ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH

EMPHASIS ON HUMAN

NUTRITION

1St Semester

2024-2025

LOPEZ, JASPER R.

1 BSND-A
INTERGUMENTARY 2. Reticular Layer
- deepest skin layer and contains
SYSTEM dense irregular connective tissue
- also called skin
- largest organ in the body  HYPODERMIS
- includes epidermis, dermis, - also called subcutaneous tissue or
superficial fascia
hypodermis, associated glands, hair, - the bottom layer of skin in your body
and nails - stores energy, connecting the
dermis layer to muscles and bones,
DERMATOLOGY insulates your body and protect it
 medical specialty for the diagnosis from harm
and treatment of disorders

SKIN (CUTANEOUS MEMBRANE) COLLAGEN FIBERS

- responsible for toughness of the
 it covers the body and the largest dermis
organ in the body - attracts and bind water to keep the
 LAYERS OF THE SKIN skin hydrated
ELASTIC FIBERS
 EPIDERMIS -responsible for giving the skin its
- outer layer and thinner layer of skin elasticity when we are young
- composed of keratinocytes (keratin
cells) 3 FACTORS THAT DETERMINE
- avascular, it has no blood supply SKIN COLOR

Layers of Epidermis  Melanin

- provides pigmentation to your skin,
1. Stratum Cornelium hair, and eyes.
- outermost layer of epidermis  Carotene
- 20-30 cell layers thick - orange-yellow pigment plentiful in
- cells are dead and flat membranous carrots and other orange, deep
sacs filled with keratin yellow, or leafy green vegetables
2. Stratum Lucidum  Hemoglobin
- latter epidermal layer is not present - pigment or protein containing iron
in all skin regions that facilitates the transport of oxygen
- occurs only on palms and soles of in red blood cells
the feet
3. Stratum Granulosum
- cells are flattened, organelles are  SKIN APPANDAGES
deteriorating, cytoplasm full of - include cutaneous glands, hair
granules follicles, and nail.
4. Stratum Spinosum
- cells contain thick bundles of  CUTANEOUS GLANDS
intermediate filaments -all endocrine glands that releases
5. Stratum Basale their secretion to the skin via ducts
- layer that lies closest to the dermis -they fall into 2 groups: sebaceous
- stem cells are actively dividing glands and sweat glands

 DERMIS
- inner and thicker layer of skin 1. Sebaceous Glands
- consists of two major regions, - also called oil glands
papillary region and reticular - found all over the skin
region - its product is Sebum, a mixture of
1. Papillary Layer oily substances and fragmented cells
- superficial dermal region 2. Sweat Glands
- uneven and has peglike projections, - also called sudoriferous
called dermal papillary - widely distributed in the skin
- has 2 types: eccrine and apocrine staphylococcus or streptococcus
infections.
*Eccrine  Psoriasis
- distributed over whole body - reddened epidermal lesions covered
- it produces sweat with dry, silvery scales that itch, burn,
*Apocrine crack, and sometimes bleed
- limited to certain specific regions -chronic condition that is believed to
- produces milky protein-rich sweat be autoimmune disorder
 HAIR
- a hair follicle is a tube- like structure BURN
(pore) that surrounds the root and - tissue damage and cell death caused
strand of a hair by intense heat, electricity, UV,
- exist in top two layers of your skin radiation (sunburn), or certain
- you are born with over 5 million hair chemicals
follicles in your body and over 1
million in your head  CLASSIFICATIONS OF BURN

 NAILS 1. First-Degree Burn

- it corresponds to the hoof or claw of - only epidermis is damaged and heal
the animals in just 2-3 days
- transparent and nearly colourless 2. Second-Degree Burn
- non-living material - injury to the epidermis and dermis
- the skin is red, painful, and blistered
3. Third-Degree Burn
HOMEOSTATIS IMBALANCE OF - destroy both epidermis and dermis
SKIN - full thickness burns
 Infections 4. Four-Degree Burn
- with pathogens such as bacteria, - also, full thickness burns but extends
viruses, or fungi to deeper tissues such as bone,
 Allergies muscles, or tendons
- caused by abnormally strong
immune responses  COMMON TYPES OF SKIN
 Burns and Skin cancers CANCER
 INFECTIONS AND ALLERGIES
Basal Cell Carcinoma
 Athlete’s Foot - least malignant and the most
- an itchy, red, peeling condition of common skin cancer
the skin between the toes - slow growing, and metastasis
- form the infection with the fungus seldom occurs before the lesion is
Tinea pedis noticed.
 Boils (Furuncles)
- caused by inflammation of hair Squamous Cell Carcinoma
follicles and surrounding tissues - arises from the cells of the stratum
- Carbuncles are clusters of boils spinosum
caused by Staphylococus aureus. - appears most often on the scalp,
 Cold Sores (Fever Blisters) ears, back of the hands and lower lip.
- small fluid-filled blisters caused by
human herpesvirus 1 infection Malignant Melanoma
- occur around the lips and oral - cancer of melanocytes
muscosa of mouth and nose - begin wherever there is pigment

 Contact Dermatitis
- itching, redness, swelling of the skin,  ROLE OF NUTRITION
progressing to blistering caused by
exposure of the skin to chemicals Nutritional status plays an important
 Impetigo role in the maintenance of healthy
- pink, fluid-filled, raised lesions skin. Macronutrients (carbohydrates,
caused by highly contagious proteins, and lipids) and
micronutrients (vitamins and primrose and safflower oil, support
nutritionally essential minerals) work skin barrier function and prevent
together to maintain the barrier moisture loss.
functions of skin in the face of
everyday challenges. Vitamins Produced By our Skin

