​ YLLABUS:Introduction To Research 1.

1 Foundation Of Research: Meaning,

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Objectives , Motivation And Utility Of Research, Deductive And Inductive Theory.
Research– Understanding The Language Of Research – Concept, Construct,
Definition, Variable 1.2 Research Process, Characteristics Of Good Research. 1.3
Problem Identification & Formulation – Research Question – Investigation Question
– Measurement Issues 1.4 Hypothesis: Meaning, Nature, Significance, Types And
Sources. 1.5 Research Design: Concept And Importance In Research – Features And
Essentials Of A Good Research Design – Exploratory Research Design – Concept,
Types And Uses, Descriptive Research Designs – Concept, Types And Uses.
Experimental Design: Concept Of Independent & Dependent Variable 1.6 Sampling:
Meaning Of Sample And Sampling, Methods Of Sampling, NonProbability Sampling,
Convenient, Judgement, Quota, Snow Ball, Probability, Simple Random, Stratified,
Cluster, Multi-Stage

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MODULE – I

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INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

​ INTRODUCTION R
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​MEANING

The word ‘Research’ is derived from the Middle French word

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‘recherche’ meaning ‘to go about seeking’. Research is a careful and

detailed study into a specific problem, concern, or issue using the
scientific method. Also research is a systematic investigation to search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge. It helps to find solutions to certain
problems and arrive at new conclusions.
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What is meant by research? Explain its significance in modern times.

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Research means search for facts in order to find answers to certain questions or to find
solutions to certain problems. It is often referred to as ‘scientific inquiry’ or ‘scientific
investigation’ into a specific problem or situation. This is because, the search for facts
should be made by scientific method rather than by arbitrary method. The scientific method
uses systematic rational approach to search for facts, whereas, the arbitrary method
attempts to find answers to questions on the basis of imagination and one’s own beliefs and
judgement.Research is defined “as an academic activity that involves identifying the
research problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting and analysing the data and reaching
specific conclusions in the form of solutions or general theories.

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​ DEFINITION

According to The Organization for Economic Cooperation and

Development (OECD), "Any creative systematic activity undertaken in
order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man,
culture and society, and the use of this knowledge to devise new
applications."

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According to John W. Creswell, who states that "research is a

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process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our

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understanding of a topic or issue". It consists of three steps: pose a question,
collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question

William C. Emory defines “research is any organized inquiry

designed and carried out to provide information for solving a problem.”
Robert Ross defines “Research is essentially an investigation, a recording
and analysis of evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge.”

​FEATURES OF RESEARCH

1) Systematic Process: Research is a systematic process. No research

can be conducted haphazardly. Each step must follow other. There are
set of procedures that have been tested over a period of time and are

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thus suitable to use in research: The steps are as follows:

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• Formulating the research problem
• Review of Literature
• Define Research objectives

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• Preparing Research Design
• Collection and analysis of data
• Interpretation of data
• Preparation of report
• Follow-up of report
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2) Objective and Logical / Empirical: Researcher needs to make every
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possible effort to avoid biasness in every stage of research process. In
order to make research objective and logical / empirical, there is a need
to collect relevant and accurate data to investigate into the research
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problem. After collection of data, the researcher need to undertake

processing of data, analyse and interpret it and arrive at logical
conclusion. So the research has to be conducted following rigorous
scientific methods and procedures. Each step in the research has been
tested for accuracy.
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3) Development of Principles and Theories: A systematic research

helps to develop new principles and theories. Such principles and
theories can be useful to several organizations to manage and deal with
people and things in a better way. Eg. Prof. Alfred Marshall used the
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inductive method of research in economics. On the basis of the market

analysis he framed ‘Law of Demand’. According to this law, there
exists a negative relationship between the price and quantity
demanded. When price increases, demand falls and vice versa.
Another example could be, ‘14 Principles of Management by Henry
Fayol’. They are developed gradually with thorough research work.
Systematic observation and experiments are conducted in various
organizations before developing them.

4) Multipurpose Activity: Research is multipurpose activity. It helps to

achieve multiple purposes such as:
 • Discover new facts or verify old facts.
• Predict future events and control such events
• Establishes relationship between variables
• Develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories

5) Basic and Applied Research: Basic or fundamental or pure

research is a research approach that is entirely theoretical and aimed at
improving or expanding the knowledge-base of a particular field of
study. The main motivation in basic research is to expand man’s
knowledge, not to create or invent something. There is no obvious
commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research. It
does not have direct commercial objective.

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Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the
modern world, rather than acquire knowledge for knowledge sake. In
other words, the purpose of applied research is to know more about a
certain real-world problem and take steps to solve it. It has direct

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commercial objective. Researchers in this field try to find immediate
solutions to existing problems facing a society or an industrial or
business organization.

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6) Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Quantitative research
refers to as a systematic investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical techniques. Eg. Research is
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undertaken to find out the number of unemployed graduates. This type
of research is usually done by using surveys, experiments, and so on.
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Qualitative research is used to gain an understanding of human

behaviour, intentions, attitudes, experience, etc. It is based on the
observation and the interpretation of the people. Eg. Research is
undertaken to find out reasons as to why employees remain absent
from work.
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7) Generalization: When the researcher conducts a research, he/she

selects target population and from this population, small sample is
selected for collecting data. So the sample selection must be done
systematically so that it represents the whole population or the
universe. The findings with this sample is generalized on entire
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population/universe of research. Eg. A research is undertaken on

‘Consumer behavior towards electronic goods of Samsung Company
in Mumbai region’ among 500 sample size. The findings of these 500
samples may be generalized for people residing in entire Mumbai
region.

8) Reliability: It is a subjective term which can not be measured

precisely, but today there are instruments which can estimate the
reliability of any research. Reliability is the extent to which the
outcomes are consistent when then experiment is repeated more than
once. If research is undertaken with similar population and with
 similar procedures, If it yields similar results each time it is called to
be a reliable research. . Eg. A research is conducted on ‘the effects of
single parenting on the class performance of the children’ and the
results conclude that single parenting causes low grades in class. These
results should have to be reliable for another sample taken from a
similar population. More the results are similar; more reliability is
present in the research.

9) Validity: Validity of the research instrument can be defined as the

suitability / accuracy of the research instrument to the research
problem. Validity is the extent to which the instruments that are used in
the experiment measure exactly what you want them to measure. Some
researchers say that validity and reliability are co-related, but the

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validity is much more important than reliability. Without validity,

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research goes in the wrong direction.

​ IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

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1) Helps to predict changes in business environment: The business
management is witnessing constant changes due to changes in external
business environment such as:
• Consumer preferences,
• Competitor’s strategy,
• Society expectations R
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• Economic environment,
• Technological environment,
• Legal environment (macro factors) and so on.
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This change in business environment can adversely affect a

business organization. So the manager can timey predict such changes and
save business from heavy losses.
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2) Launching new product: Business research helps in successful

launching of a new product in the market. This is because, a research
enables to know the likes, dislikes, preferences and choices of their
consumers related to product. Accordingly a business firm can design
and launch new product. Such product has lower rejection rate and
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higher acceptance from consumers. When customers are offered

product as per their preferences, it results into customer satisfaction.

3) Helps to design effective marketing strategy: Business research

helps to design effective marketing strategy. Research enables to a
business organization to:
• Design quality product
• Decide right price
• Effective promotion
• Proper distribution
 4) Achieve organizational goals: Systematic business research helps to
achieve organization goals such as:
• Customer Satisfaction
• Increase in sales and profits
• Expansion of Business
• Enhance Corporate image
• Face competition and so on.

5) Studying the competition: Companies often use business research to

study key competitors in their markets. The company may want to
know the percentage of customers in the market who purchase its
products versus competitor’s products. Also it enables to know the
marketing strategy of competitors. Accordingly a business firm can

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design its own marketing strategy to survive and growth in the highly
competitive market.

6) Facilitates decision making: With the help of research data available,

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businessman can take right decision at right time. Research provides a
business with a chance to update itself the latest market trends. Such
knowledge will prove helpful in the formulating of useful tactics for

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success in the market. It is through research that a business is able to
make educated and informed decisions.

7) Helps to measure business progress: Business research enables to

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gauge (measure) how well business is performing. Early research may
highlight problems in services and short falls in the products. Regular
market research will show if improvements are being made and if
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positive, will help to motivate a team.

8) Availability of competent manpower: Research also helps in the

recruitment and selection of competent manpower. Proper recruitment
and selection of employees with the right skills and attitudes help the
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firm to increase its productivity levels. Further effective training and

compensation package can improve morale of employees and motivate
them to work with dedication and commitment.

9) Helps to get right suppliers: Research helps the firm to get a right
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supplier who offers raw material at right price and right time. A proper
supplier selection enables the firm to get or acquire high quality raw
materials which result into production of high quality products that are
consumed by end users.

