Chemicals for Consumers

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CHEMICALS FOR CONSUMERS

Competency:
The learner should be able to appreciate that the products used in everyday life exist as chemicals and
some of them can be prepared at home or in the laboratory.
Introduction.
In our everyday life there are numerous chemicals that we use for different purposes. These chemicals can
be obtained from the environment while some can be manufactured from industries and put onto markets.
There are very many groups of these chemicals but we shall talk about the common ones that include
detergents, drugs and food additives.
In Uganda, the Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) is responsible for testing and establishing
compliance with specifications and regulation of chemical limits in products such as perfumes and flavors,
cosmetics, pharmaceutical products, detergents and household chemicals.

1. Food additives.
Food additives are substances intentionally added to food to;
i) Improve safety and increase shelf life e.g., preservatives
ii) Enhance sensory qualities e.g., color, taste and flavor
iii) Improve processing and handling e.g., stabilizers, emulsifiers etc.

Food additives can be natural or synthetic(artificial)

Natural food additives are substances derived from natural sources such as plants and animals or
minerals. They are used to enhance the flavor, appearance, shelf life of food.

Common categories

 Colorants like tomatoes, red pepper chili, beetroot, tomatoes, red pepper, turmeric chlorophyl etc.
 Flavouring agents like onions, tomatoes, red pepper chili, pepper mint, green pepper garlic, ginger
etc.
 Preservatives like salt, honey, vinegar
 Anti-oxidants like ascorbic acid in citrus fruits, vitamin E found in nuts, spinach and vegetables,
lutein and zeaxanthins in leafy vegetables, polyphenols found in fruits, vegetables etc
 Emulsifiers and stabilizers like lecithin from soy or eggs, pectin found in fruits, gelatin from animal
collagen
 Sweeteners like honey
 Thickeners like starches (corn starch, arrowroot), gums (xanthan gum, agar, guar), proteins (gelatin,
egg white), pectin in fruits

Artificial food additives are synthetically produced substances that are not found in nature. They are
used for similar purpose as natural additives but are often more stable and cost effective.
Common Categories

 Colorants like red 40, yellow 5 and blue 1, tartrazine etc.


 Flavoring enhancers like monosodium glutamate.
 Sweeteners like aspartame, sucralose and saccharin
 Preservatives like sodium benzoate, sorbic acid
 Emulsifiers mono and diglycerides used in margarin and cream, polysorbates used in salad
dressings and ice cream etc.
 Anti-oxidants like butylated hydroxy anisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) etch
 Thickeners like carboxymethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose and modified starches

How food additives work


a. Preservatives
Preservatives are substances added to food to prevent spoilage and extend shelf life.
They work by inhibiting the growth of bacteria, molds, and yeasts, or by slowing down the chemical
changes that cause food to deteriorate.
Common preservatives include salt, sugar, and synthetic chemicals like sodium benzoate and potassium
sorbate

b. Antioxidants
Antioxidants prevent oxidation, a chemical reaction that can cause food to spoil and lose quality.
They work by neutralizing free radicals, which are unstable molecules that can damage cells and lead to
spoilage.
Common antioxidants include vitamins C and E, as well as synthetic compounds like butylated
hydroxytoluene (BHT) and butylated hydroxy anisole

c. Flavouring Agents
Flavouring agents enhance or impart flavor to food. They can be natural, derived from plants, animals, or
minerals, or artificial, created synthetically to mimic natural flavors.
These agents work by interacting with taste receptors on the tongue and olfactory receptors in the nose,
creating the perception of specific tastes and aromas

d. Stabilizers and Thickening Agents


Stabilizers and thickening agents improve the texture and consistency of food.
Stabilizers help maintain the uniform dispersion of ingredients, preventing separation.
Thickening agents increase the viscosity of food without altering its other properties.
Common examples include gelatin, pectin, and xanthan gum

e. Sweeteners
Sweeteners provide sweetness to food without the calories of sugar.
They can be natural, like stevia and honey, or artificial, like aspartame and sucralose.
Sweeteners work by binding to sweet taste receptors on the tongue, triggering the sensation of sweetness

f. Colorants
Colorants are used to add or restore color in food, making it more appealing.
Natural colorants are derived from sources like fruits, vegetables, and minerals, while artificial colorants
are synthetically produced.
They work by absorbing and reflecting specific wavelengths of light, which gives food its color
g. Emulsifiers
Emulsifiers help mix ingredients that normally don't combine well, such as oil and water.
They work by reducing the surface tension between the two substances, allowing them to form a stable
mixture. Common emulsifiers include lecithin from soy beans, mono- and diglycerides from fats, and
polysorbates,

Side effects and mitigations of food additives

Food additive Side effect Mitigation


Preservatives Some preservatives, like sulfites, can cause Check food labels for preservatives
allergic reactions in sensitive individuals. and avoid those that cause reactions.