Key Nutrients for Healthy Skin The skin is responsible for producing
vitamin D. During exposure to
• Vitamin A: Essential for skin repair sunlight, ultraviolet radiation
and maintenance, vitamin A promotes penetrates into the epidermis and
cell turnover and helps prevent signs photolyzes provitamin D3 to
of aging. Sources include sweet previtamin D3. Previtamin D3 can
potatoes, carrots, spinach and liver. either isomerize to vitamin D3 or be
• Vitamin C: A potent antioxidant, photolyzed to lymisterol and
vitamin C aids in collagen synthesis, tachysterol.
promoting skin elasticity and
resilience. Citrus fruits, strawberries,
bell peppers and broccoli are rich
SKELETAL SYSTEM
sources.
 5 FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL
• Vitamin E: Known for its
SYSTEM
antioxidant properties, vitamin E  Movement - provides points of
protects the skin from oxidative stress attachment for muscles.
and supports overall skin health. Nuts,  Support - Backbone is the main
seeds, spinach and avocados are support center for the upper body. It
excellent sources. holds your head up and protects your
• Vitamin D: While vitamin D is spinal cord.
essential for overall health,  Protection - The bones of your skull
moderation in sun exposure and protect your brain. Your ribs protect
dietary sources like fatty fish your lungs and heart from injury.
 Makes Blood - Red and White Blood
contribute to maintaining optimal
Cells are formed by tissue called
levels. marrow, which is in the center of the
bone.
Minerals  Storage - Bones store minerals, such
as calcium - and phosphorus, for use
• Zinc: This mineral is crucial for by the body.
wound healing and maintaining skin
integrity. Foods rich in zinc include  2 MAJOR SKELETAL SYSTEM
meat, dairy, nuts and legumes. PARTS
• Copper: Involved in the synthesis of 1. Axial Skeleton - It includes the skull,
spine, ribs and sternum.
collagen and elastin, copper
2. Appendicular Skeleton - It includes
contributes to skin elasticity. Seafood, the appendages of the body, which are
nuts, seeds and whole grains are good the shoulders, arms, hips, and legs.
sources.
• Selenium: Selenium, found in foods  BONE CLASSIFICATIONS
like Brazil nuts and seafood,  Long Bones
contributes to the protection of skin - longer than they are wide, upper and
cells against oxidative stress, lower limbs are long bones.
promoting overall skin health. - each long bone consists of a central
shaft, called the DIAPHYSIS and two
ends each called EPIPHYSIS.
Fatty Acids
- a thin layer of ARTICULAR
CARTILAGE covers the ends of the
• Omega-3 Fatty Acids: Found in epiphyses where the bone articulates
fatty fish, flaxseeds and walnuts, with other bones.
omega-3 fatty acids contribute to skin - a long bone that is still growing has
hydration and help manage an EPIPHYSEAL PLATE, or GROWTH
inflammatory skin conditions. PLATE, composed of cartilage,
• Omega-6 Fatty Acids: These fatty between each epiphysis and the
acids, present in oils such as evening diaphysis.
 Short Bones  In the spaces of many bones there is a
- are approximately as broad as they are soft connective tissue called
long, such as the bones of the wrist and MARROW.
ankle.
 Flat Bones  Two types of Marrow:
- have a relatively thin, flattened shape. 1. RED MARROW - produces most of
- Examples are certain skull bones, ribs, the body’s blood cells.
scapulae (shoulder blades), and the 2. YELLOW MARROW - stores fat
sternum. that can serve as an energy
 Flatirregular Bones reserve.
- include the vertebrae and facial
bones, with shapes that do not fit HOW STRONG OUR BONES?
readily into the other three  The structure of bones make it both
categories. strong and light weight.
20 % of an adult’s body weight is bone.
 BASIC BONE SHAPES
 Marrow - is the soft tissue in the Bone is made up of 2 minerals:
medullary cavities of the bone. CALCIUM & PHOSPHORUS
 Yellow Marrow - consists mostly of
fat.  BONE FORMATION AND
 Red Marrow - consists of blood- DEVELOPMENT
forming cells and is the only site of  Ossification - Is the formation of
blood formation in adults. bone by OSTEOBLASTS
- It involves the synthesis of an organ
Most of the outer surface of bone is matrix containing collagen, proteoglycans
covered by dense connective tissue called and the addition of hydroxyapatite
the PERIOSTEUM. It contains blood crystals to the matrix.
vessels and nerves.  Intramembranous Ossification
- occurs within the connective tissue
Osteoblasts (bone-forming cell) membranes. This occurs primarily in the
- function in the formation of bone, as well bones of the skull.
as in the repair and remodeling of bone.  Endochondral Ossification - the
Bone - is formed in thin sheets of development of the bones at the base
extracellular matrix called LAMELLAE, of the skull and most of the remaining
with bone cells, called OSTEOCYTES. skeletal system from cartilage models.
 Bone Growth - occurs by the
 BONE STRUCTURE deposition of new bone lamellae onto
Typical Four Layers: existing bone or other connective
 Periosteum - covers bones. tissue. This process is called
 Compact Bone - lies beneath the appositional growth.
periosteum. - As osteoblast deposit new bone matrix
 Spongy Bone - lies beneath the on the surface of bones between
compact bone. periosteum and the existing bone matrix,
 Bone Marrow - fills the gap between the bone increases in width and diameter.
the spongy bone. - Growth in the length of a bone, which is
a major source of increased height in the
 BONES are complex living structures individual, occurs in the epiphyseal plate.
that undergo growth and
development. FRACTURES: BONE REPAIR
 A thin tough outer membrane covers  Bone Remodeling - involves in the
the bone. removal of existing bone by
 Beneath the outer membrane is a osteoclasts and the deposition of new
layer of Compact Bone (hard and bone by osteoblasts.
dense, but not solid – it is filled with - Remodeling is responsible for changes
holes and has small canals for blood in bone shape, adjustment of bone to
vessels and nerves). stress, bone repair, and calcium ion
 Inside the compact bone is a layer of regulation in the body fluids.
SPONGY BONE.  Bone Repair - when a bone is
 It has many small spaces, is light broken, blood vessels in the bone are
weight, but strong. also damaged. The vessels belled, and
 SPONGY BONE is also found at the a clot forms in the damaged area.
ends of bones.
- two to three days after the injury, blood the thorax and prevents the collapse