10) Improves productivity: Productivity refers to the ratio of output to

the input i.e. with one unit of input, how much output is produced.
Productivity can be increased with the help of:
• Training to employees
• Research and Development
• Use of Modern Technology
 Business research make realize to the business firm to undertake
these activities which result into improvement in productivity of
the business.

​OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

1) To find out solution to problems: Research can be undertaken to find

solutions to solve a specific problem. Data is collected on the problem
faced by an organization. Such data is analysed and interpretation is
made to find out solution to solve the problem. Eg. An organization
may initiate research to find solution to problem of declining sales of
their product in the market. So the data is collected to find out reasons
for declining sales and analysis of such data may provide solution to

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the problem.

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2) To obtain Information: Research is undertaken to obtain information,
which may not be easily available. Variety of information can be
collected such as consumer preference, competitor’s strategy, demand,

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economic conditions and so on. Such information is vital for a
marketer to take crucial marketing decisions.

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3) To make future predictions: Research enables a businessman to
collect past and present data. Based on such data, the researcher can
make future predictions about business situation and business stand in
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near future. Eg. A marketer wishes to launch a new product in the
market. With the help of research he can predict the future of that
product and then decide whether to come up with that product or not.
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4) To develop new tools and concepts: Research helps to develop new

tools and concepts for better study of an unknown phenomenon. For
this purpose, exploratory research is undertaken to achieve new
insights into such phenomenon. Eg. Research enables a business firm
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to know what factors affect consumer satisfaction in modern times.

Accordingly marketer can develop new tools and concepts to provide
maximum consumer satisfaction.

5) To verify and test existing laws or theories: Research may be

undertaken to verify and test existing laws or theories. Such
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verification and testing of existing laws and theories is required to

know the relevance of it in present time..

​ TYPES OF RESEARCH

1) Basic Research: Basic or fundamental or pure research is a research

approach that is entirely theoretical and aimed at improving or
expanding the knowledge-base of a particular field of study. The main
motivation in basic research is to expand man’s knowledge, not to
create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to
the discoveries that result from basic research. It does not have direct
 commercial objective. Eg. “A study on socio-economic status of
dwellers of Dharavi area, Mumbai” OR “A study on impact of mobile
phone on studies of secondary school children.”

2) Applied Research: Applied research is designed to solve practical

problems of the modern world, rather than acquire knowledge for
knowledge sake. In other words, the purpose of applied research is to
know more about a certain real-world problem and take steps to solve
it. It has direct commercial objective. Researchers in this field try to
find immediate solutions to existing problems facing a society or an
industrial or business organization. Eg. “Investigating factors that
improve worker's productivity.” OR “A study on declining sales of
ABC soap.”

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3) Descriptive Research: Descriptive research is a type of research that
provides an in-depth description of the situation, phenomenon or
population under study. This research is also an appropriate option
when researcher does not have any information about the research

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problem, and primary information gathering is required to establish a
hypothesis. The descriptive research provides the answer to the “what”
part of a research and does not answer the questions “why”.

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Researcher has no control over the variables and researcher has to
report the actual conditions. For example, an apparel brand that wants
to understand the fashion purchasing trends among Mumbai buyers.
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They will conduct a demographic survey of this region, gather
population data and then conduct descriptive research on this
demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what is
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the purchasing pattern of Mumbai buyers,” but not cover any

investigative information about “why” the patterns exits. Because for
the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the
nature of their market is the study’s objective.
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4) Analytical Research: Analytical research is a critical evaluation based

on information that is available. The researcher makes use of facts or
information already available and analyse these to make a critical
evaluation of the material. It is primarily concerned with testing
hypothesis. It specifies and interprets relationships by analyze the facts
or existing information. The analytical research provides the answer to
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the “why” part of a research. It is usually concerns itself with cause-

effect relationships. Eg. Explaining why and how US trade balance
move in a particular way over time.

5) Conceptual Research: This research is a type of research that is

generally related to abstract idea (existing in thought or as an idea but
not having a physical or concrete existence) or concept. It does not
involve any practical experiment. This research is generally used by
philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or reinterpret
existing ones.
 6) Empirical Research: Empirical research relies on the observation and
experience with hardly any regard for theory and system. Such
research is data based, which often comes up with conclusions that can
be verified through experiments or observation. For example: A
research is being conducted to find out if listening to happy music
while working may promote creativity? An experiment is conducted
by using a music website survey on a set of audience who are exposed
to happy music and another set who are not listening to music at all,
and the subjects are then observed. The results derived from such a
research will give empirical evidence if it does promote creativity or
not.

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7)Qualitative Research
As the name suggests, qualitative research is concerned with the quality of
phenomena which are not easily measured in quantitative terms. In the recent years, the
qualitative research has gained more importance in business. Qualitative research is

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designed to tell the researcher how and why things happen as they do. This type of research
encompasses a family of approaches, methods and techniques for understanding and
documenting of attitudes and behavior. Generally speaking, qualitative research seeks the

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meanings and motivations behind behavior as well as a thorough account of behavioral
facts and Implications. It is mostly used in behavioral science to understand why people
behave differently. Studies on motivation, stress, perception, values, emotional intelligence,
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etc., are qualitative in nature.
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8)Quantitative Research
The goal of quantitative research method is to collect numerical data from a group of
people, then generalize those results to a larger group of people to explain a phenomenon.
Researchers generally use quantitative research when the study requires objective and
conclusive answers. In quantitative research the observations are quantified and the results
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are expressed in terms of different units. Managers basically do business research to

understand how and why things happen. If the manager needs to know only what happened
or how often things happened, quantitative research methodologies would serve the
purpose. But to understand the different meanings that people place on their experience
often requires research techniques that investigate more deeply into people’s hidden
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interpretations, understandings and motivations.

8.Historical Research
Historical research, as the term implies, is research is based on describing the past. This
type of research includes for instance investigations like the recording, analysis and
interpretation of events in the past with the purpose of discovering generalisations and
deductions that can be useful in understanding the past, the present and to a limited extent,
can anticipate the future
● It’s like going into the past to understand the present.
 ● For example : Studying the current state of labour in India based on past
labour union movements in the Indian economy, to formulate the Indian
labour policy.
9. Exploratory Research
Formulative or exploratory research helps us to investigate any problem with suitable
hypothesis. This research on social science is particularly important for clarification of any
concept and throwing new light for further research on principles of developing hypothesis
and it’s testing with statistical tools.
It is a type of research conducted when a problem has not been clearly defined.This type of
search is used to generate information and knowledge about topics not specifically defined
and often evolving over time – such as learning about a company, trend, industry,

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technology or market. These types of searches often start without specific knowledge or

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even enough contextual information to form a specific useful query.For instance, a
marketer has heard news reports about a new Internet Technology that is helping
competitors but the marketer is not familiar with the technology and needs to do research
to learn more.

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FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM

​Meaning
Identification and formulation of a research problem is the first
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step of the research process. It is the most challenging and difficult phase
of the research process.

A research problem is a question that a researcher wants to answer

or a problem that a researcher wants to solve. In other words, research
problem is an issues or a concern that an investigator / researcher presents and
justifies in a research study.

A research problem is the most important aspect of the research. Researcher must
spend time to refine and assess the research problem before getting started with the
research activities. A research question must be straightforward, to the point and
focused.

Example
Incorrect Research Problem: What are the effects of social media on
people?

Correct Research Problem: What effect does using Facebook everyday

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have on teenagers?

In the above example, the first question is not specific enough to

capture accurate feedback. Nobody knows what social media researcher is

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talking about and what ‘people’ (target population) researcher is referring
to.

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​Steps to Formulate of Research Problem
1) Identify the broad research area: The researcher begins research by
identifying a broad research area based on his/her interest, specialty,
profession, expertise, and knowledge. For example, a researcher
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studying about Business Management can select areas like Marketing
Management, Human Resource Management, Organizational
Management, and Financial Management. These are the broader areas
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that can be further subdivided into various research topics to figure out
marketing strategies.

2) Divide the broad area into sub-areas: After the researcher chooses a
broad area to study, he/she need to narrow down to a specific topic that
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is manageable and researchable. To do this, break down the broad area

into sub-areas and choose a specific topic. For example, if your broad
area is Marketing Management it can be further divided into the
following subcategories:
• Consumer Satisfaction
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• Marketing Mix
• Consumer Relationship
• Digital Marketing

3) Choose a sub-area: It is not possible to study all the sub-areas due to

time and money constraints. Thus, the researcher needs to choose one
sub-area of interest and one that is manageable and feasible for
him/her. The area selected must have some research significance and
must be significant to the researcher’s research knowledge. Eg. A
researcher selects a sub-area is ‘Consumer Satisfaction’.
 4) Formulate research question/problem: After a specific sub-area is
chosen, researcher needs to formulate research question/problem that
deems important for the research study. Many question/problem may
arise but narrow down and choose the most important and impact ful
question/problem. Eg. “A study on Consumer Satisfaction from After-
Sales-Services provided by Samsung Company in Mumbai region”

5) Set research objectives: After research question/problem is framed,

researcher must draw a plan about the objectives of the research that
he/she need to explore. The objectives of the research study help to
identify the research question/problem. There is a difference between
the research question/problem and the research objective. The
difference is the way they are written. Research question/problem

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generally consists of an interrogative tone. On the other hand, the

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research objectives are aim-oriented. They include terms like to
examine, to investigate, to explore, and to find out. Example of
Research Objectives:
• To investigate factors affecting consumer satisfaction from after-

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sales-services provided by Samsung company
• To find out various problems faced by consumers while availing

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after-sales-service of Samsung company

​ RESEARCH DESIGN
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​ Meaning
After deciding the basic aspects of research project such as
formulating research problem, objectives of research, data requirement,
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sample design etc. and before the commencement of work of research

project, the researcher has to prepare research design. Decisions relating to
what, where, when, how much, by what means concerning a research
study constitute a research design.
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Research design is a logical and systematic outline of research

project prepared for directing, guiding and controlling a research work. It
means to prepare detailed plan and procedure for the conduct of the
research project. It acts as a broad outline of the research work and acts as
a master plan / blue print for the conduct of formal investigation. It is the
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basic plan that guides researcher in the execution of research project

undertaken.

