AGRICULTURE G-12 UNIT 4

Unit 4. Coffee, Tea and Spices Production and Management

4.1. History, Origin, Production Status and Economic Importance of coffee, tea and spices
History and Origin of Coffee, Tea and Spices
COFFEE
The name coffee is derived from Kaffa. Its history dates back to 850 EC. and possibly earlier with a number of
reports and legends surrounding its first use. Kaldi discovered coffee after he noticed that , after his goats eating the
berries from a certain tree became so energetic that they did not want to sleep at night. Kaldi reported his findings to
the abbot of the local monastery. Of more than 100 species in the genus Coffea, the three species used in the
production of the beverage coffee are Coffee Arabica L. (Arabica coffee), Coffea canephora P. (Robusta coffee)
and Coffea Liberica P. (Liberian or Liberica coffee). All commercial coffee species originate from Africa and belong
to the genus Coffea. The high quality Coffea Arabica species originates from the rainforests in the southwestern
highlands of Ethiopia.
TEA
The history of tea spreads across multiple cultures over the span of thousands of year. Tea was originated in southwest
China as a medicinal drink. Tea first came to be known to western civilization through the Portuguese in the early
16th century. Tea was introduced to Ethiopia and started operation at small scale in the early 1920s. Camellia Sinensis
is a species of evergreen shrubs or small trees in the flowering plant family. It is evergreen shrub whose leaves and
leaf buds are used to produce tea. Common names include “tea plant”, “tea shrub”, or “tea tree.”
SPICES
Spices are the aromatic parts of tropical plants traditionally used to flavor food, or the dried seeds or fruit of temperate
plants used in the same way. A spice is a seed, fruit, root, bark, or other plant substance primarily used for flavoring
or coloring food. Spices origin has been known to date back to ancient times in Egypt. Spices could be of indigenous
or exotic origin. Some spices are of temperate plants while from are from the tropical region.
Production status and economic importance of Coffee, tea and spices
Coffee
Coffee is among the most important agricultural commodities on the world market. Cultivated on approximately 10.3
million hectares. Embodies the sole economic income for more than 25 million families. Produced and exported by
more than 60 nations. Produced in about 80 tropical countries. More than 1 25 million people depending on it for
their livelihoods in Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Coffee producing areas are located in latitudes between 22º N
and 26º S. Overall, the annual production of coffee is estimated at nine million tons of green beans. It is considered
as one of the top cash crops in developing countries. It is also the second most valuable commodity next to fuel.
Accounts for the lion’s share of Ethiopian export earnings. Plays an important role in the economy and livelihoods
for rural population. Accounts for 25 - 30% of Ethiopia’s total export earnings and 5% of GDP. Coffee generates
income for producers and traders.
Tea
Tea is one of the most important non-alcoholic beverage drinks worldwide. The total world tea production was
estimated to about 2.68 billion Kg. In Britain, per individual tea consumption is 1.9kg/yr. In Ethiopia it is 70gm/year.
Ethiopia has three private estates producing tea is around 7,000 tone. The economic importance of tea is that it is the
source of foreign currency. Tea makes a significant contribution to food security, as the income from tea covers food
import bills.
Spices
The total global spice production was amounted to 12.8 million tons in the year 2018. The top five spices producer
countries in the world are India, China, Turkey, Bangladesh and Indonesia, in that order. Ethiopia is one of the East
African countries that produce and export various spices. In Ethiopia, more than 50 spice crops are grown. A total
potential for growing low-land spices is estimated to be 200,000 hectares. Ethiopia produces; chilies, turmeric, ginger,
cumin, fenugreek, coriander, black pepper, cardamom. The economic importance of spices is that it can offer
additional opportunities for employment within the family and income earned can be used as a ‘safety net’ in times
of need and/ or used to pay for medical expenses that the family may require. Spices contribute significantly to the
national economy. Many spices, herbs and essential oils are produced in the tropics providing developing countries
export opportunities. There is also a good potential for small-scale processing on-farm that can provide value
adding activities and higher income from the sale of processed spices.
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4.2. Ecological and soil requirements for Coffee, Tea and Spices production
The productivity and longevity of coffee plantation depends upon the environmental conditions and management.
Ideal conditions permit good crops to be harvested annually without exhaustion and die-back, and without pests and
diseases.