vessels and cells from surrounding tissues of the thorax during respiration.
begin to invade the clot. - It consists of the thoracic vertebrae,
- the zone of tissue repair between two the ribs with their associated cartilages
bone fragments is called a callus. and sternum.
 RIBS AND COSTAL CARTILAGES
BONE AND CALCIUM HOMEOSTASIS - The 12 pairs of ribs can be divided into
- BONE is the major site for calcium in the true and false ribs.
body, and movement of calcium into and TRUE RIBS – the superior 7 pairs.
out of bone helps to determine blood FALSE RIBS – the inferior 5 pairs.
calcium levels, which is critical for normal  STERNUM - or the BREASTBONE, is
muscle and nervous system function. divided into three parts: the
- when blood calcium level are too low, manubrium, the body, and the xiphoid
OSTEOCLAST ACTIVITY INCREASES, process.
calcium is released by OSTEOCLASTS JUGULAR NOTCH – depression in the
from bone into the blood, and blood superior end of the sternum.
calcium levels increase. STERNAL ANGLE – a slight elevation that
- If blood calcium is too high, can be felt at the junction of the
OSTEOCLAST ACTIVITY DECREASES, manubrium and the body of the sternum.
calcium is taken in from the blood by  PECTORAL GIRDLE - consists of 4
OSTEOBLASTS to produce new bone and bones. 2 scapulae, and 2 clavicles,
blood calcium decreases. which attach the upper limb to the
body: the scapula or shoulder blade
Parathyroid Hormone - stimulates and the clavicle or the collarbone.
increased bone breakdown and increase UPPER LIMB - consists of the bone of the
blood calcium levels by indirectly arm, forearm, wrist, and hand.
Calcitonin - secreted from the thyroid ARROW - the region between the
gland, decreases osteoclast activity. shoulder and the elbow and contains the
humerus.
 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS OF FOREARM - has 2 bones: the ULNA or the
BONE ANATOMY medial side of the forearm and the
 FOLAMEN - hole in the bone RADIUS of the lateral side.
 CANAL/MEATUS - hole is elongated WRIST - a relatively short region between
into a tunnel-like passage through the the forearm and hand and is compose of
bone the 8 carpal bones.
 FOSSA - depression in a bone HAND - 5 metacarpals are attached to
 TUBERCLE/TUBEROSITY - lump on the carpal bones and form the bony
bone framework of the hand.
 CONDYLE - the smooth, rounded end  PELVIC GIRDLE - consists of the
of a bone, where it forms an coxae and is the place where the
articulation with another bone. lower limbs attached to the body.
 PROCESS - projection on bone
 SKULL - The 22 BONES OF SKULL are LOWER LIMB - consists of the bones of
divided into two groups: those of the the thigh, leg, ankle, and foot.
braincase and those of the face. THIGH – is the region between the hip
 BRAIN CASE - encloses the cranial and the knee. It contains a single bone
cavity, consists of 8 bones that called the FEMUR.
immediately surround and protect the LEG – is the region between the knee
brain. and the ankle. It contains two bones,
- the 14 FACIAL BONE form the called the TIBIA.
structure of the face. ANKLE – consists of 7 tarsal bones. The
 VERTEBRAL COLUMN - also called tarsal bones are the talus, calcaneus,
BACKBONE, is the central axis of the cuboid, navicular, and the medial,
skeleton, extending from the base of intermediate, and lateral cuneiforms.
the skull to slightly past of the end of FOOT – the metatarsals and the
the pelvis. phalanges of the foot are arranged and
- It consists of 26 individual bones, numbered in a manner very similar to the
grouped into 7 cervical vertebrae, 12 metacarpals and phalanges of the hand.
thoracic vertebrae, 5 lumbar vertebrae,
1 sacral bone, and 1 coccygeal bone. ARTICULATIONS
 THORACIC CAGE - also called RIB - an articulation or joint is a place where
CAGE, protects the vital organs within two bones come together. A joint is
usually considered movable, but that is CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS - unite 2 bones
not always the case. by means of cartilage. Only slight
movement can occur at these joints.
SYNARTHROSIS – non-movable joint  FIBROCARTILAGE – cartilage of some
AMPHIARTHROSIS – slightly movable cartilaginous joints, where much strain
DIARTHROSIS – freely movable is placed on the joint, may be
reinforced by the presence of
WHAT ARE JOINTS? additional collagen fibers. It forms
- a JOINT is a place where two bones joints such as intervertebral disks.
come together.
- JOINTS allow the bones to move in SYNOVIAL JOINTS - are freely movable
different ways. joints that contain synovial fluid in a
cavity surrounding the ends of the
 TWO TYPES OF JOINTS: articulating bones
IMMOVABLE JOINTS - a joint that allows
little or no movement. LIGAMENT - connects bone to bone
MOVABLE JOINTS - most of the joints TENDON - attaches muscles to bones
are movable joints.
- allow the body to move in a wide range  ROLE OF NUTRITION
of movements.  CALCIUM - a mineral that people
- bones in movable joints are held need to build and maintain strong
together by strong connective tissue bones and teeth. It is also very
called LIGAMENTS. important for other physical functions,
such as muscle control and blood
4 types of movable joints: circulation.
 HINGE JOINT - movement in one - is not made in the body — it must be
direction like a door. It allows forward absorbed from the foods we eat. To
or backward motion. effectively absorb calcium from food,
Ex. Knee and Elbow our bodies need Vitamin D.
 BALL AND SOCKET JOINT - round
end of bone fitting snuggly within  POSTMENOPAUSAL WOMEN
another bone.It allows the greatest - are most vulnerable to osteoporosis.
range of motion. Although loss of estrogen is the primary
- the ball-and-socket joint allows you to reason for this, poor lifelong calcium and
swing your arm freely in a circle. Vitamin D intake, as well as lack of
Ex. Shoulder and Hip exercise, play a role in the development
 PIVOT JOINT - bone resting a top of osteoporosis.
another bone permitting free - note that men also are at risk for
movement. osteoporosis
- allows one bone to rotate around
another. DIETARY SOURCES OF CALCIUM
- allows you to turn your head. People can get the recommended daily
Ex. Neck, Wrist and Ankles amount of calcium by eating a healthy
 GLIDING JOINT - allows one bone to diet that includes a variety of calcium-rich
slide over another. foods. Milk, yogurt, cheese, and other
- allows you to bend and flex as well as dairy products are the biggest food