​ Elements of Research Design

1) Nature of the research and Objectives of study
2) Time period of research study
3) Universe and sample size of respondents
4) The location where the study would be conducted
5) The resources required to conduct the research
6) Type and source of research data required
7) Techniques of data collection and analysis
​ Need and Importance of Research Design
1) Provides Guidelines: Research design provides guidelines to the
researcher in respect of:
• Time period of research work
• Type and source of data to be collected
• Technique of data collection and analysis
• Sampling design

Therefore, the researcher will be able to collect right data from the
right source at the right time. It also helps him to complete the research
within stipulated time.

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2) Organizing Resources: Research design enables organizing of

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resources required to carry on research activity. The resources required
are:
• Funds
• Equipment / instruments and materials

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• Manpower

Availability of right amount of resources facilitates smooth conduct of

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research activity. Research activity would be difficult to carry on
without availability of proper amount of resources.

3) Selection of Techniques of data collection and analysis: Research

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design helps to select appropriate technique for data collection such as
• Survey or Interview
• Observation
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• Experimentation
• Internet
• Library etc.

Research design also helps to select appropriate technique for data

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analysis such as :
• Measures of Central Tendency (Mean, Median, Mode)
• Time Series (Simple Moving Average, Weighted Moving
Average)
• Correlation Techniques etc.
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4) Collection of Relevant Data: The research design indicates :

• Area of research
• Universe/Population of research
• Sample Size etc.

Accordingly researcher can select right area of research and target

audience. He can decide his universe/population from which samples
are selected to collect the relevant data.
 5) Objectives of Research: Research design specifies objectives of
research. Research design provides right direction to the researcher to
carry on with research activity. This in turn will help to attend the
research objectives.

6) Monitoring of Expenditure: Research design includes allocation of

research budget for various research activities. There is proper control
over expenditure. Wastage of funds does not happen. The research is
successfully conducted with allocated funds.

7) Execution of Research Work: The research design indicates the start

time and completion time of research activity. Therefore, there is
timely execution of research work. If research design does not indicate

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the time frame, there is every possibility of research work getting

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delayed and objectives may not be achieved.

8) Motivation to Research staff: A systematic research design motivates

the staff to collect the right data from the right source. Also due to

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timely completion of research activity, the research staff may be
rewarded with monetary and non-monetary incentives.

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9) Improvement in Decision-Making: Research design enables
researcher to collect right data from right source. Right data enables to
take right decision. Wrong data may lead to misleading decision
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making.
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TYPES OF REASERCH DESIGN : On the basis of objectives of the research, the

research can be classified into (a) Exploratory Research Design and (b) conclusive
Research Design.

The conclusive Research Design can be sub divided into (i) Descriptive Research and (ii)
casual or experimental research design.
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Descriptive Research further divided into cross sectional design and longitudinal design.
The cross sectional design classified into single cross sectional design and multiple cross
sectional design.
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Exploratory Research design:

It is the basic research design through which adequate additional facts about the research
is gained. It is the design which directs further research process. It is an informal
qualitative unstructured design that aims to explore more about the research question and
excavates new dimensions of research. The types of research design can be broadly divided
into two groups :

Exploratory Research Design;

It is conducted to explore information about the nature or causes of research problem. It is
conducted when the causes of the research problem are not known to the researcher. For
instance, management may conduct exploratory research to find out the causes of declining
sales in the past few months. The sales may have declined due to number of factors such as
:

● Problem in the quality of the product.

● Increase in competition.
● Ineffective promotion-mix.
● Poor management of channels of distribution.
● Incompetence of the sales force etc.

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There may be a possibility of some cause of the problem and the exact cause is not known
to the researcher, then in such a situation an exploratory research may be conducted to find
out the most likely cause(s) that lead to reduction in sales.

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Exploratory research can be conducted for the following purposes :

● To define the problem more clearly.

● To develop hypothesis.
● To identify alternate courses of action. R
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● To isolate key variables and to develop relationships among the variable for further
research.
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Descriptive Research design

It is the stage at which researcher tries to explain the research phenomena and is
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more specific and clear about the research problem. It mostly utilises quantitative
data. Descriptive design is more structured, formal and clearly defined. It
establishes a specific outcome and is more focused compared to exploratory
design. The research objectives in this types of research is generally describing the
characteristics of consumer segment viz, demographic and benefits sought.
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Descriptive studies can also portray buyer perceptions of brands, audience profiles for
media types viz. TV, radio, newspaper, availability of distributors, product consumption
patterns, price sensitivity of consumers, market share, etc. These are just a few
representative studies out of numerous studies that come under descriptive research in
marketing.

Causal Research Design

Causal design is adopted when researcher wants to study the cause and effect
relationship among variables. Researcher is interested not only to establish
relationship but also intends to examine the extent of relationship, measure it to
explain the variation. It is more rigid, structured and less flexible. Causal research
is referred to as experimental research design by some experts.
FEATURES OF GOOD RESEARCH DESIGN:

A good research design is often characterised by objectives like flexible, appropriate,

efficient, and economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimises bias and
maximises the reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design.

A good research design has the following features :

1. Focus on Objectives
o The research design must focus on the research objectives. The research
objectives must be very clear to the researcher as well as to the research
staff. The research objectives differ depending upon the type of research.

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o For example, the research objectives of commercial research will be based

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on commercial angle, and that of social research will have the objectives
based on social welfare.
o Objective of Commercial Research: To increase the market share from 5%

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to 20% within next 5 years.
o Objective of Social Research: To reduce the poverty in the State of
Maharashtra.
2. Flexibility
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The research design should not be right. The research design must be
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flexible depending upon the situation.
o For example, a research design indicates a particular time frame to compete
the research work. But the research staff may not be in a position to collect
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the relevant data within the time frame. In such a situation, the time frame
can be increased.
3. Pilot Study
o It is always advisable to conduct a pilot study for finalising the research
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design Pilot study is a research activity undertaken on a small segment of

the research universe. The pilot study is conducted to find out whether or
not the researcher would be in a position to collect the relevant data from
the sources or areas so collected, and whether or not the collected data
would be relevant to solve the problem. If the pilot study indicates a
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favourable response, the researcher may go ahead with the research design.
Otherwise, he researcher may make necessary changes in the research
design with respect to :
● Sources of data.
● Areas of data collection.
● Techniques of data collection etc.
​ Acceptance
● The research design must be acceptable to the persons concerned :
 ● For example,
● In case of commercial research, the research design must be acceptable to the
higher authorities. This is because, the higher authorities are required to
approve it and accordingly sanction the resources to conduct the research
activity.
● In the case of academic research, the research design must be acceptable to the
research guide, as he needs to approve the research design before the research
activity starts.
● In case of social research, the research design must be acceptable to the social
or other organisations that are going to finance or sponsor the research activity.
​ Suitability

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● The research design must be suitable to achieve research objectives. Certain
factors to be considered while finalising the research design are as follows:
● The availability of funds

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● The availability of time
● The availability of manpower

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● The methods of data collection and analysis etc.
● Depending upon the funds and other resources, the researcher may take
suitable action.
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● For example, the researcher may not plan for an exhaustive research work, if
there are constraints relating to money, manpower or time.
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​ Simplicity
● The research design should be simple and easy to understand. The language
used in the research design must be clear and simple. Wherever required,
research design must be supported by footnotes. Technical jargons must be
avoided. Simplicity of research design would also enable the research staff to
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collect the relevant information and also to analyse the data properly.
​ Cost-Effective
● The research design should be cost-effective. In a commercial research, the
research work based on research design must bring benefits to the
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organisation. The research design should enable proper collection and analysis
of data, which in turn should facilitate proper decision making. The benefits
on account of sound decision-making must be more than the cost incurred on
research activity.
​ Ease in Implementation
● The research design should facilitate proper implementation of the research
activity. As far as possible, the research design should avoid complicated
procedures and techniques which are difficult to adopt/follow. The research
work should not overburden the research staff, as the quality of research work
 may get adversely affected. Also sufficient time must be given to the staff for
collecting and analysing the data.
​ Training to the Research Staff
● To conduct effective research, proper training should be given to the research
staff. Training helps to improve: knowledge, attitude, skills and social
behaviour. The research staff should possess right attitude towards the
research work and good social behaviour when they interact with team mates
and with the respondents.
​ Selection of Right Techniques/Methods
● The research design fully depends on the type of research study on how the
research is being conducted. If the research study is exploratory, then major

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emphasis is on discoveries of ideas. So, a research design should be flexible to

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implement different aspects of a phenomenon. A design may be suitable in
one case, but may be found wanting in one respect or the other in the context
of some other research problem. One single design cannot serve the purpose of
all types of research problem.