Sulfites and benzoates can trigger asthma Opt for fresh or minimally processed
symptoms in susceptible people. foods to reduce exposure to
preservatives.
Some preservatives, like nitrates and
nitrites, have been linked to an increased Use natural preservatives like
risk of cancer vinegar, salt, and rosemary extract.

Antioxidants Some synthetic antioxidants, like BHA and Choose foods with natural
BHT, can cause allergic reactions. antioxidants like vitamin C and E.

There are concerns about the long-term Limit intake of processed foods
safety of some synthetic antioxidants containing synthetic antioxidants.

Flavouring Natural and artificial flavorings can cause Opt for natural flavorings and avoid
Agents allergic reactions in some individuals. artificial ones when possible.

Some artificial flavorings have been linked Keep track of any adverse reactions
to behavioral problems in children and avoid specific flavorings that
cause issues.

Stabilizers and Some stabilizers and thickeners, like Use natural thickeners like agar-agar,
Thickening carrageenan, can cause digestive problems. pectin, and gelatin.
Agents
Certain individuals may be allergic to Avoid products containing thickeners
specific thickeners. that cause adverse reactions

Sweeteners Some artificial sweeteners, like sorbitol and Use natural sweeteners like honey,
mannitol, can cause bloating and diarrhea. stevia, and maple syrup.

There are concerns about the long-term Limit intake of foods


safety of some artificial sweeteners.
Colorants Some artificial colorants can cause allergic Choose foods with natural colorants
reactions. like beet juice, turmeric, and spinach
extract.
Certain artificial colorants have been linked
to hyperactivity in children Limit consumption of foods with
artificial colorants
Emulsifiers Some emulsifiers, like polysorbates, can Use natural emulsifiers like lecithin
cause digestive discomfort. and mustard.

There are concerns about the long-term Avoid products with synthetic
safety of some synthetic emulsifiers. emulsifiers that cause adverse
reactions

General Tips for Mitigating Side Effects

 Maintain a balanced diet with a variety of fresh, whole foods


 Keep up-to-date with food safety information and guidelines from reputable sources.
 Use natural preservatives, colorants, and flavorings where possible.
 Ensure that food additives comply with local and international food safety regulations.
 Educate consumers about the potential risks of certain food additives and encourage informed
choices.

BANNED FOOD ADDITIVES

Food additive Description Reason for ban


Alkyl Benzene Sulphonate (ABS) ABS is a synthetic surfactant It is not approved for use in food
commonly used in detergents due to its potential toxicity and
and cleaning products. harmful effects on human health

Brominated Vegetable Oil (BVO) BVO is used to keep citrus BVO has been linked to
flavoring from separating in neurological symptoms and
sodas and other beverages thyroid issues
Potassium Bromate Potassium bromate is used as a It is classified as a possible
flour improver to strengthen human carcinogen by the
dough and enhance its rise International Agency
Propylparaben Propylparaben is used as a Concerns about its potential
preservative in foods, cosmetics, endocrine-disrupting effects and
and pharmaceuticals links to breast cancer
Red Dye No. 3 (Erythrosine used to color foods, cosmetics, It has been linked to cancer in
and pharmaceuticals. animal studies.
Azodicarbonamide (ADA) ADA is used as a flour bleaching causes respiratory issues and its
agent and dough conditioner. breakdown product, semi
carbazide, which has been
linked to cancer in animal
studies.
Summary on food additives
Category of food function Used in (products Examples of names on
additive with the additive) product labels
Preservatives Inhibit the growth of Soft drinks, processed Calcium propionate,
bacteria, molds, fungi, and meat, baked goods, ice salt, citric acid, sodium
yeast which can cause food cream etc. benzoate, sodium
spoilage. nitrate etc.

Extend shelf life by slowing


down the natural
decomposition process, help
keep food products safe and
consumable
Anti-oxidants Enhance food safety by Dark chocolate, blue Lutein, zeaxanthin,
preventing the formation of berries, spinach vitamin A, C and K,
potentially harmful anthocyanins flavonoid
oxidation products. etc.

Preserve nutritional quality


of food by protecting
sensitive vitamins and
nutrients from oxidation.