Ecological conditions for coffee, tea and spices
CROP Optimal rainfall Optimal temperature Soil requirement
for growth
Coffee C. Arabica:1524-2286mm C. Arabica 18 -24 °C, Volcanic red earth or sandy loams with good
C. Robusta grows at 1016- C. Robusta 24 –26 °C structure and texture. A fertile, well aerated, free
2540 draining, and slightly acidic soil with a pH range
of 5.5 – 6.5.
o o
Tea Moderate-to-high rainfall. 21 C to 29 C is ideal for Good tea soils are those of volcanic origin. The
Irrigation is used when the production of tea best soil type for tea production is pH is 4.5 – 5.5.
rainfall less than 1200 mm
Spices Ginger: heavy and well 28 – 350C. deep, well drained, humus soil
distributed rains.
Turmeric: 1000 to 2000 20 - 300 C drained, friable, rich sandy or clay loam soils.
mm
Korerima:>1500 mm 12 - 280C well drained humus rich forest soils with ideal pH
annual rainfall of 5.0 to 6.5
Pepper: annual rainfall 10 - 40oC requires clay loam, red loam, sandy loam and
1250 to 2000 mm lateritic soils with a pH of 4.5-6.0.
4.3. Propagation, nursery establishment and management of Coffee and tea seedling
COFFEE
Coffee propagation can be done in many ways. The two most common ones are propagation by seed (sexual) and
vegetative propagation (asexual).
Propagation by seed starts with careful selection of seed trees. Propagation by seed uses ripe cherries. The first
criterion for selection is the year of planting of the mother tree.
Steps in Propagation of coffee by seed
I. Seed tree selection
The first step in selection is at least 1 year before starting the actual propagation. After the harvest, select trees that
look healthy and vigorous. Mark the tree, write down the position of the tree, and locate trees marked the first time
and check if they are performing well. Select the final number of trees that you intend to use and remove the markers
off the others that were discarded.
II. Harvesting and processing
When harvesting the cherries for propagation, only pick the big, healthy red cherries. The final step of processing is
the removal of pea berries, broken and insect invested parchment as well as parchment with more than 2 beans.
Vegetative (Asexual) propagation of Coffee
Vegetative propagation can be done in two ways: grafting and cutting. The purpose of grafting is to combine several
traits of different trees into one.
Cutting
Since obtaining a coffee bean crop from a plant grown from seed may take four or five years, propagation of a coffee
by cutting is more efficient means of propagating the plant.
Instructions to follow
To take a cutting from an existing coffee plant:
Choose a healthy, straight branch to avoid vine-like growth caused by crooked branches.
Take a measure of branches from 3/6 to 5/16 in diameter containing two or more leaves
Measure 4 to 5 inches from the tip and make a diagonal cut with sharp knife
Wrap the end in a damp paper towel while transporting
Prepare a small pot for the cutting by filling it with a potting medium such as a mix of half perlite and half peat
use clean potting mix to give the coffee plant a good and help keep it from disease
prepare the cutting for planting
monitor the coffee cutting, keeping it evenly moist but not soaking wet
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 report the coffee plant into a larger pot with any evidence of new growth, keeping the plant well-watered
Cutting of coffee for propagation involves:
Single node cutting
Half trimmed leaves (pair leaves)
Grafting
It is an art of connecting two pieces of living plant tissue together. Grafting takes place at soldier or butter fly stage
of a seedling.
Micro-Propagation (Biotechnology)
Another possible way of propagating coffee is through Micropropagation
This technique is the application of tissue culture techniques
Nursery Establishment
A nursery plot consists of a raised piece of land. The plot should ideally be 1.2 m wide and 20 cm deep. Add (50%)
fertile topsoil, 50% mixed with sand, and clean soil to remove any old roots, sticks and stones. Add also 2% of lime
(20g of lime to 1l water) and stir it well and leave it for 24 hours. Sow the parchment at a depth of 1 cm. Finally,
provide a shade to control light intensity, temperature and humidity.
N.B: Lime will increase the pH level of the water, stimulating germination.