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● Again, if the purpose of a study is accurate description of a situation or of an
association between variables (descriptive studies) than accuracy becomes a

● Suitability
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major consideration for selection of a research design

● The research design must be suitable to achieve research objectives. Certain

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factors to be considered while finalising the research design are as follows:
● The availability of funds
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● The availability of time

● The availability of manpower
● The methods of data collection and analysis etc.
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​ REVIEW OF LITERATURE

​ Meaning
The researcher must consult the available publications such as
books, journals, magazines, research reports and similar other publications
before starting his/her own research activity. ROL refers to extensive
review of literature relating to research problem which researcher intends
to undertake. Such ROL provides good insides into research problems and
get familiar with previous research studies undertaken.
​Significance of Review of Literature (ROL)
1) Get background knowledge of research problem: A research
problem is a question that a researcher wants to answer or a problem
that a researcher wants to solve. ROL helps researcher to get
background knowledge of Research Problem.

2) Helps to identify gaps in research: Research gap refers to the areas

which are not explored in the past researches. ROL enables the
researcher to identify the gap in research, conflicts in previous studies,
open questions left from other research. The researcher can make an
attempt to fill this gap by undertaken research activity.

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 3) Help to formulate research hypotheses: Hypothesis is an assumption
made to explain certain fact or provide basis for further investigation.
It is tentative in nature and it may prove to be correct or incorrect. Past
studies or ROL helps researchers to frame hypothesis for his/her
current studies. The researcher collects data which may prove or
disprove the hypothesis. Based on the result of hypothesis testing a
conclusion can be drawn.

4) Get familiar with methodology adopted by other researchers:

Research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to
identify, select, process, and analyze information/data about a research
problem. ROL enables researcher to get familiar with methodology
that is used by other researchers in their researches. Accordingly

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he/she can decide his/her own methodology in terms or target

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population, sample size, method and technique of data collection and
analysis and so on.

5) Prepare research design: Research design is a logical and systematic

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outline of research project prepared for directing, guiding and
controlling a research work. With the help of ROL, a researcher can
prepare his/her research design. Research design keeps research work

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on right track and help to complete research in time.

6) Prepare sample design: A sample design is the framework, or road

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map, that serves as the basis for the selection of a survey sample. In a
research, it is not possible to collect data from entire
population/universe due to constraints of time, money and energy on
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the part of researcher. So researcher needs to select samples from

population/universe of research. Sample selected must be true
representative of the population/universe of research. ROL helps
researcher to prepare proper sample design.
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7) Get familiar with data collection sources and data analysis

techniques: For the purpose of researcher primary or secondary or
both data can be used by a researcher. The primary data can be
collected by observation, survey or experiment method. Secondary
data can be collected from library, internet, reports etc. Collected data
needs to be analysed to draw conclusion out of it. Various statistical
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tools can be used such as correlation, measures of central tendency and

so on for the purpose for data analysis. ROL facilitates to get familiar
with data collection sources and data analysis techniques used by other
researchers.

8) Understand findings of other researchers and their conclusions:

ROL helps researcher to understand findings of other researchers and
their conclusion. It can be basis for researcher’s own further research
activity.
 9) To compile bibliography: Bibliography is a list of sources used in our
research. The main purpose of a bibliography entry is to give credit to
authors whose work researcher has consulted in his/her research. ROL
helps researcher to refer bibliography of others researchers to find out
more about the topic by exploring into their research.

10) Understand the structure of research report: Research report is a

written document containing key aspects of research project. After the
research work is completed, the findings along with recommendations
are presented in the form of research report to the authority for the
purpose of further decision making. So ROL enables researcher to
understand the structure of research report.

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​ HYPOTHESIS

​Meaning
Hypothesis is an assumption made by the researcher to explain

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certain fact or provide basis for further investigation. It states what the
researcher thinks the outcome of the study will be. The researcher makes
hypothesis and collects data that either support the hypothesis or do not

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support it. So the hypothesis may be proved to be correct or incorrect.
Hypotheses are essential to all research studies with the possible exception
of some descriptive studies whose purpose is to answer certain specific
questions.
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Example - A manager may hypothesize that salespersons who show the
highest job satisfaction will be the most productive salespersons. Another
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example, organizational researcher may believe that if workers’ attitudes

toward an organizational climate are changed in a positive direction, there
will be an increase in organizational effectiveness among these workers.

​Definition
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Webster’s Dictionary defines hypothesis as “an unproved theory,

proposition, supposition etc. tentatively accepted to explain certain facts or
to provide a basis for further investigation, argument, etc.”

​Formulation of Hypothesis
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1) Identification of Research Problem and its causes: The researcher

must identify the research problem which needs to be investigated.
Also he/she needs to identify cause of such problem. Eg. The research
problem could be “Decline in Sales of Lux soap in Mumbai
Region”. The possible causes of such decline in sales could be:
• Poor quality of the products
• Higher price of the product
• Ineffective promotion-mix
• Faulty distribution network
 2) Formulate the Hypotheses: The researcher may undertake extensive
Review of Literature (ROL) or discuss with expert or by his/her own
experience formulates the hypothesis. Eg. Hypotheses relating to the
above problem can be formulated as:
• Sales are declining on account of poor quality of the products
• Sales are declining on account of higher price of the product
• Sales are declining on account of ineffective promotion-mix
• Sales are declining on account of Faulty distribution network

3) Pilot Test the Hypotheses: The researcher may conduct pilot study to
test the hypothesis. Small sample respondents are selected and data is
collected from them to conduct the pilot study. All the hypotheses are
put to test. The pilot study may indicate the most probable cause of the

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problem. This may help to select the best hypothesis for the purpose of
detailed investigation. Suppose the pilot study states that most
probable cause of problem is poor quality of the product.

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4) Select the Best Hypothesis: After selecting the best hypothesis on the
basis of pilot study, the researcher proceeds for investigation of the
problem and find out the validity of the hypothesis. The researcher

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may specify the null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis.

• Null Hypothesis: It states that there is no relationship between two

or more variables. A researcher hopes to reject or disprove the null
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hypothesis. Eg. There is no relationship between poor quality of
product and decline in sales.
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• Alternative Hypothesis: It states there is relationship between two

or more variables. Eg. There is relationship between poor quality
of product and decline in sales.

5) Conduct the Research: After formulating the final hypothesis, the

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researcher proceeds to conduct the research. He/she may prepare

research design to conduct research in right direction. The researcher
collects data and analyse the same to draw conclusion. He may use T-
test, Z-test, Chi-Square, ANOVA, Correlation etc. tests for the purpose
for testing hypothesis.
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6) Acceptance or Rejection of Hypothesis: After testing the hypothesis,

the researcher may reject the null hypothesis or the researcher may fail
to reject the null hypothesis. Generally, when the researcher rejects the
null hypothesis, the researcher may accept the alternative hypothesis.
At times, the alternative hypothesis may also be rejected.

​Sources of Hypothesis
1) Intuition or Hunch: A person may get ideas to develop hypothesis
due to one’s own intuition or hunch. Ideas can strike like a flash. Eg.
The story of Laws of Gravitation propounded by Newton at the sight
of falling apple is the case of intuition.
 2) Past Researches: Findings of the past researches done by others can
be used for framing the hypotheses. Eg. A researcher found in the past
researches that rise in rate of commission of salesman resulted in
increase in sales of the company. A researcher may use this finding to
formulate his research hypothesis as “Increase in rate of commission
of salesman leads to increase in sales.”

3) Consultations: The researcher can hold discussion with experts to

develop hypothesis. In academic research, the research students can
take help of a research guide who is expert in his/her own subject. In
applied (commercial) research, the researcher may take help of
marketing manager. In social research, the researcher may take help of
an NGO.

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4) Observation: Hypothesis can be developed through own observation.
Eg. One can observe general pattern of buying behaviour in the
market, and develop a hypothesis such as “Educated customers prefer
braded items as compared to illiterate or less educated customers.”

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5) Continuity of Research: Some researches are carried on for several
numbers of years. The research may be divided into different phases.