make limited sideto-side motions. sources of calcium
Ex. Knuckles, wrist, ankle
 VITAMIN D - without Vitamin D, our
FIBROUS JOINTS - consist of 2 bones bodies cannot effectivel absorb
that are united by fibrous tissue and that calcium, which is essential to good
exhibit little or no movement. bone health.
 SUTURES – are fibrous joints between - children who lack Vitamin D develop
the bones of the skull. the condition called RICKETS, which
 FONTANELS – sutures found in the causes bone weakness, bowed legs,
newly born. and other skeletal deformities, such as
 SYNDESMOSES – fibrous joints in stooped posture.
which bones are separated by some - adults with very low Vitamin D can
distance and held together by develop a condition called
ligaments. OSTEOMALACIA (soft bone). Like
rickets, osteomalacia can also cause
bone pain and deformities of long
bones.
  RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS - a
 OTHER KEY NUTRIENTS chronic, frequently progressive
 PHOSPHORUS - a major mineral in disease in which inflammatory
the body's bone crystal, phosphorus is changes occur throughout the
found in dairy products and meat. connective tissues of the body.
 MAGNESIUM -Primarily found in bone  RICKETS - a disease of infancy and
crystals, magnesium improves bone childhood characterized by softening
strength. Older adults are more likely of the bones, leading to abnormal
to be deficient in magnesium. bone.
 VITAMIN K - necessary for bone  SPONDYLITIS - inflammation of one
formation and mineralization, Vitamin or more of the vertebrae. Spondylitis
K also is important for blood clotting takes several forms; the most widely
and may assist in channeling calcium occurring forms are ankylosing
directly to the bone rather than the spondylitis, hypertrophic spondylitis,
blood vessels. and tuberculous spondylitis.
 VITAMIN C - collagen is the main  APLASTIC ANEMIA
protein in bone, and Vitamin C is - disease in which the bone marrow fails
necessary for collagen synthesis. to produce an adequate number of blood
Vitamin C is present in citrus fruits cells.
and tomatoes and in many  PAGET DISEASE OF BONE - a
vegetables. chronic disease of middle age,
 VITAMIN A - Vitamin A is necessary characterized by excessive breakdown
for cells to differentiate normally and and formation of bone tissue.
for normal skeletal growth and is
extremely important for eye health.
 SPONDYLOSIS - noninflammatory
Vitamin A is available in liver, eggs, degenerative disease of the spine
butter, green leafy vegetables and resulting in abnormal bone
carrots. development around the vertebrae
and reduced mobility of the
 BONE DISEASES intervertebral joints.
 CERVICAL SPONDYLOSIS
- degenerative disease of the neck
vertebrae, causing compression of the MUSCULAR SYSTEM
spinal cord and cervical nerves.
 OSTEOPOROSIS - characterized by  TYPES OF MUSCLES
the thinning of bones, with a
consequent tendency to sustain  SKELETAL MUSCLE - also known as
fractures from minor stresses. most striated muscle, its fibers have
common in postmenopausal women obvious stripes and a voluntary
over age 50. muscle, it is the only muscle type
 METATARSALGIA - persistent pain in subject to conscious control.
the metatarsal region, or ball, of the Skeletal Muscle Fibers - are packaged
foot. most common cause of into organs called skeletal muscles that
metatarsalgia is the wearing of attach to the skeleton.
improper footwear. - are large, cigar shaped,
 POLYMYALGIA RHEUMATICA - a multinucleate cells. They are the largest
joint disease that is common in people muscle fibers
over the age of 50, with an average
age of onset of about 70. The Connective Tissue Wrappings of
syndrome is characterized by morning Skeletal Muscle
stiffness or aching in the neck, - Each muscle fiber is enclosed in a
shoulders, torso, or hips. delicate connective tissue sheath called
 BONE CANCER - disease endomysium.
characterized by uncontrolled growth - Several sheathed muscle fibers are then
of cells of the bone. Most cancer that wrapped by a coarser fibrous membrance
involves the bone is cancer that has called perimysium to form a bundle of
spread (metastasized) from other fibers called a fascicle.
tissues in the body.
 OSTEOARTHRITIS - disorder of the  SMOOTH MUSCLE - has no striations
joints characterized by progressive and is involuntary, which means that
deterioration of the articular cartilage we cannot consciously control it
or of the entire joint. - found mainly in the walls of hollow
visceral organs such as the stomach,
 urinary bladder, and respiratory composed of myosin molecules and
passages. ATPase enzymes.
 CARDIAC MUSCLE - is found in only - thick filaments extend the entire length
one place in the body—the heart, of the dark A band.
where it forms the bulk of the heart - thick filaments have smooth midparts,
walls. The heart serves as a pump but ends have small
propelling blood into the blood vessels projections called myosin heads, which
and to all tissues of the body. link thick and thin
- also striated, uninucleate and filaments during contraction.
under involuntary control. 2. Thin Filaments in Myosin Heads
- composed of actin and regulatory
 MUSCLE FUNCTIONS proteins.
1. PRODUCE MOVEMENT - skeletal - anchored to Z disc, a disclike
muscles are responsible for our body's membrane.
mobility, including all locomotion and • Light I band includes parts of adjacent
manipulating things with your agile upper sarcomeres, containing only thin
limbs filaments.
2. MAINTAIN POSTURE AND BODY • Skeletal Muscle Cell Banding Pattern
POSITION - workings of the skeletal • Actin filaments overlap the ends of thick
muscles that maintain body posture, they filaments, but thin filaments don't
function almost continuously, making one extend into the middle of a relaxed
tiny adjustment after another so that we sarcomere.
maintain an erect or seated posture • The central region, the H zone, lacks
3. STABILIZE JOINTS - skeletal muscles actin filaments and appears lighter.
pull on bones to cause movements, they • When contraction occurs, actin-
also stabilize the joints of the skeleton containing filaments slide into the center,
4. GENERATE HEAT - body heat is causing the light zones to disappear.
generated as a • The precise arrangement of
by-product of muscle activity. myofilaments in myofibrils produces the
-skeletal muscle is the most banding
responsible for generating heat since it pattern in skeletal muscle cells.
accounts for at least 40 percent of the
body mass. 

 MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF STIMULATION AND CONTRACTION

SKELETAL MUSCLE SINGLE SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS
Skeletal muscle cells – are >Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential in
multinucleate Skeletal Muscles
Sarcolemma - oval nuclei beneath the * Skeletal muscle cells are stimulated by
plasma membrane. nerve impulses to
- the outer membrane of a muscle cell contract.
Myofibrils - ribbonlike ganelles, fill the * A motor neuron can stimulate a few or
cytoplasm. The muscle cell's striped hundreds of muscle cells,
appearance is due to alternating light (I) depending on the muscle and its function.
and dark (A) bands along the myofibrils. * A motor unit is a neuron and all the
- the light I band muscle cells it stimulates.
has a Z disc, while the dark A band has a * The nerve fiber or axon branches into
H zone. axon terminals, each forming junctions
- the banding pattern reveals the working with the sarcolemma of a different muscle
structure of cell.
myofibrils, which are chains of tiny * Neuromuscular junctions contain
contractile units called vesicles filled with a
sarcomeres. The arrangement of smaller neurotransmitter, specifically
structures within acetylcholine (ACh).
sarcomeres produce the banding pattern. * The synaptic cleft between nerve
endings and muscle cells is filled with
Banding Patterns in Muscles tissue fluid

Two types of threadlike protein COMMON TYPES OF BODY

myofilaments within "boxcar" MOVEMENTS
sarcomeres:  FLEXION - is a movement, generally
1. Larger thick filaments - also called in the sagittal plane, that decreases
as myosin filaments, are mainly
 the angle of the joint and brings two posteriorly (or down). Pronation brings the
bones closer together. radius across the ulna so that the two
 EXTENSION - is the opposite of bones form an X
flexion, so it is a movement that  OPPOSITION - in the palm of the
increases the angle, or distance, hand, the saddle joint between
between two bones or parts of the metacarpal 1 and the carplas allows
body. opposition of the thumb.
Extension that is greater than 180° is - This is the action by which you move
called hyperextension. your thumb to touch the tips of the
 ROTATION - is movement of a bone other fingers on the same hand. This
around its longitudinal axis. Rotation unique action makes the human hand
is a common movement of ball-and- a fine tool for grasping the
socket joints and describes the manipulating objects.
movement of the atlas around the
dens of the axis INTERACTIONS OF SKELETAL
 ABDUCTION - is moving a limb away MUSCLES IN THE BODY
from the midline, or median plane, of - groups of muscles that produce opposite
the body. The terminology also applies movements lie on opposite sides of joint
to the fanning movement of your
fingers or toes when they are spread Prime mover - the muscle that has the
apart major
 ADDUCTION - is the opposite of responsibility for causing a particular
abduction, so it is the movement of a movement.
limb toward the body midline. Think of Antagonists - muscles that oppose or
adduction as "adding" a body part by reverse a movement.
bringing it closer to the trunk. Synergists (syn=together, erg=work)
 CIRCUMDUCTION - is a combination - help prime movers by producing the
of flexion, extension, abduction, and same movement or by reducing
adduction commonly seen in balland- undesirable movements.
socket joints, such as the shoulder. Fixator - are specialized synergists. They
The proximal end of the limb is hold a bone still or stabilize the origin of a
stationary, and its distal end moves in prime mover so all the tension can be
a circle. used to move the insertion bone.