Preparation of soil and planting bags
Bags should be sufficiently large, with a diameter of a minimum of 17cm and a depth of 25cm or more. Fill the bags
with fertile top soil (80%) and 20% organic manure. Add 10kg of Phosphate fertilizer (16.5% P 2 O5) per m 3 of soil
manure mixture to stimulate root development
Transplanting
Transplanting refers to gently moving seedlings from a nursery to chosen site. The planting holes should be around
10cm deep.
Nursing the seedling
Propagation, nursery establishment and management of Tea
Tea plants can be raised from seed, cuttings and tissue culture (micro propagation). Tea can be propagated sexually
(by seed) or asexually (by vegetative means). Asexual propagation is commonly known as propagation by ‘cuttings.’
Propagation of Tea by seed
Seed propagation can be performed by sowing the seeds directly in the plantation or by first growing them in seed
bags in a nursery. Seed bags in a nursery will be transplanted to the plantation at a later stage.
Vegetative (asexual) propagation
Vegetative propagation, also known as “clonal propagation”, consists of taking a cutting (i.e. a stem or leaf) from a
“mother bush” and growing a tea bush ‘clone’.
Propagation of Tea by stem cutting
This involves single node cuttings with one leaf and well-developed auxiliary bud. Propagating tea by stem cutting
involves
1. Cutting from young shoots (only the three upper internodes are rejected).
2. putting the root in plastic bags, under well-shaded nursery at a height of 2m
3. using water bed or polyethylene bag thoroughly but slowly to avoid runoff and soil wash
4. placing the cutting in the soil, leaving 12mm of stem above the soil
Advantages: Vegetative propagation allows “cloning” of mother bushes with the desirable characteristics. Vegetative
propagation is a fast, easy and cheap method of propagation.
Disadvantages: Cuttings used for vegetative propagation develop fibrous root systems which are less strong than
taproot systems that develop during seed propagation.
Nursery Establishment and Tea Management
Achieving an optimum tea yield requires using a suitable land for tea cultivation. Tea cultivation needs a strong
foundation, unlike short term crops. The cultivation is based on the regular maintenance of the plant from the nursery
stage onwards.
Selecting land for nurseries
It is essential to select land with water facilities. A nursery should be a place where:
water flows well,
there is no wind,
there is even landscape or there is a slight slope,

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 there is mist if water does not exist
there are transport facilities
During the site selection, criteria such as climatic condition, edaphic factors (soil), biological factors, crops grown
there previously, availability of labor, market availability for the production, etc. should be considered.
Selection of a suitable site for tea plant
Several criteria are considered in tea cultivation site selection.
Slope
The slope of the land for tea plant has to be below 55 percent. However, a 70 per cent slope is preferred due to high
vulnerability of soil erosion in Mid Country.
Soil depth
Soil depth should be over 100 cm to support good root system. The land surface should not have more than 10%
gravel and boulders.
Soil profile
The profile of soil for tea plant or soil layer should not be impregnated with more than 10% gravel.
Land preparation
Land preparation involves clearance, adoption of soil conservation and soil rehabilitation prior to planting tea.
4.4. Field establishment and management practices of Coffee, Tea and Spices
Coffee
The area to be planted with coffee must be prepared at least one year before the small coffee trees are planted. The
five procedures to be followed are: land preparation, planting windbreaks, mark out the rows, establish shade trees
and prepare for irrigation.
Planting procedure
Prepare the holes one month before planting. Mark the planting holes, dig holes of 600 x 600 x 600 mm. Pile topsoil
to one side of the whole, subsoil to other side of hole, Mix in 2 kg of dry farmyard manure (FYM) + 3 heaped
soupspoons (about 85 g) Triple Superphosphate (TSP). Feel the hole with topsoil; use both the subsoil and topsoil to
complete filling the hole. Re-mark the center of the hole with a stick.
Field management of young coffee trees
To achieve high yields of quality coffee, good field management practices are essential. Poorly managed coffee will
take longer to produce a good crop and will suffer from dieback. Keep the ground free of weeds and cut short ground
covers in the frosty period. This will protect the plant from frost.
Control weeds and mulch plants
Weeds compete for both nutrients and water. It is thus essential to keep the area under the canopy of trees. Make the
area also weed-free. Mulching will reduce the amount of weeding required. Dead or dry weeds can be used as mulch.
Fresh weeds may re-grow, especially in wet weather if they are not dried properly before being added as mulch.