Extend shelf life of food


products by slowing down
the oxidation process hence
keeping them fresh for
longer times
Flavoring Enhance flavors already Many processed foods Monosodium glutamate
enhancers present in foods (without Soft drinks and water (MSG), hydrolyzed soy
providing their own separate protein, autolyzed yeast
flavor extract, disodium
guanylate or inosinate
Caffeine
Stabilizers Allow smooth mixing of Ice cream, Mayonnaise, Soy lecithin, mono- and
ingredients, prevent peanut butter, diglycerides, egg yolks,
separation chocolate, margarine, polysorbates, sorbitan
frozen desserts, baked monostearate
Keep emulsified products products, processed
stable, reduce stickiness, meat etc.
control crystallization, keep
ingredients dispersed, and to
help products dissolve more
easily
Thickeners Provide a desirable texture Yogurt, ice cream, salad Starches like cornstarch,
and mouthfeel, making dressings, dairy gums like xanthan gum,
foods more palatable products, jams and proteins like egg white,
jellies, soups and sauces methylcellulose,
Stabilize emulsions, carboxymethyl cellulose
preventing the separation of etc.
ingredients like oil and
water

Improve the appearance of


food by giving it a consistent
and appealing look
Colourants (dyes or Enhance appearance making Soft drinks, baked Turmeric, beet juice,
food colours) food more visually goods, ice cream, snack chlorophyl, Allura red,
appealing and appetizing by foods etc. sunset yellow, tartrazine
enhancing or adding colour

Sweeteners Add sweetness with extra Beverages, baked goods, Sucrose (sugar),
calories confections, table-top glucose, dextrose,
sugar, many processed fructose, corn syrup,
foods high fructose corn
syrup, molasses, maple
syrup, evaporated cane
juice, honey

2. MEDICINES

Medicines are substances used to diagonise, treat, or prevent diseases and medical conditions. They
can be derived from natural sources, synthesized in laboratories, or combination of both.

Different medicines are used for different purposes and with that, they can be put into different
classes or categories i.e., Analgesics (pain relievers), Anti biotics (infection fighters) and
Psychotherapeutic (Mental health).

These medicines can further be grouped into two as Traditional or herbal medicines and Modern or
Pharmaceutical medicines

Types of medicines.
1. Traditional medicines (herbal medicines).
These are derived from plants and animals and used to prevent or treat illness. They are normally
used as extracts.

Examples of traditional Medicines


Anti-biotics
a) Garlic extract (Allium sativum)
It treats bacterial infections boosts the immune system and helps the body to prevent colds and flu.

b) Neem (Azadirachtin indica)


It treats skin infections, malaria, and acts as and antibiotic and antifungal agent.

c) Guava leaf extract (Psidium guajava)


It treats diarrhea, lowers blood sugar and has anti-microbial properties.

d) Paw paw leaf extract


It treats dengue fever, improves digestion, ant has anti-inflammatory properties.

e) Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis miller)


Treats skin conditions and promotes wound healing.

Analgesics
a) Ginger (zingiber officinale)
It reduces pain and inflammation, treats nausea and digestive issues

b) Turmeric (Curcuma longa)


Reduces inflammation and pain, treats arthritis and digestive disorders.

c) Peppermint (Mentha piperita)


Relieves headache, muscle pain, and digestive discomfort.

Psychotherapeutics
a) Aloe vera (Aloe barbadensis miller)
It has a calming effect

b) Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)


It is traditionally used in rituals for its psychoactive effects, though not recommended due to health
risks

c) Kanna (Sceletium tortuosum)


It alleviates stress, anxiety, and depression acts as natural mood enhancer.

Other common traditional medicines


Name of medicine Function
Momordica Foetica (Bombo) Treat diabetes, boosts immune functions, treats fever, and
body odour
Sweet wormwood (Artemisinin Treats malaria, relieves menstruation cramps, headache and
annua) tooth aches.
Sour fruit (Tamarindus indica) Treats digestive issues, acts as a laxative.
Pudica Mimosa Treats wounds, has sedative properties
Oxalis (oxalis ssp) Treats scurvy
Black jack (Bidens Pilosa) Treats infections, has anti-inflammatory properties, heals
wounds.
Mango leaves (mangifera indica) Treats diabetes, lowers blood pressure, treats cough.
Advantages of traditional or herbal medicines
 They are often ore accessible, especially in remote areas where modern health care facilities may be
limited
 They are generally more affordable compared to modern pharmaceuticals making them cost
effective option for many people
 Many traditional medicines use natural ingredients which can be perceived as safer and more
holistic compared to synthetic drugs.