SPECIAL MOVEMENTS  NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES

 DORSIFLEXION AND PLANTAR  MUSCLE IDENTIFICATION
FLEXION - lifting the foot so that its - Muscles vary in shape and size for
superior surface approaches the shin specific body tasks.
or pointing your toe toward your head • NAMES BASED ON STRUCTURAL OR
is dorsiflexion, whereas pointing the FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS.
toes away from your head is plantar - Paying attention to cues simplifies
flexion. muscle learning.
- Dorsiflexion of the foot  MUSCLE FIBER DIRECTION
corresponds to extension and - Some muscles are named after an
hyperextension of the hand at the wrist, imaginary line, like the midline or limb
whereas plantar flexion of the foot bone's long axis.
corresponds to flexion of the hand. - The term rectus (straight) indicates that
 INVERSION AND EVERSION - the muscle's fibers run parallel to this
tudinal axis. Rotation is a common imaginary line.
movement of ball-and-socket joints Ex. The rectus femoris is the straight
and describes the movement of the muscle of the thig, or femur.
atlas around the dens of the axis. - The term oblique (at a slant) indicates
 SUPINATION AND PRONATION - that the muscle fibers run obliquely to the
the terms supination (turning imaginary line.
backward) and pronation (turning  RELATIVE SIZE OF A MUSCLE
forward) refer to movements of the - terms like maximus (largest), minimus
radius around the ulna. smallest), and longus
- Supination occurs when the forearm (long) are used.
rotates laterally so that the palm faces • example: gluteus maximus is the largest
anteriorly (or up) and the radius and ulna muscle in the gluteus muscle group.
are parallel, as in anatomical position.  LOCATION OF THE MUSCLE
- Pronation occurs when the forearm - some muscles are named for the bone
rotates medially so that the palm faces with which they are associated. For
example, the temporalis and frontalis - Muscle range of motion and power are
muscles verlie the temporal and frontal determined by
bones of the skull, respectively. fascicle arrangement.
 NUMBER OF MUSCLE ORIGINS - Longer and parallel fascicles increase
- biceps, triceps, and quadriceps muscles muscle shortening but are less powerful.
have two, three, or four origins. - Muscle power depends on total muscle
- the biceps muscle has two heads, triceps cell count.
muscle has three. - Stocky bipennate and multipennate
 LOCATION OF MUSCLE ORIGIN muscles pack in
AND INSERTION most fibers, shorten little but are powerful
- muscles named for attachment sites.
- example: sternoclei dorsoid muscle HEAD AND NECK MUSCLES
origin: sternum (sterno) and clavicle FACIAL MUSCLES
cleido) and inserts on the mastoid process Frontalis - covers the frontal bone, runs
of the temporal bone. from the cranial aponeurosis to the skin of
 SHAPE OF THE MUSCLE the eyebrows, where it inserts.
- deltoid muscle: roughly triangular ANTERIOR MUSCLES
 ACTION OF THE MUSCLE Pectoralis Major - is a large fan-shaped
- named for their actions: flexor, extensor, muscle covering the upper part of the
adductor. chest. Its origin is from the sternum,
- adductor muscles in thigh cause shoulder girdle, and the first six ribs. It
adduction. inserts on the proximal and of the
- extensor muscles in the wrist extend the humerus. This muscle forms the anterior
wrist. wall of the axilla (armpit) and acts to
adduct and flex the arm.
 ARRANGEMENT OF FASCICLES INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
- Skeletal muscles composed of fascicles. - are deep muscles found between the
- Fascil arrangements vary, creating ribs. The external intercostals, which lie
unique structures and functional toward the lateral edge of the rib cage,
properties. are important in breathing because they
help to raise the rib cage when you
 COMMON PATTERNS OF FASCICLE inhale. The internal intercostals, which lie
ARRANGEMENT. deep and medial to the external
 Circular Muscles - arrangement of intercostals, depress the rib cage, helping
fascicles in concentric rings. to move air out of the lungs when you
- typically found around external body exhale forcibly
openings. 
- known as sphincters or squeezers. MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMINAL
- examples include orbicularis muscles GIRDLE
around eyes and mouth -The anterior abdominal muscles (rectus
 Convergent Muscle - fascicle abdominis, external and internal obliques,
converges towards single insertion and transversus abdominis) form a
tendon. natural "girdle" that reinforces the body
- triangular or fan-shaped muscle. trunk. Taken together, they resemble the
- Example: Pectoralis major muscle of structure of plywood because the fibers of
anterior thorax each muscle or muscle pair run in a
 Parallel vs Fusiform Muscles - different direction. Just as plywood is
Parallel arrangement: Fascils run exceptionally strong for its thickness, the
parallel to muscle's long axis. abdominal muscles form a muscular wall
- Fusiform modification: Creates spindle- that is well suited for its job of containing
shaped muscle with expanded belly. and protecting the abdominal content.
- Example: Biceps brachii muscle in arm. ANTERIOR ABDOMINAL MUSCLES
 Pennate Muscle Pattern - short Rectus abdominis - the most superficial
fascicles attach obliquely to central muscles of the abdomen. They run from
tendon. the pubis to the rib cage, enclosed in an
- Unipennate muscle: Inserts into one side aponeurosis. Their main function is to flex
of the tendon. the vertebral column. They also compress
- Bipennate or multipennate muscle: the abdominal contents during defecation
Inserts into opposite or multiple sides of and childbirth (they help you "push") and
the tendon. are involved in forced breathing
EXTERNAL OBLIQUE - are paired
Muscle Fascil Arrangement and superficial muscles that make up the
Power lateral walls of the abdomen. Their fibers
run downward and medially from the last abdominal wall. Acting separately, each
eight ribs and insert into the ilium. Like muscle of the pair flexes the spine
the rectus abdominis, together they flex laterally. Acting together, they extend the
the vertebral column, but individually lumbar spine. These muscles arise from
they also rotate the trunk and bend it the iliac crests and insert into the upper
laterally. lumbar vertebrae.
INTERNAL OBLIQUE - are paired DELTOID -are fleshy, triangle-shaped
muscles deep to the external obliques. muscles that form the rounded shape of
Their fibers run at right angles to those of your shoulders. Because they are so
the external obliques. They arise from the bulky, they are a favorite injection site
iliac crest and insert into the last three when relatively small amounts of
ribs. Their functions are the same as medication (less than 5 ml) must be given
