Mohammed V University British culture S1

Faculty of Education Sciences Pr. R. Bougtib

History of Britain

I. The Founding of Britain

1. Prehistoric And Roman Britain
The name Britain, indicating present-day England, Scotland, and Wales, is derived from the
Roman name Britannica, which in turn is derived from ancient Celtic. Before the Celts arrived,
Britain had been inhabited for thousands of years by people who had already learnt to tame
animals and to grow corn in a primitive fashion. About 1,000 B.C., Britain was invaded by the
Celts: tall, fair-headed people who swept across the continent into great waves of migration.
First, the Goidelic Celts came, whose traces may still be found in the Gaels of Ireland and the
Highlands. There followed the Brytonic Celts, or Bretons, who were closely allied in blood and
culture to the Gauls of France. The early British artisans were highly skilled in pottery and
metalwork.
The Celts came to England around 800 BC from Central Europe (specifically France and
Germany). Another group of warlike Celts invaded in the 4th century BC, conquering land in the
north of England, as well as in Scotland and Ireland. They became the first aristocracy to control
most of Britain. They imposed their language, Gaelic, on the people, which still survives today to
some degree in Ireland, Scotland, and Wales.
2. The Romans
After the Celts, the next group of people to come to Britain and rule over it was the Romans.
The Romans arrived in 55 and 54 BC and lived peacefully in England for about 300 years. They
brought to Britain a highly developed legal system, a system of taxation, engineering skills,
Roman architecture, and the Latin language. After a brief period of resistance, Roman culture
was accepted and the upper class became completely Romanized. This period is sometimes
called the Celtic-Roman period because the two cultures coexisted peacefully. In the 4 th century,
Rome converted to Christianity, and Christian missionaries travelled to Britain to spread the
religion. However, in the 4 th century AD, during the collapse of the Roman Empire, the Roman
troops in Britain withdrew. Some historians argue that the Romans played an essential role in
British history, while others believe their influence was relatively small. In any case, after the
Romans left, the Celtic people who remained were invaded by a new group that had a significant
impact on British history: the Anglo-Saxons.
3. The Anglo-Saxons
An obscure 200 years followed the withdrawal of the Romans, during which the Germanic
Angels and Saxons overran all England except Conrwall, Wales and Cumberland. Roman partial
re-occupations possibly took place around 427 and 450. England was divided into several
kingdoms, the chief being Northumbria, Kent, and Wessex, whose kings battled for supremacy
until 829, the year in which they all accepted Egbert of Wessex as overlord. Egbert’s successors

