E) the match between the leader's style and the degree to which the
situation gives the leader control
Emotional intelligence (EI) is critical to effective leadership because
one of its core components is ________, which reflects the
consideration that leaders must be able to express.
A) conscientiousness
B) empathy
C) optimism
D) introversion
E) perfectionism
7) Trait theories most accurately predict ________.
A) distinguishing features of an effective leader
B) differences between an effective and an ineffective leader
C) success of a leader
D) roles to be played by the leader
E) emergence of a leader
Behavioral Theories
Behavioral Theories
Trait theories provide a basis for selecting the
right people for leadership.
Behavioral theories of leadership, in contrast,

imply that we can train people to be leaders
Behavioral Theories
• Behavioral theories of leadership imply we can train
people to be leaders.
– Ohio State Studies found two behaviors that

accounted for most leadership behavior:
▪ Initiating structure
▪ Consideration
Behavioral Theories
Initiating structure
▪ extent to which a leader defines and structures their role
and those of their followers to facilitate goal attainment.
(behavior that attempts to organize work, work

relationships, and goals)
Behavioral Theories
Consideration
The extent to which a leader has job relationships that are
characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinates’
ideas, and regard for their feelings.
Behavioral Theories
• The GLOBE study suggests there are international
differences in preference for initiating structure and
consideration.
– Found that leaders high in consideration would succeed
best in where cultures did not favor unilateral decision
making.
Summary of Trait Theories and
Behavioral Theories
• Traits can predict leadership.
• Traits do a better job predicting the emergence of leaders
than they do at distinguishing between effective and
ineffective leaders.
• Leaders who have certain traits and who display culturally
appropriate consideration and structuring behaviors do
appear to be more effective.
• Traits and behaviors do not guarantee success.
• Context matters too.
In the context of behavioral dimensions of leadership identified in the Ohio
State Studies, initiating structure refers to the extent to which ________.
A) a person's job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect
for employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings
B) a leader engages in participative management
C) a leader is accepting of and respects individual differences among
various team members
D) a leader is likely to define and organize his or her role and those of
employees in the search for goal attainment
E) a leader initiates efforts to communicate personally with employees
In the context of behavioral dimensions of leadership identified in
the Ohio State Studies, ________ is the extent to which a person's
job relationships are characterized by mutual trust, respect for
employees' ideas, and regard for their feelings.
A) consideration
B) transaction
C) authentication
D) task orientation
E) identification
Tim Wrench was leading the client services division of AmWeb for seven years when he was asked to
move to another region where the company was setting up its office. Before moving, Tim was asked
to help in finding a successor for him from his team. Tim's most obvious choice was Judy Judge, and
the management accepted his choice as Judy was a popular person across the company. Judy was
known for her vivacious nature, was often seen speaking to employees from various divisions, and
was always excited to take up a new opportunity. Once she became a leader, she continued to give
employees freedom and flexibility even if it resulted in deficiencies on the work front like missed
deadlines or low quality. Judy's initial weeks as a leader were full of confusion among her team
members, but many felt that the situation would come under control. When things did not improve in
the next two months and many complaints poured in from clients, the management realized that Judy
was not the best candidate to lead the team. Which of the following, if true, would best explain this
outcome?
A) Judy was a high-performing employee and enjoyed good relationships with everyone on the team.
B) Everyone felt Judy was given insufficient time to prove her worth as a leader.
C) Research has shown that traits can predict the emergence of a leader, but not his or her efficiency
as a leader.
D) The client complaints were a common thing encountered by the company.
E) Judy demonstrated low levels of consideration and high levels of task-orientation.
Contingency Theories
Fiedler contingency model
▪ Group performance depends on the proper match
between a leader’s style and the degree to which the
situation gives a leader control.
According to this model, leadership styles reflect the

degree to which leaders approach situations from either a
task-oriented or relationship-oriented perspective.
▪ Three contingency or situational dimensions