those of the external obliques. intramuscularly (into muscle). The origin
TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS -The of each deltoid winds across the shoulder
deepest muscle of the abdominal wall. It girdle from the spine of the scapula to the
has fibers that run horizontally across the clavicle. It inserts into the proximal
abdomen. It arises from the lower ribs and humerus. The deltoids are the prime
iliac crest and inserts into the pubis. This movers of arm abduction.
muscle compresses the abdominal
contents like a wide belt. MUSCLES OF THE UPPER LIMB
POSTERIOR MUSCLES First group: Muscles from the
•Trapezius -are the most superficial shoulder girdle that crosses the
muscles of the posterior neck shoulder joint to insert into the
and upper trunk. When seen together, humerus. These include pectoralis major,
they form a diamond or kite-shaped latissimus dorsi, and deltoid
muscle mass. Their origin is very broad. Second group: Muscles that cause
Each muscle runs from the occipital bone movement at the elbow joint. These
of the skull down the vertebral column to enclose the humerus and insert on the
the end of the thoracic vertebrae. They forearm bones.
then flare laterally to insert on the Third group: Muscles of the
scapular spine and clavicle. The trapezius forearm that inserts on the hand
muscles extend the head (thus they are bones and cause their movement. These
antagonists of the sternocleidomastoids). are thin and spindle shaped.
They also - Forearm muscles have names reflecting
can elevate, depress, adduct, and their activities, such as flexor carpi and
stabilize the scapula. flexor digitorum muscles causing wrist
LATISSIMUS DORSI -are the two large, and finger flexion, and extensor carpi and
flat muscles that cover the lower back. extensor digitorum muscles extending the
They originate on the lower spine and same structures.
ilium and then sweep superiorly to insert
into the proximal end of the humerus. MUSCLES CAUSING MOVEMENT AT
Each latissimus dorsi extends and adducts THE ELBOW JOINT
the humerus. These are very important Brachialis: Decreases strength.
muscles when the arm must be brought Biceps -Known for bulging when elbow is
down in a power stroke, as when flexed.
swimming or striking a blow. - Originates from shoulder girdle and
ERECTOR SPINAE - is the prime mover inserts into radial tuberosity.
of back extension. These paired muscles -Powerful prime mover for forearm
are deep muscles of the back. Each flexion and supinates forearm. Similar to
erector spinae are a composite muscle opening a bottle of wine: supinates
consisting of three muscle columns forearm, flexes elbow to pull cork.
(longissimus, iliocostalis, and spinalis)
that collectively span the entire length of Biceps brachii: Increases strength.
the vertebral column. These muscles not -Deeply linked to biceps muscle.
only act as powerful back extensors -Lifts ulna, like biceps' radius.
("erectors") but also provide resistance Brachioradialis: Decreases strength.
that helps control the action of bending > Weak muscle on humerus.
over at the waist. Following injury to back > Inserts into distal forearm.
structures, these muscles go > Mainly located in forearm.
into spasms, a common source of lower Triceps Brachii
back pain. > Muscle fleshing out the posterior
QUADRATUS LUMBORUM -these fleshy humerus.
muscles form part of the posterior
>Three heads from the shoulder girdle • Primarily moves hip flexion.
and proximal humerus. • Prevents upper body from falling
>Inserts into the olecranon process of the backward when standing erect.
ulna. Adductor Muscles
>Powerful prime mover of elbow • Form the muscle mass at the medial
extension. side of each thigh.
>Antagonist of the biceps brachii. • Adduct or press thighs together.
>Often called "boxer's" muscle due to its • Gravity often causes flabbiness due to
ability to deliver a straight-arm knockout their role.
punch • Special exercises are needed for tone
maintenance.
MUSCLE OF THE LOWER LIMB • Originated on the pelvis and inserts on
• Largest and strongest muscles in the the proximal aspect of the femur.
body, specialized for walking and body
balance. MUSCLES CAUSING MOVEMENT AT
• Pelvic girdle requires no special group of THE KNEE JOINT
muscles due to its heavy, fused bones. Hamstring Group
• Lower limb muscles span two joints, • Comprises biceps femoris,
causing movement at both. semimembranosus, and semitendinosus.
• Origin and insertion are often • Originates on ischial tuberosity and runs
interchangeable terms for these muscles. down thigh.
• Thigh muscles hold the body upright • Primarily movers of thigh extension and
and cause movements at the hip joint. knee flexion.
• Leg muscles form the thigh flesh, • Named after butchers hanging hams for
causing flexion or extension of the knee. smoking.
• Thigh muscles also have attachments • Feels at the back of the knee.
on the pelvic girdle, causing movement at Sartorius Muscle
the hip joint. • Thin, straplike muscle running obliquely
• Leg muscles cause movements of the across the thigh from anterior iliac crest
ankle and foot, including extending and to medial side of tibia.
flexing ankle and toe joints. • Most superficial muscle of the thigh,
Muscles Causing Movements hard to miss.
Gluteus Maximus • Acts as a synergist to bring about the
• A superficial hip muscle that forms most cross-legged position seen in old-time
of the buttock's flesh. tailors.
• A powerful hip extensor that aligns the Quadriceps Group
thigh with the pelvis. • Comprises four muscles: rectus femoris
• Not crucial in walking but crucial for and three vastus muscles.
power extension during climbing and • The vastus muscles originate from the
jumping. femur, the rectus femoris originates on
• Originates from sacrum and iliac bones the pelvis.
and inserts on femur's gluteal tuberosity • All four muscles insert into the tibial
and large tendinous iliotibial tract tuberosity via the patellar ligament.
Gluteus Medius • The group acts to extend the knee
• Runs from the ilium to the femur, powerfully, like when kicking a football.
beneath the gluteus maximus. • The rectus femoris can also help to flex
• Functions as a hip abductor, stabilizing the hip.
the pelvis during walking. • The vastus lateralis and rectus femoris
• Crucial site for intramuscular injections, are sometimes used as intramuscular
especially when more than 5 ml is injection sites, especially in infants with
administered. poorly developed gluteus muscles
• Medial part of each buttock overlies the
large sciatic nerve, requiring careful MUSCLES CAUSING MOVEMENT AT
avoidance. THE ANKLE AND FOOT
• Safe area for intramuscular injection is Tibialis Anterior
the superolateral quadrant overlies the • A superficial muscle on the anterior leg.
gluteus medius muscle, a safe area for • Arises from the upper tibia.
