Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves (light is an e.m. wave) - has wavelength in the range 4000ºA to 7500ºA.
Definition: - are waves that are created as a result of vibrations between an electric field and a magnetic
field. OR are composed of oscillating magnetic and electric fields.
Description: Electromagnetic waves are formed when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic
field. They are hence ‘electromagnetic’ waves. The electric field and magnetic field of an
electromagnetic wave are perpendicular (at right angles) to each other. They are also perpendicular to
the direction of the EM wave.

Properties of e.m. waves

- deflected neither by the electric field, nor by the magnetic field.
- capable of showing interference or diffraction.
-can travel through anything - be it air, a solid material or vacuum.
-does not need a medium to propagate or travel from one place to another
(i) e.m. waves are transverse in nature
(ii) They consist of electric (E) and magnetic fields (B) oscillating at right angles to each other
and perpendicular to the direction of propagation (k). Also E = cB.
iii) They propagate through free space (in vacuum) with a uniform velocity = 1/√μ0 ε0 = 3 × 108
ms–1 = c (velocity of light). For a medium of permeability μ (= μ0 .μr ) and permittivity ε (= ε0 . εr )
the velocity becomes
v = 1/√ με = 1/ √μ0ε0 = 1/μrεr = c/μr εr < c
(iv) The nature and action of these waves depends on their frequency (or wavelength).

Electromagnetic spectrum.
(i) The low frequency radiations (f = 60Hz to 50Hz and λ= 5 x 10 6 m to 6 x 106 m) : generated
from a.c. circuits are classified as power frequencies or power waves or electric power utility
e.m. waves. These waves have the lowest frequency.
(ii) Radio Waves (f = 109Hz to 300Hz and λ= 0.3m to 10 6 m) : Radio waves are generated when
charges are accelerated through conducting wires. They are generated in such electronic
devices as LC oscillators and are used extensively in radio and television communications.
(iii) Microwaves (f = 1011Hz to 109Hz and λ= 10 -3 to 0.3m): These are generated by oscillating
currents in special vacuum tubes, well suited for the radar system used in aircraft navigation,
T.V. communication, and for studying the atomic and molecular properties of matter.
Microwave ovens use these radiations as heatwaves.
(iv) Infra-red(heat) waves (f = 4.3 x1014Hz to 3x1011Hz and λ= 7x10 -7 to 10-3m) : are produced
by hot bodies and molecules. These are readily absorbed by most materials. The temperature
of the body, which absorbs these radiations, rises. Some applications include physical therapy
infrared photography etc. These are detected by a thermopile.
(v) Visible light (f = 7.5 x1014Hz to 4.3x1014Hz and λ= 4x10-7 to 7x10 -7 ) These are the e.m.
waves that the human eye can detect or to which the human retina is sensitive. It forms a very
small portion of the whole electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are produced by the
rearrangement of electrons in atoms and molecules. When an electron jumps from the outer
orbit to the inner orbit of lower energy, the balance of energy is radiated in the form of visible
radiation. The various wavelengths of visible lights are classified with colors, ranging from violet
(λ = 4 × 10–7m) to red (λ = 7 × 10–7). The human eye is most sensitive to yellow-green light (λ = 5
× 10–7m).
(vi) Ultraviolet (f = 10-17Hz to 7.5 x1014Hz and λ= 3x10 -9 to 4x10-7 ) : Sun is the important source
of ultraviolet radiations. Most of the ultraviolet light from the Sun is absorbed by atoms in the
upper atmosphere i.e. stratosphere, which contains ozone gas. This ozone layer then radiates
out the absorbed energy as heat radiations. Thus, the lethal (harmful to living beings) radiations
get converted into useful heat radiations by the ozone gas, which warms the stratosphere.
These ultraviolet rays are used in killing the bacteria in drinking water, in sterilization of
operation theatres, and also in checking the forgery of documents.
(vii) X-rays (f = 7.5 x 1020Hz to 7.5 x1015Hz and λ= 4 x10 -13 to 4x10-8 m): These are produced
when high energy electrons bombard a metal target (with high melting point) such as tungsten.
(viii)Gamma rays (f = 5x1024Hz to 3 x1018Hz and λ= 6x10 -17 to 10-10m): These are emitted by
radioactive nuclei such as cobalt (60) and cesium (137) and also during certain nuclear reactions
in nuclear reactors.