Side effects of traditional drugs


 The dosage and potency of traditional medicines can vary widely leading to inconsistent effects
 Traditional medicines can interact with modern pharmaceuticals potentially causing adverse effects
such increased blood pressure, fever etc.
 Natural ingredients in herbal medicines can still cause allergic reactions in some individuals
 Trigger dependency and misuse especial those with addictive substances.

Mitigations
 Purchase traditional medicines from reputable sources, herbalists to ensure quality and safety
 Monitor your body’s response to traditional medicines and report any adverse effects to healthcare
provider immediately
 Always consult with a healthcare provider before starting any traditional medicine
 Use of small amounts of traditional medicines other than excess.

2. Modern medicines (synthetic drugs)


These are medicines created through chemical synthesis rather than being derived from natural sources.
They are produced by combining specific chemical compounds in a laboratory. This process allows for
precise control over the composition and properties of drugs.

Examples of modern medicines


i) Analgesics
These are pain relieving medications. They are drugs which work by reducing inflammation ,blocking pain
signals to the brain or altering brains perception of pain.

How different analgesics work


a) Paracetamol (Accetaminophen), it works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins in the brain,
which are chemicals that promote inflammation, pain and fever.
Paracetemol is effective foe relieving mild to moderate pain such as headaches, toothaches and reducing
fever others include ibuprofen, naproxen and diclofenac
b) Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic acid) it’s an NSAID that reduces pain, fever and inflammations.
It works by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX) which is involved in the production of
prostaglandins.
Aspirin is used to treat conditions like headaches, arthritis and muscle pain.
It also has antiplatelet effects meaning it can prevent blood clots making it useful in reducing the risk of
heart attacks and strokes. Others include celecoxib etc.

c) Codeine, this is an opioid analgesic used to treat mild to moderately severe pain.
It works by binding to the opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, altering the perception of pain
and emotional response to pain.
Codeine is also used as a cough suppressant due to its ability to reduce the activity in the part of the
brain that causes coughing. Others include tramadol, hydrocodone, and oxycodone etc

ii) Antibiotics
The are medications used to treat bacterial infections by either killing bacteria or in habiting their growth.

How different anti-biotics work to combat bacterial infections

a) Some antibiotics prevent bacteria from forming cell walls, which are essential for survival. Without cell
wall, bacteria cannot maintain their structure and eventually die. Eg penicillin, ammoxylin and
cephalosporins etc.

b) Antibiotics such as tetracyclines and macrolides bind to bacterial ribosomes which are essential for
protein synthesis. This prevents bacteria from producing protein necessary for their growth and function

c) Fluoroquinolones like ciprofloxacin inhibit enzymes involved in bacterial DNA replication preventing
bacteria from multiplying.

Other examples of anti-biotics include miconazole, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, erythromycin, tetracycline,


streptomycin etc.

iii) Psychotherapeutics
The are medications used to treat mental health disorders by affecting brain chemistry and function. These
drugs help manage symptoms of conditions such as depression, anxiety, bipolar disorder and ADHD.
They work by altering the levels of neurotransmitters, which are chemicals that transmit signals in the brain.

Examples of psychotherapeutics and how they work

a) Stimulants
Stimulants are used to increase alertness, attention, and energy. They are commonly prescribed for
conditions like attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and narcolepsy.

Stimulants work by increasing the levels of certain neurotransmitters in the brain, particularly
dopamine and norepinephrine. This enhances communication between neurons, improving focus
and reducing hyperactivity

Examples of stimulants
Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Concerta), Used to treat ADHD by increasing dopamine and
norepinephrine levels in the brain.
Amphetamine (Adderall), Also used for ADHD and narcolepsy, it increases the release of
dopamine and norepinephrine.

Modafinil (Provigil), Used to treat narcolepsy and other sleep disorders by promoting
wakefulness.

b) Antidepressants
Antidepressants are used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, and other mood disorders. They
help improve mood, sleep, and appetite.

Antidepressants work by altering the levels of neurotransmitters in the brain, such as serotonin,
norepinephrine, and dopamine. Different classes of antidepressants target these neurotransmitters
in various ways

Examples of antidepressants
Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)Increase serotonin levels by inhibiting its
reuptake into neurons. Examples include fluoxetine (Prozac) and sertraline (Zoloft)

Serotonin-Norepinephrine Reuptake Inhibitors (SNRIs), Increase both serotonin and


norepinephrine levels. Examples include venlafaxine (Effexor) and duloxetine (Cymbalta)

Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs), Block the reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine. Examples
include amitriptyline and nortriptyline

Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors (MAOIs), Inhibit the enzyme monoamine oxidase, which breaks
down neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine. Examples include phenelzine (Nardil)
and tranylcypromine (Parnate).

c) Antipsychotics
Antipsychotics are used to manage symptoms of psychosis, such as delusions, hallucinations, and
disordered thinking. They are commonly prescribed for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Antipsychotics work by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, which helps reduce psychotic
symptoms. Atypical antipsychotics also affect serotonin receptors⁸.