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At each phase the researcher may get different findings based on
which he/she develops hypothesis for next phase.
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6) Culture: While formulating a hypothesis for a problem, culture should
be studied. If a researcher wants to study trends towards female
education in a particular area, for this purpose he/she needs to study
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traditions, family system, Norms, Values, region and education system

of that area.

7) Theory: Logical deduction from the theory lead to new hypothesis.

The hypothesis must be valid, if the theory holds true. Eg. The theory
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on human relations in management states that effective human

relations help to improve productivity. On the basis of this theory, a
hypothesis can be developed that “Effective management-labour
relations facilitates higher productivity.”

8) Personal Experience: On the basis of personal experience, researcher

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uses his mind and suggests hypothesis. Eg. A researcher experienced

poor services in the Government hospitals. He/she may develops a
hypothesis “Poor quality of services results into less footfall in
Government Hospitals.”

​ Importance/Significance of Hypothesis
​
1) Helps to explore unknown facts: The hypothesis provides the
researcher with the most efficient instrument for exploring and
explaining the unknown facts. It stimulates the researcher for further
research studies.
 2) Enables to prepare research design: The hypothesis helps in
preparing research design. It may suggest research objectives, sample
design, data requirement, techniques of data collection, tests and tools
to analyse data etc.

3) Identifies need for data: A Hypothesis specifies the need of data i.e.
whether research will require primary data or secondary data.
Hypothesis would enable to collect required data. Without hypothesis
much useless data may be collected and important data would be
omitted.

4) Identifies sources of data: A Hypothesis also specifies the source of

data i.e. survey, experiment, observation, library, reports, internet etc.

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Therefore, the researcher would consider only the relevant source of

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data, which in turn would speed up the research activity.

5) Development of theory and principles: Hypothesis also facilitates

development of theory and principles. Eg. The theory of consumer

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behaviour which presupposes that no two consumers think and behave
alike. Similarly, 14 Principles of Management by Henry Fayol, states
that practicing these principles in an organization, results into

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increasing organizational efficiency.

6) Provides specific direction: When hypothesis is finalized a definite

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and specific direction is provided to the research work. It makes way
to the progress of investigation. In the absence of hypothesis it
becomes extremely difficult to focus on research problem.
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7) Prevents blind research: Hypothesis lights up the path of research. It

distinguishes between scientific and unscientific inputs. It acts as a
guide. Accuracy and precision is possible through hypothesis.
Therefore, hypothesis prevents blind research.
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8) Economical: Developing hypothesis in business research is

economical. It saves time, money and energy of a researcher because it
guides the researcher in the right direction. Hypothesis provides the
basis for proper data collection. Relevant and correct information
collected by a researcher through properly formulated hypothesis
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proves resource saving.

​ Types of Hypothesis
1) Simple Hypothesis: It reflects the relationship between one dependent
variables (DV) and one independent variable (IDV).
Examples:
• Higher the unemployment (IDV), higher would be the rate of crime
(DV) in society
 • Lower the use of fertilizers (IDV), lower would be agricultural
productivity (DV).
• Higher the poverty (IDV) in the society, higher would be the rate
of crimes (DV).

2) Complex Hypothesis: It reflects the relationship between two or more

dependent variables and two or more independent variables.
Examples:
• Higher the poverty (IDV) leads to higher rate of illiteracy (DV) in
the society, higher would be the rate of crime (DV).

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• Lower use of fertilizer (IDV) and modern equipments (IDV), lower

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would be the agricultural productivity (DV)

3) Directional Hypothesis: A directional hypothesis is a prediction made

by a researcher regarding a positive or negative change, relationship,

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or difference between two variables of a population. This prediction is
typically based on past research, accepted theory, extensive
experience, or literature on the topic. For example- “There will be a

achievement”
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positive relationship between extra coaching and academic

4) Non-Directional Hypothesis: This form of hypothesis is used in

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studies where there is no sufficient past research available on which
predication can be made about relation between variables. It does not
stipulate the direction of the relationship. It is a statement that a
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relationship exists between two variables, without predicting the exact

nature (direction) of the relationship. Eg. “Teacher – student
relationship influence student’s learning.”

5) Null Hypothesis: This is a hypothesis that proposes no relationship or

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difference between two variables. It involves a statement that says

there is no relationship between two groups that the researcher
compares on a certain variable. It is denoted by “H0”. Example –
• There is no relation between poverty and crime in a society.
• ‘There is no difference in the academic performance of high school
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students who participate in extracurricular activities and those who

do not participate in such activities’

6) Alternative Hypothesis: This hypothesis proposes a relationship

between two or more variables. Alternative hypothesis is denoted by
“H1”. Example –
• There is relation between poverty and crime in a society.
• ‘There is difference in the academic performance of high school
students who participate in extracurricular activities and those who
do not participate in such activities’
 7) Causal Hypothesis: Causal hypotheses propose a cause and effect
interaction between two or more variables. This hypothesis predicts
the effect of independent variable on the dependent variable. Eg. ‘High
school students who participate in extracurricular activities spend less
time studying which leads to a low grades.’
8) Explanatory Hypothesis
• The purpose of this hypothesis is to explain a certain fact. All hypotheses
are in a way explanatory for a hypothesis is advanced only when we try to
explain the observed fact. A large number of hypotheses are advanced to
explain the individual facts in life.
• A theft. A murder, an accident are examples.

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9) Descriptive Hypothesis

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• Sometimes a researcher comes across a complex phenomenon. He/she does
not understand the relations among the observed facts. But how to account
for these facts? The answer is a descriptive hypothesis. A hypothesis is
descriptive when it is based upon the points of resemblance of some thing.

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It describes the cause and effect relationship of a phenomenon.
• E.g. the current unemployment rate of a state exceeds 25% of the work

significant market segment.

10) Analogical Hypothesis
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force. Similarly, the consumers of local made products constitute a
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• When we formulate a hypothesis on the basis of similarities (analogy), it is
called an analogical hypothesis.
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• E.g., families with higher earnings invest more surplus income on long
term investments.
11) Working Hypothesis
• Sometimes certain facts cannot be explained adequately by existing
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hypotheses, and no new hypothesis comes up. Thus, the investigation is

held up. In this situation, a researcher formulates a hypothesis which
enables to continue investigation. Such a hypothesis, though inadequate
and formulated for the purpose of further investigation only, is called a
working hypothesis. It is simply accepted as a starting point in the process
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of investigation.
12) Statistical Hypothesis
• Statistical hypothesis are the statements derived from a sample. These are
quantitative in nature and are numerically measurable.
• For example, the market share of product X is 70%, the average life of a
tube light is 2000 hours etc.

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​ SAMPLING

​ Meaning
Sampling is a technique of selecting a subset (part) of the
population to make statistical inferences (conclusion) from them and
estimate characteristics of the whole population. Different sampling
methods are widely used by researchers in market research so that they do
not need to research the entire population to collect data. It is also a time-
convenient and a cost-effective method and hence forms the basis of any
research design.

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In other words, Sampling means the process of selecting a part of

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the population. A population is a group of people that is studied in a
research. It is difficult for a researcher to study the whole population due
to limited resources such as time, cost and energy. Hence, the researcher
selects a part of the population for his study, rather than studying whole

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population. This process is known as sampling. It makes the research
activity manageable and convenient for the research.

​ Definition

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According to Bogrdus, “Sampling is the selection of certain percentage
of a group of items according to a predetermined plan.”
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​ Significance of Sampling
1) Time Saving: Since using a sample reduces the number of people that
have to be reached out to, it reduces time. Sampling helps to save time
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in respect of data collection and its analysis. The data can be collected
at faster rate, so also data analysis. Therefore, the researcher can get
quick research results and accordingly can take timely action.

2) Economical: Since using a sample reduces the number of people that

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have to be reached out to, it also reduces cost. For any research,
availability of funds is a constraint. A smaller sample requires less
funds not only for data collection but also for processing and
interpretation of data.
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 3) Reduced resource deployment: It is obvious that if the number of
people involved in a research study is much lower due to the sample,
the resources required are also much less. The workforce needed to
research the sample is much less than the workforce needed to study
the whole population.

4) Convenient: Sampling offers convenient to the researcher to collect

the data. The work of data collection becomes easy, quick and
economical. A researcher can complete his research project in time.

5) Quality of Research Work: The quality of research work may be

improved due to sampling. The field staff will get sufficient time to
collect the data from sample respondents. They need not to rush

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through the collection of data. Also, data analysis staff gets sufficient

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time for data analysis purpose. Therefore, overall quality of research
work improves.

6) Reduce Complexities: Sampling helps to reduce complexities in

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research work. If a limited sample is used, then fewer respondents are
required to collect data. As a result, the researcher may require less
time for editing, coding and interpretation of data. Therefore, analysis

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can be quick and without complexities.

7) Motivation to Research Staff: Limited sample size brings relief to the

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research staff. They get motivated to collect the right information. This
is because they get sufficient time for collection and analysis of data.
They may also get higher rewards due to good quality research work.
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8) Detailed Information: Due to sampling, the researcher can collect

detailed information from the sample respondents. They can ask more
questions than questions in questionnaire. Since there are lesser
respondents, the data collected from a sample is intense and thorough.
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More time and effort is given to each respondent rather than having to
collect data from a lot of people.