Water plants
Do not allow the plant root ball to dry out after planting. Irrigate (or hand water where irrigation is not installed), two
to three times per week for the first few weeks. If planted at the recommended time (June to August), there is a good
chance of rain. This keeps the soil moisture maintained.
Field establishment and management practices for Tea
Tea plant management is the most important aspect of tea plantation. These involve:
1. Mulching: Mulching helps
control soil erosion;
increase soil moisture;
inhibit weed growth;
2. Weed management
Manual methods like cheeling, sickling and mulching are extensively used. Cheeling removes the above ground weed
growth.
3. Pruning
is cutting off branches for more fruitful growth
can keep tea plant to a height of 1.5 m
Plant Quality
The following factors have a great impact on the quality of the made tea. These are:
i. age of the bush,

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ii. standard of plucking,
iii. plucking round, and
iv. a space of time from the previous pruning
Proper tea plant management enhances production. A well-managed young tea plant is an investment for future. The
following are a few important aspects of proper growing of young teas:
I. Density of Population
Compact frames allow a planter to plant a total of 15,000 to 16,000 plants per hectare
II. Spacing:
The minimum spacing required between plants is 60 cm. The maximum spacing required between rows is 100 cm.
4.5. Harvesting and processing of coffee, tea and Spices
Harvesting and processing of coffee
The color of unripe coffee is green. The color turns bright or dark-red when the cherries ripen. . Cherries ripen faster
under lower altitudes and higher temperatures. Coffee can be hand-harvested by people to ensure that only the ripe
cherries are picked. Hand-picking is hard and laborious task. Whether by machines or humans, coffee is always
harvested by one of the following two methods:
• Strip picking – The cherries are stripped off of the branch, either by hand or by machine
• Selective picking – The red cherries are picked and the green ones are left to ripen.
Processing the Cherries
Once the coffee has been picked, processing must begin as quickly as possible to prevent fruit spoilage. Depending
on location and local resources, coffee is processed in one of two ways:
The Dry processing Method
This is the age-old method of processing coffee and still used in many countries where water resources are limited.
The freshly picked cherriesare simply spread out on huge surfaces to dry in the sun.
The Wet processing Method
This method involves removing the pulp from the coffee cherry after harvesting. First, the freshly harvested cherries
are passed through a pulping machine to separate the skin and pulp from the bean. Then the beans are separated by
weight as they pass through water channels. The lighter beans float to the top, while the heavier ripe beans sink to the
bottom. Depending on a combination of factors such as the condition of the beans, the climate and the altitude, they
will remain in these tanks for anywhere between 12 - 48 hours. This removes the slick layer of mucilage (called the
parenchyma) that is still attached to the parchment.
Drying the Beans
If the beans have been processed by the wet method, the pulped and fermented beans must now be dried to
approximately 11% moisture to properly prepare them for storage. The dried beans are known as parchment coffee,
and are warehoused in jute or sisal bags until they are readied for export.
Milling the Beans
Before being exported, parchment coffee is processed in the following manner:
Hulling: machinery removes the parchment layer (endocarp) from wet processed coffee. Hulling dry processed coffee
refers to removing the entire dried husk - the mesocarp, monocarp and endocarp of the dried cherries.
Polishing is an optional process where any silver skin that remains on the beans after hulling is removed by machine.
Grading and Sorting is done by size and weight. Beans are also reviewed for color flaws or other imperfections.
Exporting the Beans
The milled beans, now referred to as green coffee, are loaded onto ships in either jute or sisal bags loaded in shipping
containers, or bulk-shipped inside plastic-lined containers.
Roasting the Coffee
Roasting transforms green coffee into the aromatic brown beans that we purchase in stores or cafés. Roasting is
generally performed in the importing countries because freshly roasted beans must reach the consumer as quickly as
possible.
Grinding Coffee
The objective of a proper grind is to get the most flavors in a cup of coffee. How coarse or fine the coffee ground is,
depends on the brewing method.
Harvesting and processing of tea
Plucking or Picking
Plucking or harvesting tea is picking fresh tea leaves and fresh young shoots from the tea tree.