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were confronted with the Danish raiders (Vikings). Although the Vikings were expelled from
Wessex in 878, they took the North and East of England. England was divided between the
Saxons and the Vikings, but they did not last long as the Vikings oppressed all Saxon resistance
and ruled England between 1016 and 1042. The Norman influence led to the Norman Conquest
in 1066.
NB. The Saxons were excellent farmers, and the Vikings were excellent sailors and fighters.
Their languages form the basis of the English language, which is a Germanic language.
4. The Normans
In 1066, William of Normandy (the Conqueror) defeated Harold Godwinson in the battle of
Hastings and became King William I of England. The battle of Hastings is a turning point in
English history because of three main things:
a. French aristocracy replaced the English one.
b. Social classes appeared.
c. The Feudal system was reinforced: peasants should get the permission of their
Lords to do anything. The oppression of basic freedoms began.
d. The aristocrats began using French, not English.
William I needed a big army, but barons and lords could be a threat to a king in a weak
position. That is why they were granted extraordinary privileges by the monarch. Concerning
law and order, William I set up a court of advisors and officials, who compiled a book called the
Doomsday book. It was a record of England’s wealth and population. William I used it for
taxation purposes.
After William’s death, a big problem emerged: the English kings did not want to rule England
and France, and the French did not want to be ruled by English kings. There was animosity on
both sides.
II. Medieval England
1. Magna Carta and Parliament (1199 – 1272)
When Henry II died, his son Richard I became king. He was nicknamed Lion Heart. King
Richard was a crusader always fighting the Muslims in the crusades. After his death, his brother
John succeeded him. King John was faced with big three problems:
i. A strong English nobility.
ii. The French possessions becoming difficult to handle.
iii. The church and its strong pope threatening his reign.
During John’s reign, England lost Normandy, and the nobility became tired of the king’s
demands concerning taxation. Therefore, the aristocracy, the church, and the merchants
formed a coalition against the king and obliged him to agree to the terms of Magna Carta (great
charter) in 1215. Magna Carta is a document that laid down rules that feudal kings had to follow.
It was the first step to parliament and the beginning of the end of the king’s absolute authority.
King John had to agree to the terms of the charter in 1215.
After John’s death, his son Henry III became king. Many things took place under his reign:
a. The birth of local government: four knights supervised local government in each county.
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 b. The birth of parliament: a council of 15 people appointed to direct the government.
c. A big war between Henry III and Simon de Montfort, his sister’s husband over the
throne. Simon won the war and became the ruler of England.
2. The Rise of the English Nation
By the 13th century, the rulers of England began to see themselves as English rather than
French. Over time, they adopted English as their primary language, moving away from French.
The two languages had mixed over the years, evolving into what we now refer to as Middle
English. Significant changes in government and society marked this period.
Oxford and Cambridge universities were established in the 13th century, and the power of
Parliament began to grow during this time. Edward I (1272–1307) was a strong king who
attempted to conquer Scotland but ultimately failed, mainly due to the bravery of Scotsmen like
William Wallace and Robert Bruce. Then, in 1348-1349, the Black Death (plague) swept through
England, killing nearly half the population.
3. Late Medieval England
Dynastic conflicts, trade, and other interests led to the 100 years war with France (1338-1453).
The financial problems created by this war enabled the parliament to secure control of taxation,
and of the king's choice of ministers. The later 14th century was filled with unrest. The Black
Death created a serious labor shortage, and attempts to deal with it led to Bitter class struggles,
culminating in the peasants’ revolt in 1381. In spite of the failure of the rising, serfdom steadily
declined during the 15th century. Popular anticlericalism found expression in the Lollard
movement, which anticipated the Reformation. The Lollards were a group of religious people
who wanted to clean the church of corruption.
When Richard II moved towards absolutism, the parliament replaced him by Henry IV, who
was obliged to grant this institution unprecedented power. The crowning of Henry IV as king led
to a war between the House of York and the House of Lancaster; this war was called the War
of the Roses because each house had a rose as emblem: red rose for Lancaster and white rose
for York. This was lasted 30 years (1455- 1485). Edward IV finally restored order, and Henry
VII, who broke the political power of the feudal nobility, maintained it. This was the beginning
of the Tudor dynasty.
III. The Tudors
1. Henry VIII (1509-1547)
Henry VIII was a quintessential Renaissance prince: a poet, musician, skilled horseman, and
art lover. At the age of 36, he still had no son and grew sick of his Spanish wife, Catherine of
Aragon. He fell in love with Anne Boleyn and sought the Pope's permission to divorce
Catherine to marry Anne. When the Pope refused, Henry broke with Rome. There was
significant anti-Catholic sentiment in England at the time, leading both Parliament and the
people to support Henry against the Pope. Parliament declared the king the "Supreme Head of
the Church of England," assisting him in dismantling the Catholic Church's influence. Henry
seized church lands and buildings, reallocating much of the wealth to his friends. He also ordered
that church services be conducted in English instead of Latin and mandated that each church
possess an English Bible.
2. Queen Elizabeth I: Gloriana or the Virgin Queen (1558–1603)