Energy for electromagnetic waves,

A wave’s energy is proportional to its amplitude squared (E2 or B2). This is true for waves on
guitar strings, for water waves, and for sound waves, where the amplitude is proportional to
pressure. In electromagnetic waves, the amplitude is the maximum field strength of the electric
and magnetic fields.
The energy carried and the intensity I of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to E2 and B2.
For a continuous sinusoidal electromagnetic wave, the average intensity Iave is given by
 2
cϵ 0 E 0
Iave=
2
where c is the speed of light, ε0 is the permittivity of free space, and E0 is the maximum electric
field strength; intensity, is the power per unit area (here in W/m2).
The average intensity of an electromagnetic wave Iave can also be expressed in terms of the
magnetic field strength by using the relationship
B = E/c, and the fact that ϵ0=1/μ0c2, where μ0 is the permeability of free space. Algebraic
manipulation produces the relationship
2
cB0
Iave= where B0 is the maximum magnetic field strength.
2 µ0

Substituting the fact that c ⋅ B0 = E0, the previous expression becomes

One more expression for Iave in terms of both electric and magnetic field strengths is useful.

E0 B 0
Iave =
2 μ0
The three expressions for Iave are all equivalent.
Example
On its highest power setting, a certain microwave oven projects 1.00 kW of microwaves onto a
30.0 by 40.0 cm area.
1. What is the intensity in W/m2?
2. Calculate the peak electric field strength E0 in these waves.
3. What is the peak magnetic field strength B0?

Solution for Part 1

Entering the given power into the definition of intensity, and noting the area is 0.300 by 0.400
m, yields
P 1.00 KW
I= =
A 0.300 X 0.400 M
Here I = Iave, so that
1000 W 3 2
Iave= 2 =8.33×10 W/m
0.120 M
Note that the peak intensity is twice the average: I0 = 2Iave = 1.67 × 104 W/m2.

Solution for Part 2

To find E0, we can rearrange the first equation given above for Iave to give

Entering known values gives

E0 =
√( )
2 I ave
cϵ 0

E0= √ 2 ¿¿ ¿ ¿ = 2.51×103 V/m

Solution for Part 3

since B0=E0/c.
Entering known values gives
B0=2.51×103 V/m/3.0×108 m/s =8.35×10−6 T

Electromagnetic Waves
! The electric field is always perpendicular to the direction the electromagnetic wave is
traveling and is always perpendicular to the magnetic field
! The electric and magnetic fields are in phase
E E 1 1
Wave Solutions for Maxwell’s Equations are correct if = c and = c= 
B B µ 0❑0 c µ 0❑0 c
1
c=
√ µ0 ❑0
The speed of an electromagnetic wave is expressed in terms of two fundamental constants
related to electric fields and magnetic fields, the magnetic permeability and the electric
permittivity of the vacuum.
If we put in the values of these constants we get
1
c = = 2.99⋅108 m/s
√( 1.26 x 10
−6
H /m ) ( 8.85 x 10−12 F /m)
 Electromagnetic waves have wavelengths ranging from 1000 m to less than 10 -12 m and
frequencies ranging from 106 to 1020 Hz
 Ranges of wavelength and frequency have names that identify the most common application of
those waves
 Visible light refers to electromagnetic waves ranging in wavelength from 400 nm to 700 nm
 The response of the human eye is peaked around 550 nm (green) and drops off quickly away
from that wavelength
 Other wavelengths of electromagnetic waves are invisible
 Sub-atomic processes can produce electromagnetic waves such as gamma rays, X-rays, and light
 Electromagnetic waves can also be produced by an oscillator connected to an antenna
1
 Series RLC circuit, resonance frequency ω0 =
√ LC
 A dipole antenna is used to approximate an electric dipole
 The voltage and current in the antenna vary sinusoidally with time and cause charge in the
antenna to oscillate with angular frequency ω of the circuit
 The electromagnetic waves created by moving charges travel from the antenna with speed c
and frequency f = ω/(2π) Wavelength λ = c/ f
Intensity A, speed of light c
I
If the wave is absorbed, pressure is pr =
C
2I
If the wave is refected, pressure is pr =
C
 A green laser pointer has a power of 1.00 mW
  We shine the laser pointer perpendicularly on a white sheet of paper, which reflects the light
 The spot of the laser pointer is 2.00 mm in diameter
Question:
• What force does the light from the laser point exert on the paper?
Answer:
• The intensity of the light from the laser pointer is given
−3
Power 1.0 X 10 w
I= = −3 2
= 318 W/m2
Area (
π 1.0 x 10 )
The radiation pressure is equal to the force exerted by the
Force 2 I
light divided by the area over which it acts. Pr = =
Area C
Thus the force exerted by the laser pointer light is