1. Leader–member relations (degree of confidence, trust, and respect
that members have in their leader)
2. Task structure (degree to which the job assignments are regimented,
that is, structured or unstructured).
3. Position power (degree of influence a leader has over power variables
such as hiring, firing, discipline, promotions, and salary increases)
Situational leadership theory (SLT)
• Situational leadership theory (SLT) is a contingency

theory that focuses on the followers.
• appropriate leadership style depends on followers’
readiness (e.g., willingness and competence) to
accomplish a specific task
– Successful leadership is achieved by selecting the

right leadership style, which is contingent on the level
of the followers’ readiness.
Path Goal theory
• Have you ever had a leader that motivated you to

achieve your organizational, educational, or personal
goals?
• Derived from belief that effective leaders clarify the path

to help followers achieve work goals.
Contingency theories focus on the ________ that
impact leadership success.
A) personality variables
B) leader's abilities to inspire and transform followers
C) situational variables
D) values and ethics
E) features of the followers
Fiedler's contingency model assumes that ________.
A) an individual's leadership style is essentially fixed
B) an individual is constantly striving to develop a more
productive style
C) an individual's leadership is primarily determined by
the features of the followers
D) an individual's leadership style can be altered much
like his or her personality traits
E) an individual's leadership style must be task oriented to
be effective
Fiedler defines the degree of confidence, trust, and
respect that subordinates have in their leader as
________.
A) leader-member relations
B) task structure
C) positional power
D) follower variables
E) path-goal frameworks
Which of the following theoretical approaches in the
study of leadership focuses on followers' readiness as a
determinant of effective leadership?
A) Big Five personality model
B) behavioral theories
C) Fiedler contingency model
D) laissez-faire leadership
E) situational leadership theory
According to the situational leadership theory, if
employees are unwilling and unable, the appropriate
leadership style in this situation would be ________.
A) participative
B) democratic
C) person-oriented
D) directive
E) supportive
According to the situational leadership theory, if followers
are unable and willing to do a task, then a leader needs to
________.
A) follow a supportive style
B) engage in participative leadership
C) refrain from providing too many inputs
D) display high task and relationship orientation
E) demonstrate high task and low relationship orientation
According to the situational leadership theory, a follower
with the desired ability and willingness is likely to be
________.
A) lacking in the area of motivation
B) deficient in the specific skills required
C) comfortable in his ability to do the job well
D) highly skilled in relevant areas but low on experience
E) in need of leadership that is highly task oriented
Which of the following statements is true with regard to
the path-goal theory of leadership?
A) The theory considers leadership to be a set of
attributes ascribed to leaders by followers.
B) The theory proposes only a passive and supportive role
for leaders.
C) The theory considers removing obstacles to be a
component of effective leadership.
D) The theory proposes that leaders must work closely
with followers throughout.
E) The path-goal theory represents a laissez-faire
approach to leadership.
Positive Leadership Styles
Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Think of a leader you know.
Does this leader have favorite followers who make up their “ingroup”?
If you answered yes, you are acknowledging leader–member exchange

(LMX) theory.
LMX suggests leaders and followers have unique, one on-

one relationships that vary with each follower
Leader–Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Charismatic leadership theory
Sociologist Max Weber defined charisma (from the Greek for

“gift”) as “a certain quality of an individual personality.
Martin Luther King Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, and former

president Barack Obama
Followers attribute heroic or extraordinary leadership

abilities when they observe certain behaviors
(e.g., those that are values-driven, symbolic, or emotion-

laden) and tend to give these leaders power
Transactional leadership
Leaders who guide or

• motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by
clarifying role and task requirements,
• allocating rewards
• punishment where needed, and
• (passively or actively) intervening when the situation calls for it.
Transformational Leadership
Inspire followers to transcend their self-interests for the good of

the organization (A. Lincoln)
Transformational leaders can have an extraordinary effect on

their followers.
Lower side on power distance
Health and security industries as well as in cultures worldwide