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Plucking/ Harvesting can be carried out manually or mechanically
Plucking tea manually or by hand is a traditional way of picking tea leaves. Plucking occurs when the tea bush
flushes or pushes out new leaf shoots. For a fine black or green tea, the pluckers take the first two leaves and one new
bud. Plucking should be done in the morning because
the quality (flavor) of tea is highest in the morning
there is enough time to pluck and process tea the same day
there is less soluble sugar and more catechism in the morning
Mechanical Harvesting
Mechanical harvesting is the removal of tender, growing shoots from the surface of the bush using machine.
Tea Processing
Tea processing is the method where tea plant is transformed to the dried leaves for brewing. Processing of tea involves
plucking, withering, crushing, drying, rolling and shaping of tea leaves. Shaping makes the leaves ready for brewing.
Withering
Withering is the process of placing freshly plucked tea leaves on a long trough to blow air through the leaves.
Withering reduces the moisture content of the leaf (from 80% - 68/70%) and makes the leaves easier to cut. Withering
is used to eliminate excess water from the leaves and allows slight oxidation. Cold or warm air is blown through the
leaf for 12 to 18 hours.
Rolling
Rolling or shaping the leaves by hand or with machine makes compound to be formed between enzymes and the
polyphones. Tearing the leaves and twisting them into thick rolls is important before putting them in the machine.
The main purpose of rolling tea leaves is to damage the cell walls. Tea leaves are twisted and pressed in order to
extract the juices that are held inside. The goal is to distribute the moisture evenly on the outside of the leaves.
Fermentation
Fermentation is an oxidation and tanning process of the cell fluids released during rolling. To ferment, the leaves are
spread out on tables in layers of 10 cm. In modern factories, spraying water from rotating ventilators humidifies the
room in which fermentation takes place. During the fermentation - which takes 2 - 3 hours - the leaves change their
color. The color gradually becomes a copper-red.
Drying
Drying is the method of processing tea to stop the oxidation process and reduce the moisture content to 2-3%. Drying
takes place for only 20min at a temperature of 100 – 150oc. Dried tea is black in color and mainly has a perfect aroma.
Drying involves a heater with forced ventilation
Processing of Spice
The processing of spices usually involves most of the following stages: I) Washing II) Grading and cleaning III)
Drying IV) Grinding V) Packaging VI)Washing of Spices
Washing most commonly takes place when fresh spices are delivered to the processing unit. Washing the spices takes
place through dipping the nutmegs in water to remove unsound nuts or “floaters”, and cardamomwhich may receive
a sodium bicarbonate dip to preserve its green color.
Drying
Various types of dryers are used for processing herbs and spices, ranging from simple sun drying to gas or kerosene-
fired dryers. The type of dryer that is used and the way in which it is operated may have a significant influence on the
quality of the finished product in the following ways:
Contamination by dust and dirt
There is obviously a high risk of contamination occurring if the raw materials are laid out in the sun. Solar and
powered dryers protect against contamination and are thus strongly recommended.
Drying time and temperature
The quicker the drying time the better the final microbial quality of the product. Drying rates may be increased in two
ways: by increasing the air flow and by increasing the air temperature. Spices must be dried to a moisture content that
is low enough to prevent the growth of microorganisms such as moulds and bacteria.
Storage
After drying, the material should be packed quickly into clean heavy-gauge plastic sacks to avoid any moisture pick
up. It is a good idea to retain samples in airtight bottles for future reference.
Grinding

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Grinding is normally done using either a hammer mill or a disc mill. Ground spice should be passed through a fine
sieve to give a product with a uniform particle size. Finely ground spices absorb water much more quickly than whole
spices and it is important that the ground material is quickly packed into airtight containers.
Packaging
The type of packaging needed for spices depends on the product, the intended market and the types of climate that
the food will be exposed to. Spice that is marketed in a cool dry area may only need simple packaging such as paper.
Most spices are packed in plastic film as either large bulk bags or small retail packs.
4.5. Cultivation practices of individual spices
Ginger
Ginger is a commercially produced horticultural crop in SNNPR, Ethiopia. The producing areas in SNNPRS are said
to be ginger belts in Ethiopia where much of the country’s ginger production and marketing activities are located.
Ginger is used as a spice. It is used for the preparation of ginger oil and oleoresin, soft drinks, alcoholic beverages.
Green ginger is used in the culinary preparations. Preserved ginger is used for the manufacture of processed food.