Examples of anti-psychotics
Typical Antipsychotics, these primarily block dopamine receptors. Examples include haloperidol
(Haldol) and chlorpromazine (Thorazine)

Atypical Antipsychotics, these blocks both dopamine and serotonin receptors. Examples include
risperidone (Risperdal) and olanzapine (Zyprexa).

Other Psychotherapeutic Drugs

Anxiolytics: Used to treat anxiety disorders by enhancing the effect of the neurotransmitter
GABA, which has a calming effect on the brain.eg, Diazepam (Valium), lorazepam (Ativan)⁷.

Mood Stabilizers: Used to treat mood disorders such as bipolar disorder by stabilizing mood
swings.eg,Lithium, valproate
Advantages of Synthetic Drugs

Synthetic drugs are produced under controlled conditions, ensuring high consistency and purity. This
means each dose is identical, which is crucial for effectiveness and safety

They can be produced in large quantities, making them widely available and often more affordable than
natural counterparts

Scientists can modify the chemical structure of synthetic drugs to enhance their effectiveness, reduce side
effects, or target specific conditions

Side Effects of Synthetic Drugs

 Synthetic drugs can cause side effects ranging from mild (e.g., nausea, dizziness) to severe (e.g.,
allergic reactions, organ damage)

 Some synthetic drugs, especially opioids and stimulants, have a high potential for addiction and
dependence

 Overuse of certain synthetic drugs, such as antibiotics, can lead to resistance, making them less
effective over time.

 Especially with newer synthetic drugs, there can be unpredictable and potentially dangerous effects
due to lack of long-term studies

Mitigations for Side Effects

 Always use synthetic drugs as prescribed by a healthcare professional. Do not exceed the
recommended dose or duration of use

 Regularly monitor for any side effects and report them to your healthcare provider. This helps in
adjusting the dosage or switching to a different medication if necessary

 Educate patients about the potential side effects and the importance of adhering to prescribed
guidelines

 Consider alternative treatments or combination therapies to reduce the reliance on a single


synthetic drug, thereby minimizing side effects

Summery on synthetic drugs

a) Analgesics
Analgesics are medications designed to relieve pain without causing loss of consciousness.
They work by targeting different pathways involved in pain perception.
How they work
i) Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)
Works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins in the brain, which are chemicals that
promote inflammation, pain, and fever.

ii) NSAIDs (e.g., Ibuprofen, Aspirin)


Inhibit cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, reducing the production of prostaglandins, thereby
decreasing inflammation, pain, and fever.

iii) Opioids (e.g., Codeine, Morphine)


Bind to opioid receptors in the brain and spinal cord, altering the perception of pain and emotional
response to pain.

b) Antibiotics
Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections by either killing bacteria or inhibiting their growth.

How they work


i) Penicillins (e.g., Amoxicillin)
Inhibit the synthesis of bacterial cell walls, leading to cell lysis and death.

ii) Aminoglycosides (e.g., Streptomycin)


Bind to bacterial ribosomes, disrupting protein synthesis and causing bacterial cell death.

iii) Fluoroquinolones (e.g., Ciprofloxacin)


Inhibit bacterial DNA gyrase and topoisomerase IV, preventing DNA replication and
transcription.

iv) Macrolides (e.g., Erythromycin)


Bind to the 50S ribosomal subunit, inhibiting protein synthesis.

c) Psychotherapeutic Drugs
Psychotherapeutic drugs are used to treat mental health disorders by affecting brain chemistry and
function.

How they work


i) Stimulants (e.g., Methylphenidate, Amphetamine): Increase levels of dopamine and
norepinephrine in the brain, enhancing focus and reducing hyperactivity.

ii) Antidepressants (e.g., SSRIs like Fluoxetine, SNRIs like Venlafaxine):


Increase levels of serotonin and/or norepinephrine by inhibiting their reuptake into neurons,
improving mood and reducing symptoms of depression and anxiety.

iii) Antipsychotics (e.g., Risperidone, Haloperidol):


Block dopamine receptors in the brain, reducing symptoms of psychosis such as delusions
and hallucinations.
iv) Anxiolytics (e.g., Diazepam, Lorazepam):
Enhance the effect of GABA, a neurotransmitter that has a calming effect on the brain,
reducing anxiety.

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