9) Infinite Population: If the population is too larger then the sampling

method is the best way to find out solution.
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10) Accuracy of data: Since the sample is indicative of the population,

the data collected is accurate. Also, since the respondent is willing to
participate, the survey dropout rate is much lower, which increases the
validity and accuracy of the data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SAMPLE:

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample as
under:
The following are the essential characteristics of a good sample :

1. Representative
o A sample is a subset of the population or universe. The sample must be
representative of the universe. Therefore, the researcher must select the
sample members who have the characteristics of the universe. For example,
when a research is undertaken to study job satisfaction in police force; then
the sample members must be the police personnel belonging to different
levels in the police force.
2. Focus on Objectives
o The sample size must be selected depending upon the research objectives.

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For instance, if a research is undertaken ‘to find out the impact of inflation

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on the poor’ then the sample size would be larger, as there was more
households in India. (In 2008, there were about 147 million households of
poor people in India – yearly income of less than Rs. 90, 000).
o But if the research is undertaken ‘to find out the impact of inflation on the

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rich class’, then sample size would be smaller, as there are less households
belonging to the rich class in India. (In 2008, there were about 8.6 lakh
households in India belonging to the rich – yearly income of Rs. 10 lakh to

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Rs. 1 crore and the middle class households were 57 million – yearly
income of Rs. 90, 000 to Rs. 10 lakh).
3. Flexibility
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o The sample size should not be rigidly followed. The sample size can be
modified depending upon the circumstances. For instance, the sample size
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may be reduced, if sufficient information is already available or if there is

limitations of time and funds. However, sample size may be increased, if
proper information is not available from the current sample.
4. Methods of Sampling
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o The researcher must select proper method of sampling. The sampling

methods are broadly divided into two groups – probability methods and
non-probability methods. Certain methods require less time to complete data
collection. For instance, convenience sampling (non-probability method)
requires less time to collect data. Therefore, the researcher may select
convenience method, if there are limitations of time.
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5. Proper Selection of Sample Unit

o The sample unit must be appropriate. The universe comprises of the
elements, and each element can be further divided into units. For instance, if
a study is conducted to study job satisfaction among bank employees, then
bank employees comprise the universe. The elements of universe may
comprise of bank employees/managers in rural banks, and in urban banks.
The sample units may include male and female employees, junior or senior
employees. Depending upon the type of research, the researcher may select
proper sample unit(s) to conduct the research activity.
6. Proper Sampling Frame
 o The researcher should select proper sampling frame to collect information.
Sampling frame is an instrument to obtain addresses or such other
information about the various elements of the universe. The sampling frame
may include telephone directories, register of members in an organisation
etc. Before selection of sampling frame, the researcher must answer the
following questions :
● Does it adequately cover the universe?
● Does it represent each and every unit?
● Is the sample frame up-dated?
​ 7.Proper Sampling Plan

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● The researcher must prepare a sampling plan, which must indicate :

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● Sampling Unit
● Sampling frame
● Sources of Data

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● Methods of Data collection

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● Resources required for data collection
● Time frame to collect data etc.
● Proper sampling plan will help to decide about the right sample size, which
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in turn will facilitate proper collection of data.
​ 8.Geographic Area of the Study
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● The researcher must consider the size of the area for selecting the sample
size. For instance, if the area coverage is large such as the entire state or
country, then the size of the samples would be large. In such situation the
researcher may adopt multi-stage cluster sampling. However, if the area of
study is restricted only to a particular city, then the sample size would be
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smaller. In such a situation the researcher may use single stage cluster
sampling.
​ 9.Suitability
● The sample size should be suitable to collect the relevant data. For instance,
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if a research is conducted to find out reading habits of college students in

the City of Mumbai, then the sample would be the students from the
colleges of Mumbai City and the sample size may be smaller. But if the
research is conducted to find out the reading habits of college students is
India, then the sample would consist of students from various colleges
across India, and the sample size would be larger.
​ 10Economy
● The sample size must be economical. The sample size must be
cost-effective. It should not put extra burden on the resources. At the same
time, the sample size should be such that it facilitates proper collection of
data.
 ● Normally, the researcher must first consider the availability of resources,
and then plan for the sample size. For instance, the sample size can be large,
if larger funds are available for research activity and vice-versa.

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​ Methods of Sampling

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​ (A)Probability Sampling Method
Probability sampling is a method of deriving a sample where the
objects are selected from a population-based on the theory of probability.

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This method includes everyone in the population, and everyone has an
equal chance of being selected. Hence, there is no bias whatsoever in this

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type of sample. Each person in the population can subsequently be a part
of the research. The selection criteria are decided at the outset of the
market research study and form an important component of research.
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The various probability sampling methods are discussed as below:
1) Simple Random Sampling: This is the most popular method which is
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normally followed to collect research data. This technique provides

every member an equal chance of being selected in the sample. The
members are selected randomly and purely by chance. There are two
sub-methods:
• Lottery Method: Where each member is given a number and then
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the numbers are mixed and by drawing of lots, the sample is

selected.
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• Random Tables: The members are given numbers and the

numbers are placed in rows. The sample is selected from rows at
random.
 o Systematic Sampling: Systematic sampling is a sampling method where
the researcher chooses respondents at equal intervals from a population.
Every member of the population is listed with a number, but instead of

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randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.

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Formula : Skip Interval = Population Size/ Sample Size
o Example : If the total population or universe is 500 and the sample size is
50 then the interval will be 10. The population will be grouped into 10

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groups of 50; then the skip interval will be 10. Therefore, the population
will be grouped into 10 groups of 50, i.e., 1 to 50, 51 to 100, 101 to 150 and
so on. A certain number is selected say ending with No. 5. So the sample

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will consist of 5, 15, 25, 35, 45 from the first group, 55, 65, 75, 85, 95 from
the second group. 105, 115, 125, 135, 145 from the third group and so on.
Example : If the total population is 100 and the sample size is 10. Each
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respondent is given a number from 1 to100. A certain number is selected say no. 3.
So number consist of 3, 13, 23, 33, 43, 63, 73, 83, 93 will be selected as sample.
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2) Stratified Random Sampling: This sampling method is appropriate

when the population has mixed characteristics, and researcher wants to
ensure that every characteristic is proportionally represented in the
sample. Researcher divides the population into subgroups (called
strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g. gender, age range,
income bracket, job role). The strata are formed by researcher. Then
he/she uses random or systematic sampling to select a sample from
each subgroup. Example - The company has 800 female employees
 and 200 male employees. Researcher wants to ensure that the sample
reflects the gender balance of the company, so he/she sorts the
population into two strata based on gender. Then researcher uses
random sampling on each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men,
which give researcher a representative sample of 100 people.

o . There are two types of stratified sampling :

● Proportionate Stratified Sampling
● Disproportionate Stratified Sampling
● In the case of proportionate sampling, certain fixed percentage is taken of
each stratum to represent the sample. In case of disproportionate, there is no

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such percentage considered to represent the sample.

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 i
3) Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling also involves dividing the

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population into subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. The clusters are naturally formed.
Instead of sampling individuals from each subgroup, researcher
randomly selects entire subgroups. If the clusters themselves are large,

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researcher can select sample from each cluster using simple random or
systematic sampling method. This method is good for dealing with
large and dispersed populations, but there is more risk of error in the

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sample, as there could be substantial differences between clusters. It’s
difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really representative
of the whole population. Example - The Company has offices in 10
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cities across the country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles). Researcher doesn’t have the capacity to
travel to every office to collect data, so he/she uses random sampling
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to select 3 offices – these are the clusters.

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​ (B)Non-Probability Sampling Method

Non-probability sampling is defined as a sampling technique in which
the researcher selects samples based on the subjective judgment of the
researcher rather than random selection. It is a less stringent method.
This sampling method depends heavily on the expertise of the
researchers. It is carried out by observation, and researchers use it
widely for qualitative research.
 1) Convenient Sampling: It is a type of where samples are selected from
the population only because they are conveniently available to the
researcher. Only those members are selected which are easily
accessible to the researcher. Eg. A researcher may visit a college or a
university and get questionnaires filled in by volunteer students.
Similarly, a researcher may stand in a market and interview the
volunteer persons.

Ideally, in research, it is good to test a sample that represents the

population. But, in some research, the population is too large to
examine. It is one of the reasons why researchers rely on convenience
sampling, which is the most common non-probability sampling
method, because of its speed, cost-effectiveness, and ease of

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availability of the sample.