Land preparation
The land should be well prepared to a fine soil and loose. Fine tilt helps development and expansion of the rhizomes
Planting
Ginger is always propagated by portion of seed rhizomes. Rhizomes are cut into small pieces (setts) of 2.5 to 5.0 cm.
They may weigh about 15 – 20 grams having one or two buds.
Planting time/Season March -April and Seed rate: 1500 – 1800 kg per ha. Spacing: 15 x 30 cm 20 x 30 cm
Spacing: varies with the cropping system 15 x 30 cm / 20x 30 cm
Manures and fertilizers since the crops are heavy feeder, the adequate manuring is essential in Ethiopia. There is no
fertilizer recommendation.
Mulching: In ginger cultivation, mulching the field is an important operation. Mulching has several advantages such
as source of organic manure, prevents washing of soil and conserves soil moisture.
Irrigation:
Irrigate at 4-10 day interval. During mid-September to 3rd week of December irrigate at fortnightly interval.
Turmeric
Curcuma longa is an erect herbaceous perennial 60-100 cm rhizome with fingers. Rhizome is brown on outside and
dull orange colored inside. Leaves are broadly lanceolate with long leaf stalk.
Preparation of land
Plough land 4-6 deep to get fine tilth up to 20 -25 cm depth. Field is laid out into beds or ridges and furrows. Beds of
1 m width and convenient length with a spacing of 40 to 50 cm between beds where natural drainage does not exist,
ridges and furrows are prepared at 45 to 60 cm spacing.
Seed rate: mother rhizomes 2000 – 2500 kg per ha. Primary fingers 1500 to 2000 kg per ha
Spacing: Red loamy soils – 30 x 15cm and Black heavy soils – 46 x 23 cm
Mulching: Mulch with dry leaves thickly on which a layer of cow dung is spread. Second mulching is done after
weeding and application of fertilizers, after 50 -60 days of sowing
Korerima (Aframomum corrorima)
Korerima is a species in the ginger family, Zingiberaceae. The spice, known as Korerima, Ethiopian cardamom, or
false cardamom, is obtained from the plant’s seeds (usually dried), and is extensively used in Ethiopian and Eritrean
cuisine.
Land preparation and planting
Prepare a hole with the size of 45-60cm and a depth of about 60-75cm at spacing of 3m × 3 m. After a week refill the
hole with top soil and farmyard manure. The time for planting in south west Ethiopia is on June to August. Korerima
can be intercropped with some perennial crops like coffee, black pepper and others.
Weed management: weeds grow comfortably between plants till the crop cover the area. Frequent weeding is
necessary.
Cardamom (Elitaria cardamomum)
It is known as the Queen of Spices and also Green Gold. Cardamom is an herbaceous perennial plant.
Nursery site and planting: Seedlings are normally raised in primary and secondary nurseries.
Dig the land to a depth of 30-45 cm. The beds of 1 m width and of convenient length raised to a height of about 30
cm are prepared.
Seed rate: 10 g per m2 of nursery bed area.

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Manuring at the rate of 90 g N, 60 g of P, and 120 g of K per bed of 5 x 1 m size in 3 equal split doses at an interval
of 45 days is recommended to produce healthier seedlings.
Planting:
The best season of planting seedlings or suckers is May- June after the receipt of monsoon showers. The seedlings or
suckers are planted in the pits up to collar region for better growth. Cloudy days with light drizzle are ideal for panting.
Black pepper (Piper nigrum)
Pepper is the most important of all spices and popularly known as the ‘king of spices. Black pepper is a dried mature
fruit of perennial ever green climbing woody vine.
Selection of site: Well drained leveled land and hill slopes are suitable for growing pepper
Planting
Can be planted directly to permanent field or raised in the nursery for further rooting. For rising of rooted cuttings,
the following points should be considered
polythene bags
Rooting media (forest soil (3): Sand (1)
After filling the polythene bags, each cutting is planted at an angel of 45 0, 3-4 nodes deep.
Field planting
Select appropriate size
clear the land
Make holes/pit about 45 x 45cm deep usually 15-30cm away from the support
Fill in the holes with mixture of top soil +farm yard manure
Transplant the rooted cuttings during the onset of the rainy season
Spacing: usually 3m X 3m or 3m X 2m (on sloppy areas).