Characteristics of Transactional and Transformational
Leaders
According to the LMX theory, a leader implicitly
categorizes followers as "in" or "out" ________.
A) after careful performance analysis
B) on a temporary basis
C) early in the interaction
D) because of political pressure
E) only after several months of working together
In her first few weeks at the marketing division of Rolland
Retails, Judith Cox realized that Joshua, Doug, and Carl were
closer to her manager, Eric Scott, than the other five team
members. Eric, Joshua, Doug, and Carl came to work at the
same time, were seen together at the cafeteria, and stayed
late and worked when the need arose. In contrast to them,
the other five team members did the routine jobs assigned to
them, and their interactions lacked the understanding and
camaraderie that Eric shared with the others. Joshua, Doug,
and Carl make up Eric's ________.
A) out-group
B) reference group
C) nominal group
D) ingroup
E) peripheral group
In her first few weeks at the marketing division of Rolland
Retails, Judith Cox realized that Joshua, Doug, and Carl were
closer to her manager, Eric Scott, than the other five team
members. Eric, Joshua, Doug, and Carl came to work at the
same time, were seen together at the cafeteria, and stayed
late and worked when the need arose. In contrast to them,
the other five team members did the routine jobs assigned to
them, and their interactions lacked the understanding and
camaraderie that Eric shared with the others. Joshua, Doug,
and Carl make up Eric's ________.
A) out-group
B) reference group
C) nominal group
D) ingroup
E) peripheral group
Which theory of leadership proposes that followers
attribute heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities
when they observe certain behaviors?
A) situational leadership theory
B) path-goal leadership theory
C) transactional leadership theory
D) behavioral leadership theory
E) charismatic leadership theory
Which theory of leadership proposes that followers
attribute heroic or extraordinary leadership abilities
when they observe certain behaviors?
A) situational leadership theory
B) path-goal leadership theory
C) transactional leadership theory
D) behavioral leadership theory
E) charismatic leadership theory
Charismatic leaders ________.
A) engage in traditional behaviors that follow norms
B) focus on their own responsibilities largely ignoring
the needs and feelings of employees
C) avoid personal risk
D) propose a vision of the future that is better than
the status quo
E) ensure their own position as leader even if it
means sacrificing others
Leaders who function primarily by clarifying role and
task requirements to accomplish established goals
exhibit a(n) ________ style of leadership.
A) transformational
B) transactional
C) charismatic
D) laissez-faire
E) employee-oriented
(un)ethical leadership
The idea that leaders serve as ethical role models
to followers and thus demonstrate appropriate (or
inappropriate) behavior by using their power in
(un)ethical ways and/or by treating others fairly (or
unfairly).
How do employees get
ahead in your
organization?
How do employees get ahead in
your organization?
Power, Politics and Conflict
Power
Power refers to a capacity that A has to influence
the behavior of B, so that B acts in accordance
with A’s wishes.
Probably the most important aspect of power is that it

is a function of dependence.
Three Major Types of Influence
(Attribution: Copyright Rice University, OpenStax, under CC-BY 4.0 license)

Leadership and Power
Formal Power and Personal Power
• Formal Power
– Coercive Power (depends on fear of the negative results)
– Reward Power (ability to distribute rewards)
– Legitimate Power (person’s position in the formal
hierarchy)
Formal Power and Personal Power
• Personal Power
– Expert Power (expertise, special skills, or knowledge)
– Referent Power (identification with a person who has
desirable resources or personal traits)

Employee Reactions to Bases of Power
Which Bases of Power Are Most
Effective?
• Personal sources are most effective.