= π (1.0 x10−3 m) 2 x
3
2I 2 x 3.18 w /m
force = area x = 6.66⋅10−12 N
C 8
3.0 x 10 m/s
 A polarizer allows only one component of the polarization of the light to pass through
 One way to make a polarizer is to use a material that consists of long parallel chains of
molecules that effectively only let light pass if it has a certain direction of polarization
and blocks it if it has a polarization in the perpendicular direction
 The components of the unpolarized light that have the same polarization as the
polarizer are transmitted but those with polarization perpendicular to the polarizer are
absorbed
 If light with polarization parallel to the polarizing angle is incident on the polarizer, all
the light passes through. If light with polarization perpendicular to the polarizing angle
is incident on the polarizer, none of the light is transmitted
1
 The intensity I of the light passing through the polarizer is given by I = I0
2
 The unpolarized light had equal contribution from the y and z components and only the y
components are transmitted by the vertical polarizer.
 Assume that polarized light passes through a polarizer and that this light has a polarization that
is not parallel or perpendicular to the polarizing direction of the polarizer
 The angle between the incident polarization is θ
 The electric field E of the transmitted light is E = E0Cos θ
 Eois the electric field of the incident polarized light
 The intensity of the light I0 before the polarizer is given by
1 2 1 2
Io = E = E where - θ is The angle between the incident polarization
C µ 0 rms 2C µ0 0
E The electric field of the transmitted light
E0 is the electric field of the incident polarized light
 Afer the light passes through the polarizer, the intensity I is
1
I= E2
2C µ0
 The transmitted intensity in terms of the initial intensity is
1 1 2
I=
2C µ0
E2 =
2C µ0
( E0 cos θ ) = I0Cos2 θ
This result is the Law of Malus
 This equation only applies to the case of polarized light incident on a polarizer

Applications of Polarization
• Used for most recent 3D movies and 3D TV sets
- Plane mirrors reverse circular polarization direction upon reflection (but leave linear
polarization direction unchanged)
• Used in outdoor LCDs (ATMs, …) to reduce/eliminate glare from reflected sunlight
! Sunglasses can have a coating that is polarized to block reflected light that is usually polarized
! LCD screens have an array of liquid crystals sandwiched between two polarizers whose
polarizing angles are rotated 90° with respect to each other
! Normally, the liquid crystal rotates the polarization of the light between the two polarizers so
that light passes through
! An array of addressable electrodes applies a varying voltage across each of the liquid crystals,
causing the liquid crystals to rotate the polarization less, darkening the area covered by the
electrode
! The screen can then display a large number of picture elements, or pixels, that produces a
high-resolution image
Electromagnetic waves can bring energy into a system by virtue of their electric and magnetic
fields. These fields can exert forces and move charges in the system and, thus, do work on
them. If the frequency of the electromagnetic wave is the same as the natural frequencies of
the system (such as microwaves at the resonant frequency of water molecules), the transfer of
energy is much more efficient.

But there is energy in an electromagnetic wave, whether it is absorbed or not. Once created,
the fields carry energy away from a source. If absorbed, the field strengths are diminished and
anything left travels on. The larger the strength of the electric and magnetic fields, the more
work they can do and the greater the energy the electromagnetic wave carries.

5 Polarized Light Vibrations lie on one single plane only. Unpolarized Light Superposition of
many beams, in the same direction of propagation, but each with random polarization.

8 A Polarizing material will only allow the passage of that component of the electric field
parallel to the polarization direction of the material cos 2  thus I = I 0 cos 2 

9 Crossed Polarizers The first polarizer reduces the intensity by half. The second polarizer
reduces the intensity by another factor of cos 2. The second polarizer projects the electric field
onto a new axis, rotated by  from the axis of the first polarizer

14 Sunglasses – Glare Reduction Polarized lenses have the added benefit of filtering out
reflected light, or glare, off surfaces such as water or pavement Ideal for boating, fishing,
driving or any other activity associated with intense glare Reduces eye strain and fatigue while
increasing contrast and visual acuity.
15 Light reflected from surfaces like a flat road or smooth water is generally horizontally
polarized. This horizontally polarized light is blocked by the vertically oriented polarizers in the
lenses. The result: a reduction in annoying and sometimes dangerous glare.

16 Action of Polaroid Sunglass Unwanted glares are usually horizontally polarized light
Vertically Polarized Light from Objects Light reflected from surfaces like a flat road or smooth
water is generally horizontally polarized. This horizontally polarized light is blocked by the
vertically oriented polarizers in the lenses.

18 Glare and Polarization The polaroid absorbs most of the polarized light reflected from the
water’s surface, allowing the dimmer light from the bottom of the river, and any fish swimming
there, to be seen more readily.

21 Application Used in LCD Electrical voltage on a liquid crystal diode turns on and off
polarizing filter effect.