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 Henry's first daughter, Mary, was Catholic like her mother, Catherine of Aragon, and
attempted to restore Catholicism in England. However, upon her death, Henry's second daughter,
Elizabeth, was next in line, born to his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth ascended to the
throne as queen at the age of 25. She was fluent in Greek, Latin, French, and Italian and studied
theology, becoming a strong Protestant. When she came to power, England had no standing army
or police force and a weak bureaucracy. By her death in 1603, she had transformed England into
one of the most powerful nations on earth. In 1559, Elizabeth established Protestantism as the
national religion by having Parliament pass the Act of Supremacy, which declared the queen (or
king) the “supreme governor of the Church”.
Rumours circulated that Catholics were plotting to assassinate Elizabeth, with Mary, Queen of
Scots, allegedly involved. Parliament sought her execution, and Elizabeth ultimately ordered her
beheading in 1587. During this time, King Philip of Spain aimed to support the Catholics in
England, amidst ongoing conflicts between Catholics and Protestants. Additionally, English and
Spanish ships frequently clashed at sea. By the mid-1580s, it became evident that Spain and
England were on a collision course for war. In one of the most famous battles in English history,
the English fleet defeated the entire Spanish Armada in the English Channel in 1588. That same
year, William Shakespeare arrived in London, where he wrote 20 plays that Elizabeth immensely
enjoyed. Many of his historical plays celebrated England's greatness. This period also marked a
time of significant economic growth for England and the beginning of the golden age of
exploration and discovery worldwide.
IV. The Stuarts: A Scottish Dynasty (1603- 1714)
1. The English Civil War
Under Elizabeth, the power of Parliament was growing. After her death, her cousin, James VI
of Scotland, became King James I of England in 1603. This marked the end of the Tudor
dynasty and the beginning of the House of Stuart. During this time, there were religious
reformers who believed the Anglican Church (Church of England) was not strict enough and
sought to reform it. These reformers were known as Puritans, as they aimed to purify the church.
Significant hostility toward the Puritans led some to escape England to establish new religious
communities, first in Holland and later in America (specifically in Massachusetts). After King
James I died, his son became King Charles I in 1625. Charles believed in the divine right of
kings and attempted to rule without Parliament, even trying to arrest Members of Parliament.
This led to a backlash from Parliament, igniting the English Civil War.
The civil war began in 1640, with Oliver Cromwell as the leader of Parliament. The main
issues at stake were religious toleration for Puritans and other Protestant groups and the demand
for more power for Parliament and less for the king. The Puritans supported Parliament against
the king. King Charles I was ultimately defeated by Cromwell's army and was executed on
January 30, 1649. There was no monarch for the first and only time in English history.
 England without a King: "The Commonwealth" (1649-1660)
England was now without a king and was ruled by Oliver Cromwell as a "commonwealth"
rather than a kingdom. Various religious and political groups competed for power, leading the
army generals under Cromwell to take control. England effectively became a military
dictatorship under Puritan rule, with strict religious laws in place (e.g., theatres were closed).
V. The Restoration (1660-1713)

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 Eventually, the people grew weary of this Puritan government and desired a king. King
Charles II was invited back to England, and the people rejoiced in 1660. The theatres reopened,
ushering in a significant artistic and cultural achievement period. The leading spirit of the
Restoration was one of reason. The power and wealth of the middle classes increased during this
time, marked by significant commercial success and scientific advancements.
King Charles II was a catholic, but he kept it a secret until his death to avoid religious
conflicts. He formed an alliance with King Louis XIV of France against the Dutch (treaty of
Dover). The English king was paid by the French king for this treaty. As Charles II, he issued the
Declaration of Indulgence, by which dissenters (extremist puritans) and Roman Catholics were
allowed to hold public office. This outraged the parliament which passed the Test Act, which
reaffirmed the supremacy of the Anglican church, so a religious battle began.
King Charles II had another conflict with the politicians over the heredity principle. The king
wanted this principle to prevail and not be subject to the wishes of a group of politicians, so two
groups emerged: the petitioners and the abhorrers. The petitioners were against the king while
the abhorrers were with the king. Charles II defied this and ruled without parliament until his
death. He left the monarchy strong and financially secure.
During his reign, many economic achievements took place:
a. The Commercial Revolution: Trade increased dramatically especially colonial trade in
Jamaica, North America, and India… and slave trade in West Africa.
b. The colonial trade: was the stimulus for English industry, which prepared it for the
industrial revolution of the next century.