• Both expert and referent power are positively
related to employees’ satisfaction with supervision,
their organizational commitment, and their
performance, whereas reward and legitimate power
seem to be unrelated to these outcomes.
• Coercive power can be damaging.
Political Behavior
• Political behavior: activities that are not required as part
of one’s formal role in the organization, but that influence
the distribution of advantages within the organization.
– Outside of one’s specified job requirements.
– Encompasses efforts to influence decision- making
goals, criteria, or processes.
– Includes such behaviors as withholding information,
whistle-blowing, spreading rumors, and leaking
confidential information.
Factors Contributing to Political Behavior
Causes and Consequences of Political
Behavior
Implications for Managers
• To maximize your power, increase others’ dependence on you.
For instance, increase your power in relation to your boss by
developing a needed knowledge or skill for which there is no
ready substitute.
• You will not be alone in attempting to build your power bases.
Others, particularly employees and peers, will be seeking to
increase your dependence on them, while you are trying to
minimize it and increase their dependence on you.
• Try to avoid putting others in a position where they feel they
have no power.
Implications for Managers
• By assessing behavior in a political framework, you can better
predict the actions of others and use that information to
formulate political strategies that will gain advantages for you
and your work unit.
• Consider that employees who have poor political skills or are
unwilling to play the politics game generally relate perceived
organizational politics to lower job satisfaction and self-reported
performance, increased anxiety, and higher turnover. Therefore,
if you are adept at organizational politics, help your employees
understand the importance of becoming politically savvy.
Power is a function of ________.
A) goal congruency
B) realization
C) inheritance
D) dependence
E) altruism
Which of the following is something that often
differentiates power from leadership?
A) lack of dependence of followers
B) use of positive styles over negative tactics
C) downward influence of leader on followers
D) lack of goal compatibility between leaders and
followers
E) lack of control on behavior of followers
Research on power is likely to provide information on
the most effective ________.
A) leadership styles for motivating followers
B) methods to reduce dependence on leaders
C) tactics for gaining compliance of employees
D) methods of rewarding successful employees
E) modes of assessing employee performance
In the last one week, May and Phyllis have been putting in extra
hours at work so that the project assigned to them is completed on
time. Though the manager was due to assign two more people to
this project, he had not done so and, instead, was emphasizing to
employees the importance of adhering to the needs of the
department in regard to workload. As a result, May and Phyllis, who
had double their routine workload, complained to the division
manager. May was promptly suspended from work for complaining
about her immediate supervisor. This scenario describes ________
power.
A) reward
B) legitimate
C) coercive
D) expert
E) referent
Which of the following statements is true regarding
legitimate power?
A) Legitimate power develops out of admiration of
another and a desire to be like that person.
B) Legitimate power comes from an individual's unique
characteristics.
C) Legitimate power is broader than the power to coerce
and reward.
D) Celebrities who endorse products in commercials
wield legitimate power over people.
E) Legitimate power is a type of personal power.
Conflict
• Conflict: a process that begins when one party perceives
that another party has negatively affected, or is about to
negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.
– If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally

agreed no conflict exists.
Conflict based on people/group
– There are three basic types:
▪ Dyadic conflict is conflict between two people.
▪ Intragroup conflict occurs within a group or

team.
▪ Intergroup conflict is conflict between groups or

teams.
Type of Conflict
– Researchers have classified conflicts into three
categories:
▪ Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the
work.
▪ Relationship conflict focuses on interpersonal
relationships.
▪ Process conflict is about how the work gets done.
Conflict based on effect
• Contemporary perspectives differentiate types of conflict
based on their effects.
Functional and Dys. Conflict

– Functional conflict supports the goals of the group
and improves its performance.
– Dysfunctional Conflicts that hinder group performance

or destructive forms of conflict.
Conflict and Unit Performance
Outline the Conflict Process
Source Disagreement/Emotional involvement