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2) Judgment or Purposive Sampling: In this method of sampling
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researchers select the samples based purely on the researcher’s

knowledge and credibility. In other words, researchers choose only
those people who they deem fit to participate in the research study.
Judgmental or purposive sampling is not a scientific method of
sampling, and the downside to this sampling technique is that the
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preconceived notions of a researcher can influence the results. Thus,

this research technique involves a high amount of ambiguity.
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 3) Quota Sampling: Under this method, the researcher allocates certain
quota to certain groups under study. The quotas may differ from each
area depending upon certain factors like age, occupation, income etc.
Eg. A researcher studying the newspaper reading habits of college
students may select 10 colleges for data collection. He may fix quota
for each college based on certain criteria. He may select 100 students
from one college, may be because the number of students is more in
that college; and he may select only 20 students from another college
because of less number of students in that college.

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4) Snow-Ball Sampling: Snowball sampling helps researchers find a
sample when they are difficult to locate. Researchers use this
technique when the sample size is small and not easily available. This
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sampling system works like the referral program. It is a sampling

design in which respondents selected earlier are asked to identify other
sample members. Eg. To find out Mercedez Benz car owners in the
city like Mumbai. In this case, researcher may locate one Mercedez
Benz owner and collect the names of 2-3 other Mercedez Benz
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owners.
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o Example : An advertisement was given to get some data relating to work

shop machines and the respondents were asked to give names and addresses
of people who use same or similar type of machines.
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​Factors determining sample size

1) Area of Research: The number of sample respondents depends on the

area of research. If the research is conducted at national level, it may
require more number of respondent. If the research is conducted at
local level, it may require less number of respondents.

2) Availability of Funds: Generally, the researcher may be constrained

by the limitation of funds to conduct the research. Therefore, when the
researcher has limited amount of funds allocated to the research
activity, the sample size would be lesser as compared to when the
researcher has larger amount of funds.

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3) Availability of Manpower: The researcher may require manpower to

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conduct surveys, interviews or for conducting experiments,
observation etc. Eg. If the researcher has a good number of filed staff
to conduct interviews, he may select the larger sample size of
respondents and vice-versa.

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4) Time Frame: The sample size may depend on the time frame of
research. If the researcher has lot of time available to conduct the

versa.
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research, he may select a large sample size of respondents and vice-

5) Nature of Research: The nature of research may influence the sample

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size of respondents. Eg. In case of academic research, the researcher
may be constrained with the limitations of funds, and therefore, he
may select a smaller sample size. However, in the case of census
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survey of population, the sample size will be the entire population of

the country.

6) Method of Sampling: The method of sampling may influence the

sample size of respondents. Eg. If convenience sampling method is
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used, the researcher may consider a smaller sample size to obtain

responses. However, in case of stratified sampling or cluster sampling,
the researcher needs to select a larger sample size of respondents.

7) Method / Sources of Data Collection: The method of data collection

may influence the sample size of respondents. Eg. If researcher
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collects data through interviews, he may select a larger sample size of

respondents. However, if the researcher adopts observation method, he
may consider a smaller sample size for the purpose of observation.

8) Judgment of the Researcher: At times, the researcher may use his

judgement in deciding in the sample size. He may consider a smaller
sample size, if he is confident in getting the adequate data from a
smaller sample size. However, if the researcher feels that he needs to
select a larger sample to collect responses, he may select a larger
sample size.
 FILL IN THE BLANKS
1. is a question that a researcher wants to answer or a
problem that a researcher wants to solve
A) Hypothesis B) Data Analysis
C) Research Problem D) Research Report

2. is a logical and systematic outline of research project

prepared for directing, guiding and controlling a research work
A) Universe / Population B) Research Design
C) Hypothesis Testing D) Review of Literature

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3. Review of Literature enables the researcher

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A) To pirate the research software
B) To undertake plagiarism
C) To identify gaps in research
D) To collect data from entire population

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 4. hypothesis proposes no relationship or no
difference between two variables.
A) Simple B) Associative C) Alternative D) Null

5. is one of the probability methods of sampling

A) Cluster Sampling B) Quota Sampling
C) Judgemental Sampling D) Snow-Ball Sampling

TRUE OR FALSE
1. “A study on E-Commerce” is a correctly formulated research
problem. FALSE
2. Research design contains details regarding nature of the research and

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objectives of study, time period of research study, universe and sample

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size of respondents, type and source of research data required and
techniques of data collection and analysis. TRUE
3. Sampling refers to consult the available publications such as books,

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journals, magazines, research reports and similar other publications
before starting his/her own research activity. FALSE
4. Intuition is one of the sources of generating hypothesis. TRUE

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5. Directional hypothesis is used in studies where there is no sufficient
past research available on which predication can be made about
relation between variables. FALSE
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6. Snow-ball sampling is a sampling method where the researcher
chooses respondents at equal intervals from a population. FALSE
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ANSWER IN BRIEF
5) What is Review of Literature? Elucidate its significance.
6) How to formulate research hypotheses?
7) Describe the different sources of generating hypotheses.
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8) Highlight the importance of hypothesis in research.

9) Briefly explain types of hypothesis.
10) Define the term ‘Sampling’. Explain its significance.
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 11) Discuss various methods of sampling.
12) What are the factors determine sample size?
13) Write a note on:
• Formulation of Research Problem
• Research Design

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​STAGES IN RESEARCH PROCESS

​MEANING
Each and every researcher needs to follow appropriate research
process for successful completion of his or her research project. A
researcher who is conducting scientific research needs to follow a
systematic process to study the research problem and to arrive at a
conclusion. The scientific research process includes a sequence of various
steps that needs to be followed while undertaking the research project.
Every research problem is unique and it requires research work to be

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 carried out accordingly. Following different steps to be followed in the
research process.

I] Identifying and selection of research problem:

The most important step in the research process is to identify and
select research problem, it is often said a well defined problem is half
solved. High degree of intellectual work is needed to identify and define

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the research problem. A properly defined research problem will help

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researcher to collect reliable data to solve the research problem and in that
case he will be in a better position to arrive at a suitable conclusion based
on Analysis of data.

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Following are some of the Essentials of a good research problem
1. Researchable : the identified research problem can be studied through
collection and Analysis of data

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2. Understandable : The research problem should be understandable it
should be well formulated and logically structured
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3. Ethical : The selected research problem should not harm the researcher
respondents and Society. You should not create any embarrassment
every of the stakeholder in the world in research process
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4. Purposeful : The research problem should be defined in such a way

that after concluding this study it should be able to solve the situation.
5. Manageable : the research problem should be manageable the
researcher should take care that the problem should be within limits of
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his skills resources and time.

II] Review of literature:

Review of literature refers to study of available knowledge in
respect of research problem. A researcher can study Various publications
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such as journals books research reports other published matter particularly

the researcher should go to the similar research study that were conducted
previously. Literature review is important because it is the duty of research
to find out what study has been already done literature review will help the
researcher to find out gaps in earlier study. On the basis of those gaps
researcher can formulate his Research Design Literature review on both
matic as well as methodological direction to the researcher.

III] Formulation of the hypothesis & Research Design

Once the researcher has clearly defined the research problem and
has made in-depth literature review he needs to formulate Research
Design for his study. The researcher also need to formulate hypothesis for
 his research.

This is a tentative assumption made to test its logical and empirical

consequences. The hypothesis should be formulated on the basis of index
knowledge of the research problem. A well defined hypothesis will clearly

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 identify the kind of data required by the researcher to conduct the study
which will help him to create a suitable Research Design.

Research Design is a systematic and logical plan prepared to

conduct a research study we can call it as a blueprint for research study.
The Research Design will include guidelines in respect of collection,
measurement and analysis of data required for the research study.

IV] Sampling Design :

A researcher needs to collect Information for his study however it
is not possible to collect information from each and every member of the
universe hence he needs to select sample for data collection. The research
needs to select an appropriate sampling method which is suitable for the

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study. The selected sample must be representative of the universe. Its size
must be flexible and sufficient enough to provide required information
which can be analysed and used to test the hypothesis.

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V] Designing Questionnaire :
The researcher needs to collect primary data for his study. He
cannot rely only on secondary data. Primary data can be collected through

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various sources however the most commonly used is Questionnaire.
Questionnaire is a list of questions that will be asked by research to the
respondents for Collection of data. While designing questionnaire
researcher need to consider various aspects such as what type of
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information is needed, what type of technique will be used for conducting
the research and he also need to take care regarding proper wording and
sequence of the questions.
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VI] Collection of data :

The researchers need to collect all relevant information in respect
of his research problem as per Research Design through various sources.
He can use primary data and secondary data for purpose of research.
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While collecting data researcher need to consider that information

collected is up-to-date and free from any bias. the information must be
complete in all aspects and the information must be relevant to the
research problem.
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VII] Processing and analysing data :

The researcher collects data from primary as well as secondary
sources however the data collected is in raw form and it needs to be
processed for further analysis.

Processing of data in hall editing, coding, classification, and

tabulation of data. Editing of data refers to removing unwanted and
irrelevant information it is necessary to check errors and omissions in data
collection. coding refers to assigning different codes to the collected data
which helps in further processing of the information classification of data
refers to grouping of data under different categories and tabulation of data
 involves transferring all classified data into tabular form tabulation of data
helps in analysis and interpretation of data.