VI. The Victorian Era

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the British sailed across the seas to expand their power and
wealth, primarily competing with France for colonies worldwide. Emigration became a solution
to the overpopulation problem in Britain as people seeking freedom or wealth gradually settled in
these distant lands. By the late 19th century, England ruled about one-quarter of the world's land
and population under Queen Victoria. During this period, England emerged as the leading
industrial nation in Europe, the birthplace of the Industrial Revolution. In 1834, Britain abolished
slavery in all its colonies. In the 19th and 20th centuries, the colonies gained increasing
independence, and large companies were prohibited from monopolizing trade. Maintaining such
a vast empire became increasingly difficult, leading to its gradual dissolution; today, only
linguistic and cultural connections remain with Great Britain.
 Home Affairs
Besides the war difficulties and damage, Ireland was Britain's main internal problem of the
20th century. The granting of home rule to Ireland had been postponed before World War I,
leading to the Easter Rebellion, which broke out in Dublin on Easter Sunday in 1916. Although
the rebellion was crushed, the independent Irish Republic, declared in 1916, was recognized in
1919, and a war against Britain commenced. After three years of guerrilla warfare, the Irish Free
State was established in 1922 with dominion status. However, Ulster remained part of the UK, as
the Protestant majority of its inhabitants demanded in a referendum.
In 1937, the Irish Republic, or Éire, adopted a new constitution and was proclaimed an
independent state. It remained neutral during World War II and, in 1949, left the British

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Commonwealth of Nations. The Irish Republic joined the European Union in 1973, the same
year as the UK. In 1948, the Labour government introduced a social security and medical care
system that covered everyone in the country, known as the Welfare State. Important sectors of
the economy were nationalized between 1948 and 1950. However, this period of prosperity,
known as the "Age of Affluence" (the late 1950s and 1960s), was followed by economic troubles
in the 1970s, exacerbated by prolonged strikes. After Margaret Thatcher became Prime
Minister as the leader of the Conservative Party, she reduced the extensive powers of British
trade unions and initiated a denationalization program. She supported private enterprise and
implemented cuts in public expenditure, particularly in social services. As a result, the British
economy began to recover, but the economic slump that started in the USA in 2008 may
adversely affect it.

 Foreign Affairs
As the balance of power in Europe collapsed at the beginning of the 20th century, Britain
abandoned its "splendid isolation" policy and joined the Allied Powers. British soldiers fought
in World War I (1914–1918) on the Allies' side. During the interwar period, Britain pursued a
policy of appeasement, attempting to prevent the outbreak of another war by conceding to
Hitler's demands, along with other Western states. As a result, Britain was unprepared for World
War II (1939–1945). In 1940, Britain found itself alone in the fight against Germany and its
allies, but it managed to withstand the German bombing campaign during the Battle of Britain
and continued to fight until victory in 1945.
Britain joined NATO in 1949 and was involved in five significant conflicts in the second half
of the 20th century: the Korean War (1950–1953), the Suez Crisis (1956), the Falklands Crisis
(1982), the Gulf War (1990–1991), and again in Iraq during the 2010s.
Between 1931 and 1949, the British Empire transformed into a voluntary association of
independent states known as the British Commonwealth of Nations; the adjective "British" was
dropped in the 1960s. The Commonwealth currently comprises over 50 member states.
In 1973, Britain joined the European Union, though it had yet to accept the Euro as its
currency. In the first half of the 20th century, Britain lost its position as an economic
superpower. The main reasons for this were:
 The two world wars: Britain became indebted to the USA, and it was severely damaged,
especially by World War II;
 The loss of the Empire, which had provided cheap raw materials and markets for British
goods;
 Economic reasons: The continuing lack of investment at home, decreasing productivity,
and the growing inability of the traditional industries (i.e., mining, steel and iron,
shipbuilding, and textiles) to compete with other industrial states, especially the USA: By
the end of the 1970s, Britain had fallen behind all the leading industrial nations of
western Europe.
The situation described above led to the restructuring of the British economy: new industries
appeared, traditional ones were closed or restructured. The discovery of North Sea oil in the
1970s and 1980s was another economic asset. Britain maintained its position of world
importance, mainly in financial services.
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