Conflict handling intentions
Outline Conflict-Intensity
Which of the following statements is true regarding
conflict?
A) The smaller the group, the greater the likelihood of
conflict.
B) The less specialized the activities of the group, the
greater the likelihood of conflict.
C) People low in the personality traits of
disagreeableness, neuroticism, or self-monitoring are
more likely to engage in a conflict.
D) Emotions can cause conflict even when they are not
directed at others.
E) As the ambiguity about where responsibility for
actions lies decreases, the potential for conflict increases.
Conflict that hinders group performance is
destructive or ________ conflict.
A) process
B) traditional
C) task
D) dysfunctional
E) dyadic
Studies demonstrate that ________ conflicts are
almost always ________.
A) relationship; formal
B) relationship; informal
C) relationship; dysfunctional
D) relationship; functional
E) task; reactive
Mike and Keith are on the same team; they work well
with other people in the same team but don't get
along with each other. This type of conflict can best
be described as ________.
A) intragroup
B) bilateral
C) intergroup
D) dyadic
E) dual
________ is the third stage in the conflict process
and it intervenes between people's perceptions and
their overt behavior.
A) Potential for opposition
B) Intention
C) Cognition
D) Attribution
E) Behavioral manifestation
Macy does not like a few of the standard operating
procedures adapted for the new project. However, she
discussed the items with the team and told them that
she realized she was in the minority and that she would
adapt the new procedures to maintain smooth
operations within the team. This type of conflict-handling
intention is called ________.
A) negotiating
B) accommodating
C) collaborating
D) compromising
E) competing
Foundation of Organizational
Structure
Organizational structure
The way in which job tasks are formally divided,
grouped, and coordinated.
• Grouping jobs together so common tasks can be

coordinated is called departmentalization.
– By functions performed.
– By type of product or service the organization
produces.
– By geography or territory.
Organizational structure
Chain of command: The unbroken line of authority that extends from
the top of the organization to the lowest echelon and clarifies who reports
to whom.
Authority: The rights inherent in a managerial position to give orders

and to expect the orders to be obeyed.
Unity of command: The idea that a subordinate should have only one
superior to whom they are directly responsible
Span of control: The number of subordinates that a manager can direct

efficiently and effectively.
Organizational Structure
A Simple Structure
• .
– Strengths:
▪ Simple, fast, and flexible.
▪ Inexpensive to maintain.
▪ Accountability is clear.
– Weaknesses:
▪ Difficult to maintain in anything other than small organizations.
▪ Risky—everything depends on one person.
• Functional structure: groups employees by their

similar specialties, roles, or tasks.
• Divisional structure: groups employees into units by

product, service, customer, or geographical market
area.
• The matrix structure combines two forms of

departmentalization—functional and product:
– The strength of functional is putting specialists
together.
– Product departmentalization facilitates coordination.
▪ It provides clear responsibility for all activities
related to a product, but with duplication of activities
and costs.
• The matrix structure

• The Virtual Organization
– The essence of the virtual organization is that it is typically
a small, core organization that outsources major business
functions.
▪ Also referred to as a modular or network organization.
▪ It is highly centralized, with little or no
departmentalization.
Mechanistic vs. Organic Structural
Models
The Incredible Shrinking Office
The term used to describe the degree to which tasks
in an organization are subdivided into separate jobs
is called ________.
A) social clustering
B) bureaucracy
C) work specialization
D) centralization
E) departmentalization
A plant manager organizes a plant by separating
engineering, accounting, manufacturing, personnel,
and purchasing into departments. The plant is
departmentalized on the basis of ________.
A) target customer
B) product
C) function
D) geography
E) service
Wiper Inc., a parts supplier, has separate
departments for government aircraft and contracts,
large commercial aircraft clients, and small personal
aircraft clients. This is an example of
departmentalization on the basis of ________.
A) product
B) function
C) geography
D) customer
E) service
Anna's company needs to dramatically cut costs,
speed decision making, and increase flexibility.
Which of the following structural decisions will help
her achieve the desired objectives?
A) increasing the span of control
B) decreasing the unity of command
C) increasing the degree of formalization
D) decentralizing management decisions
E) departmentalizing the company on the basis of
products
Anna's company needs to dramatically cut costs,
speed decision making, and increase flexibility.
Which of the following structural decisions will help
her achieve the desired objectives?
A) increasing the span of control
B) decreasing the unity of command
C) increasing the degree of formalization
D) decentralizing management decisions
E) departmentalizing the company on the basis of
products
Elena is the senior manager of a scientific operations team at a well-
known clinical research organization. The organization delivers more
than 4,000 solutions across more than 18 therapeutic areas. Being a
perfectionist, Elena has reached her present position through hard
work and dedication. Given that she has also worked effectively with
teams in the past, she has recently been assigned to lead a team
working on a new project which is critical to the company. Elena refuses
to allocate any tasks to her team and decides to put in extra hours and
weekends to complete the groundwork herself. Based on the
information presented here, which of the following would best explain
this contradiction?
A) Elena feels she will not be able to guide her team well on the project.
B) Elena is not very sociable with her colleagues.
C) Elena feels that by delegating work, she will complicate her working
relationship with the team.
D) Elena feels that this project is vital to the team's success.
E) Elena is reluctant to delegate work as she lacks confidence in her
team's abilities.
Organizational culture
Organizational culture refers to a system of shared
meaning held by members that distinguishes the
organization from other organizations.
This system is characterized by