Once data is organised the researcher needs to analyse the data.

Analysis of data is very crucial as it tries to establish relationship between
information and research problem. Once that relationship is established
interpretation of data and finding out logical conclusions of study is
possible.

VII] Hypothesis Testing :

Once analysis and interpretation of data is over the researcher must
test hypothesis. hypothesis testing is necessary because researcher need to
confirm whether the finding of the research supports the hypothesis or

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provides a contrary picture. Researcher may apply various tests such as
Chi-square test, F-test, t-test for testing the hypothesis. Once hypothesis is
tested its result will either lead its acceptance or its rejection.

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IX] Preparation of Research Report :
The researcher must prepare a research report which includes all the

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findings and conclusions of his study. The report can be divided into three
parts.
1. Preliminary Content. : This includes preface, table of contents and all
other related authorisations and declarations in respect of the Research
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report.
2. Main body - This includes introduction, literature review, research
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methodology, data analysis, conclusion and recommendations.

3. Appendix - this will include all the annexure bibliography and other
supportive documents related to the research.
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INDUCTIVE V/S DEDUCTIVE LOGIC:

A research may use inductive or deductive logic while conducting analysis of problem at hand.
Inductive logic refers to the method of research where the researcher starts with the general
information concerning his problem and draws specific conclusions after analysis.

For example, while developing advertising message for products many creative people proceed
inductively. They collect opinions of consumers’ dealers, experts and competitors to spot ideas.
Suppose a hair spray company carries out consumer research annually to determine consumer
dissatisfaction with existing brands. If it is found that consumers would like stronger holding
power, the company would use this appeal, assuming that company’s brand promises good holding
power or can be reformulated to meet this claim. Inductive logic may be described as the “system
of synthesis” because it carries out a large-scale analysis of general information gathered preferably
through census method and draws specific conclusions.

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The Government of India conducts census after every ten years starting from 1951 and collects and
analyses data an each Indian citizen to draw specific conclusions about the overall Indian
population like their sex ratio, per capita income, etc. Similarly, individual researcher also collects
and analyses maximum available data on the problem and draws specific conclusions. This is more
true in the case of exploratory research. Suppose, the researcher has a problem at hand “MIS

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practice in public sector in India.” This is an exploratory research problem and researcher would
proceed inductively.

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On the other hand, deductive logic refers to a situation where the researcher begins his analysis of
specific data and draws wide ranging general conclusions. It is also clear from the dictionary
meaning of the word ‘deduce’ which means to infer from what precedes or from premises. In this
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approach, the researcher divided\s the whole in to smaller parts and analyses each of these to each
conclusions. For example, while generating advertising appeals. Maloney developed a possible
frame work. He suggested that the buyer may be expecting any four types of award from an
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offering; rational, sensory, social and ego satisfaction.

And they may visualize these rewards from results of use experience. Product in use is incidental
to use experience. By multiplying these four attributes by three, he gets twelve combinations to
develop the messages. In this case, he started from specific and came to the general conclusions
also called reverted tunnel approach. Similarly, a researcher will proceed according to deductive
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logic if he has the research problem, i.e. “10 per cent decrease in sales is due to 2 percent decrease
in advertising expenditure.”
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CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD RESEARCH:

1. Objectivity
2. Good Research is systematic
3. Good Research is logical
4. Universality
5. Free from personal bias
6. Control
 7. Good Research is empirical
8. Good Research is replicable

Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is
that they all meet on the common ground scientific method employed by them.

The essentials of good research are :

1. Objectivity
o Good research is objective in terms of offering solutions to the research
questions. This calls for planning and creation for suitable hypothesis to
avoid the lack of relationship between the research questions and

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hypothesis.

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2. Good Research is Systematic
o It means that the research is structured with specific sequence in accordance
with the well-defined set of rules. Many argue that systematic characteristics

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rules out the creative thinking, but it does not in fact helps creativity to be
differentiated from guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
3. Good Research is Logical
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This implies that the research is guided by the rules of logical reasoning and
the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
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out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to whole to
the part. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the
context of decision making.
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4. Universality
o It should be able to have almost the same results by using identical
methodology so that the results can be applied to similar situations.
5. Free from personal bias
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o Good research should be free from personal bias of the researcher. It should
be based on objectivity and not subjectivity.
6. Control
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o Good research must be capable of controlling all the variables. This

necessitates randomisation at all stages e.g. while selecting the subjects, the
sample size and the experimental treatments.
7. Good Research is empirical
o It implies that research is related basically to one or more aspects of a real
situation and deal with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
 SCALINE TECHNIQUES

The concept of measurement refers to the process of describing abstract concepts in terms of
specific indicators by assigning numbers to these indicators in accordance with rules.

There are four levels of measurement scales. They are;

1. Nominal scale,
2. Ordinal scale,
3. Interval scale, and
4. Ratio scale.

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a) Nominal Scale is the crudest
among all measurement scales but

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it is also the
simplest scale. In this scale the
different scores on a measurement

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indicate different categories. The
nominal scale does not express
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any values or
relationships between variables.
For example, labelling men as ‘1’
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and women
as ‘2’ which is the most common way of labelling gender for data recording
purpose does not mean women are ‘twice something or other’ than men. Nor it
suggests that men are somehow ‘better’ than women.
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Another example of
nominal scale is to classify the respondent’s income into three groups: the
highest income as group 1. The middle income as group 2, and the low-income
as group 3. The nominal scale is often referred to as a categorical scale. The
assigned numbers have no arithmetic properties and act only as labels. The only
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statistical operation that can be performed on nominal scales is a frequency

count. We cannot determine an average except mode.

b) Ordinal Scale involves the ranking of items along the continuum of the
characteristic being scaled. In this scale, the items are classified according to

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whether they have more or less of a characteristic. For example, you may wish
to ask the TV viewers to rank the TV channels according to their preference
and the responses may look like this as given below:

The main characteristic of the ordinal scale is that the categories have a logical
or ordered relationship. This type of scale permits the measurement of degrees

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of difference, (that is, ‘more’ or ‘less’) but not the specific amount of

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differences (that is, how much ‘more’ or ‘less’). This scale is very common
in marketing, satisfaction and attitudinal research.
Another example is that a fast food home delivery shop may wish to ask its
customers:

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How would you rate the service of our staff?

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(1) Excellent • (2) Very Good • (3) Good • (4) Poor • (5) Worst •
Suppose respondent X gave the response ‘Excellent’ and respondent Y gave
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the response ‘Good’, we may say that respondent X thought that the service
provided better than respondent Y to be thought. But we don’t know how
much better and even we can’t say that both respondents have the same
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understanding of what constitutes ‘good service’.

In marketing research, ordinal scales are used to measure relative attitudes,
opinions, and preferences. Here we rank the attitudes, opinions and preferences
from best to worst or from worst to best. However, the amount of difference
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between the ranks cannot be found out. Using ordinal scale data, we can
perform statistical analysis like Median and Mode, but not the Mean.

c) Interval Scale is a scale in which the numbers are used to rank attributes such
that numerically equal distances on the scale represent equal distance in the
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characteristic being measured. An interval scale contains all the information of

an ordinal scale, but it also one allows to compare the difference/distance
between attributes. For example, the difference between ‘1’ and ‘2’ is equal to
the difference between ‘3’ and ‘4’. Further, the difference between ‘2’ and ‘4’
is twice the difference between ‘1’ and ‘2’. However, in an interval scale, the
zero point is arbitrary and is not true zero. This, of course, has implications for
the type of data manipulation and analysis. We can carry out on data collected in
this form. It is possible to add or subtract a constant to all of the scale values
without affecting the form of the scale but one cannot multiply or divide the
values. Measuring temperature is an example of interval scale. We cannot say
400C is twice as hot as 200C. The reason for this is that 00C does not mean that
there is no temperature, but a relative point on the Centigrade Scale. Due to
lack of an absolute zero point, the interval scale does not allow the conclusion
that 400C is twice as hot as 200C.

Interval scales may be either in numeric or semantic formats. The following are
two more examples of interval scales one in numeric format and another in
semantic format.

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d) Ratio Scale is the highest level of measurement scales. This has the properties
of an interval scale together with a fixed (absolute) zero point. The absolute zero
point allows us to construct a meaningful ratio. Examples of ratio scales include
weights, lengths and times. In the marketing research, most counts are ratio
scales. For example, the number of customers of a bank’s ATM in the last
three months is a ratio scale. This is because you can compare this with
previous three months. Ratio scales permit the researcher to compare both
differences in scores and relative magnitude of scores. For example, the
difference between 10 and 15 minutes is the same as the difference between 25
and 30 minutes and 30 minutes is twice as long as 15 minutes. Most financial
research that deals with rupee values utilizes ratio scales. However, for most
behavioural research, interval scales are typically the highest form of
measurement. Most statistical data analysis procedures do not distinguish
between the interval and ratio properties of the measurement scales and it is
sufficient to say that all the statistical operations that can be performed on
interval scale can also be performed on ratio scales.

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