• Values
• Beliefs, and
• Underlying assumptions
Organizational culture
These values, beliefs, and assumptions, when put
into practice,
(1) Filter what employees pay attention to,
(2) Material symbols (uniforms, statues, etc.)
(3) Stories
• Primary characteristics that capture the essence of an
organization’s culture:
– Adaptability
– Detail orientation
– Results/Outcome orientation
– People/Customer orientation
– Collaboration/Team orientation
– Integrity
Common frameworks describe
organizational cultures
“The Clan” A culture based on human affiliation. Employees

value attachment, collaboration, trust, and support.
“The Adhocracy.” A culture based on change. Employees

value growth, variety, stimulation, and autonomy.
“The Market.” A culture based on achievement. Employees

value communication, competence, and competition.
“The Hierarchy.” A culture based on stability. Employees

value communication, formalization, and routine.
What Do Cultures Do?
• The Functions of Culture

– Boundary-defining role.
– Conveys a sense of identity for members.
– Facilitates the generation of commitment.
– Enhances the stability of the social system.
– Serves as a sense-making and control mechanism.
What Do Cultures Do?
Culture vs Climate
• Culture Creates Climate
– Organizational climate is shared perceptions about
the organization and work environment.
▪ Team spirit at the organizational level.
– Climates can interact with one another to produce
behavior.
– Climate also influences the habits people adopt.
Creating and Sustaining Culture
How Organizational Cultures Form
Creating and Sustaining Culture
Show How Culture is Transmitted
to Employees
• How Employees Learn Culture
– Culture is transmitted to employees through:
▪ Stories
▪ Rituals
▪ Symbols
– Material symbols
▪ Language
How Organizational Cultures have an Impact on Employee
Performance and Satisfaction
In the ________ employees value growth, variety,
attention to detail, stimulation, and autonomy.
A) market
B) adhocracy
C) clan
D) bureaucracy
E) hierarchy
Which of the following is most likely to result from a
strong organizational culture?
A) high organizational commitment
B) low employee satisfaction
C) low loyalty
D) high absenteeism
E) low behavioral control resulting from the climate
within the organization
Manuel is a manager for a manufacturing company in
which managers are expected to fully document all
decisions and in which it is important to provide detailed
data to support any recommendations. Also, out-of-the-
box thinking is dissuaded. Which characteristic of
organizational culture describes this aspect of Manuel's
job?
A) low team orientation
B) high aggressiveness
C) low adaptability
D) low outcome orientation
E) high people orientation
Which of the following characteristics of an
organization's culture indicates the degree to which
management decisions take into consideration the
effect of outcomes on employees within the
organization?
A) attention to detail
B) outcome orientation
C) team orientation
D) people/customer orientation
E) stability
Organizational change
Change is simply when things become different than the way
they were.
Why does change happen?

Forces for Change
Planned Change
• Change involves making something different.
• When change is an intentional, goal-oriented activity it is
planned change.
– There are two goals of planned change:
▪ Improve the ability of the organization to adapt to
changes in its environment.
▪ Change employee behavior.
• Change agents are those responsible for managing
change activities.
Approaches to Managing
Organizational Change
– Lewin’s Three-Step Model

– Kotter’s Eight-Step Plan for Implementing
Change
– Action Research
– Organizational Development
Lewin’s Three-Step Change Model

• Action research: a change process based on the systematic
collection of data and selection of a change action based on
what the analyzed data indicate.
– Five steps: Diagnosis, Analysis, Feedback, Action, and
Evaluation.
– Provides at least two specific benefits:
▪ It is problem-focused.
▪ It reduces resistance to change.
• Organizational development (OD): a collection of change

methods that try to improve organizational effectiveness and
employee well-being.
– OD methods value human and organizational growth,
collaborative and participative processes, and a spirit of
inquiry.
– Focuses on how individuals make sense of their work
environment.
Identify the correct order of stages in the
socialization process.
A) encounter, metamorphosis, post-encounter
B) prearrival, arrival, evaluation
C) prearrival, arrival, post-arrival
D) prearrival, encounter, metamorphosis
E) metamorphosis, pre-encounter, arrival
During the ________ stage, a new employee
compares his or her expectations with the realities in
the organization.
A) prearrival
B) encounter
C) metamorphosis
D) post-arrival
E) post-encounter
Higgins has recently joined a new law firm expecting to
participate in exciting environmental law cases and
cutting-edge research. After one month at the firm, he
still hasn't been assigned a case and spends most of his
time filing standardized appeals for title disputes with
insurance companies. In which stage of the socialization
process is Higgins?
A) prearrival
B) encounter
C) metamorphosis
D) post-encounter
E) post-arrival

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Organization

A consciously coordinated social unit,

• management of human behavior in

• cultures and environments

• Intuition: “gut feelings” not necessarily

• Evidence-based: “scientific evidence”

• You typically focus on the technical skills they have

• technically proficient but poor listeners,

• unable to understand the needs of others

• weak at managing conflicts

• Must be able to organize a plan of action and then execute

• Ability to integrate new ideas with existing processes and

A) Melissa had no prior experience in research and development.

C) The role will require Jessica to give presentations to environmental experts on

D) Jessica had negligible experience in research and development.

According to Henry Mintzberg, a factory supervisor giving a group of high school

According to Mintzberg's classification of managerial roles, the role of a(n)

Ellen Ortiz works as a sales manager at a telecom firm. The company

the following roles is Ortiz playing?

in Hampshire. For the upcoming campaign against genetic engineering, she

following roles is George most likely to be playing according to Mintzberg's

classification of managerial roles?

company's upcoming line of winter clothing. She is currently researching

online to know what is in vogue this season. In addition, she is also

understand the changing tastes of consumers. Which of the following roles is

Simpson playing according to Mintzberg's classification of managerial roles?

The independent variable is the cause. Its value is

The dependent variable is the effect. Its value

• Improving people skills

• People skills are essential to managerial effectiveness.

• OB provides the concepts and theories that allow

Using social media at work

• Policies on accessing social media at work.

• When, where, and for what purpose.

• Impact of social media on employee well-being.

• This field of study focuses on employees’ strengths versus

2. Do business organizations have a responsibility to ensure that employees

3. What alternative measures of organizational performance, besides share

4. What do you think the likely impact of the growth of temporary

The term motivation can be traced to the Latin word

In the United States alone, self-improvement and motivational

✓ persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

• The level of motivation varies both between individuals

1. Intensity: concerned with how hard a person tries.

2. Direction: the orientation that benefits the

3. Persistence: a measure of how long a person can

The ________ dimension of motivation measures how long

The ________ element of motivation describes how hard a

The level of motivation varies both between individuals and

• It is intuitively logical and easy to understand and some

Which of the following needs would most likely motivate Joanna?

Existence needs: include physiological and material safety needs.

Relatedness needs include social safety and social esteem needs.

Growth needs include self-esteem and self-actualization needs.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Alderfer’s ERG Theory

A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and

Criticisms of Herzberg’s theory:

• Limited because it relies on self-reports.

• Reliability of methodology is questioned.

• No overall measure of satisfaction was utilized.