injections • Parallels anterior crest to tarsal bones.
• Inserted by a long tendon.
Iliopsoas • Acts to dorsiflex and invert foot.
• Composed of iliacus and psoas major.
• Runs from iliac bone and lower vertexes Extensor Digitorum Longus Muscle
to lesser trochanter of femur.
• Arises from lateral tibial condyle and • Magnesium: Relaxes muscles and
proximal fibula. prevents cramps. Found in leafy greens,
• Inserts into toes 2-5 phalanges. nuts, seeds.
• Primarily moves toe extension. • Vitamin D: Helps build muscle. Get it
Fibularis Muscles from sunlight, fatty fish, fortified milk.
• Longus, brevis, and tertius muscles • Vitamin C: Helps repair muscles. Eat
located on lateral leg. citrus fruits, bell peppers, broccoli.
• Arise from fibula and insert into foot • Iron: Carries oxygen to muscles for
metatarsal bones. energy. Good sources are lean meat,
• Plantar flexes and everts the foot. poultry, fish.
• Zinc: Important for muscle function.
Gastrocnemius Muscle
Red meat, poultry, legumes are good
• Two-bellied muscle forming the curved
sources.
calf of the posterior leg.
• Arises by two heads from each side of • B12: Helps make red blood cells that
the distal femur. carry oxygen.
• Inserts through the large calcaneal • Beta-Alanine: Prevents cramps. Found
(Achilles) tendon into the heel of the foot. in animal protein and some plant-based
foods.
Soleus Muscle • Glutamine: Helps repair muscles after
• Deep to gastrocnemius. intense exercise. Found in chicken, fish,
• Arises on tibia and fibula. beef, dairy.
• Doesn't affect knee movement.
• Inserts into calcaneal tendon. Electrolytes (for muscle function):
• Strong plantar flexor of foot. • Potassium: Helps muscles contract
and transport nutrients. Bananas, squash,
DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE sweet potatoes.
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCED
• Muscular dystrophy- A group of
inherited muscle-destroying diseases that
affect specific muscle group.
• Duchenne’s muscular dystrophy-
Expressed almost exclusively in boys.
SPECIAL SENSES
-This tragic disease is usually diagnosed
- are sensory systems that allow
between the ages of 2 and 7 years old. us to perceive and interpret the
-It is caused by a genetic mutation on one world around us. they include
of the mother's X vision, hearing, taste, smell,
• Myasthenia gravis -One rare and equilibrium (balance).
automotive disease that can affect
muscles during adulthood. 1. EYE AND VISION
Relationship of muscular system and
- Vision has been studied most.
human nutrition Nearly 70% of all sensory
-Proper nutrition is the foundation for a receptors in the body are in
healthy muscular system, while a strong the eyes.
muscular system can positively impact Optic tracts - carry information from
your nutritional needs and overall health. eyes to brain. It contains a million
Nutrients needed by the muscles nerve fibers.
Adult eye - sphere that measures
Macronutrients (the big stuff) about 1 inch (2.5cm) in diameter.
• Protein: Like building blocks for
muscle. Get it from meat, beans, dairy,
 ACCESSORY STRUCTURES OF
etc.
THE EYES:
• Carbohydrates: Energy for workouts
and muscle recovery. Found in whole
grains, fruits, veggies.  Extrinsic eye muscles - aims the
• Healthy Fats: Help repair muscles. eyes for following moving objects.
Think fish,avocados, olive oil.  Eyelids - protects the eyes.
Micronutrients (the small but mighty): Together with eyelashes, that is
• Calcium: Helps muscles contract. associated with ciliary glands and
Dairy, leafy greens are good sources. tarsal glands that both keep the
eye lubricated.
 Lacrimal apparatus - includes a our vision.
series of ducts.
Lacrimal Glands - produces tears,  ERRORS OF REFRACTION
which are saline solution that
washes and lubricated the eyeball.  MYOPIA (Nearsightedness)
 Conjunctiva - mucous membrane - Close objects are seen clearly, but
that covers the anterior eyeball distant objects appear blurry.
and lines the eyelids. It produces a  HYPEROPIA
lubricating mucus. (Farsightedness)
- distant objects are seen clearly, but
Three layers that form the close objects appear blurry.
eyeball:  ASTIGMATISM
1. Sclera - forms most of outer, - The cornea or lens is irregularly
tough, protective fibrous layer. shaped, causing light to focus at two
Cornea- anterior portion that is different points instead of one.
transparent to allow light to enter the
eye.  PATHWAY OF LIGHT THROUGH
2. Vascular Layer/(Middle coat) - THE EYE
provides nutrition to the internal eye
structures. 1. Cornea: Light enters the eye
Choroid - posterior portion of vascular through the cornea, the transparent
layer. outer layer of the eye.
- responsible for preventing the light 2. Aqueous Humor: The light then
from scattering in the eye. passes through the aqueous humor, a
clear fluid that fills the space between
Anterior modifications includes the cornea and the lens.
two smooth muscle structure: 3. Pupil: The light then passes
a) Ciliary body - changes the through the pupil, the opening in the
lens shape center of the iris.
b) Iris - controls the pupils size.
4. Aqueous Humor (again): Light
3. Sensory Layer - consists of two passes through the aqueous humor
layered retina. again.
A. Pigmented epithelium - provides 5. Lens: Light is focused by the lens.
nutrients and oxygen to the 6. Vitreous Humor: Light passes
photoreceptors. through the vitreous humor.
B. Innermost coat - contains the 7. Retina: Light reaches the retina,
photoreceptors, that transmits visual where it is converted into electrical
signals from the it to the brain, signals transmitted to the brain.
allowing us to perceive and interpret
visual information.  PATHWAY OF NERVE IMPULSES
FROM RETINA
LENS
- It is the major light bending 1. Optic nerve- a cranial nerve that
structure of the eye. sends visual information from the
- Located behind the iris and the retina to the brain.
pupil in the eye. 2. Optic chiasma- point where the
- It plays a vital role in the optic nerves from each eye cross
process of vision by focusing over, allowing the primary cortex to
light onto the retina. receive information from both eyes.
3. Optic tract- bundle of nerve
OPTIC DISK fibers that carries visual information
- Point where the optic nerve from the optic chiasm to the LGN
leaves the back of the eyeball. (Lateral Geniculate Nucleus) in the
Since no photoreceptors exist thalamus.
here, it results in the blind spot in 4. Thalamus -central processing
point where all sensory information
stops, and organizing the visual - Has three main components: the
information. COCHLEA, VESTIBULE, and
Lateral Geniculate Nucleus -a part of SEMICIRCULAR CANALS.
thalamus receives visual information
from optic tract.
5. Optic radiation - convey 3 MAIN COMPONENTS OF THE
information to the primary visual INNER EAR:
cortex.
6. Primary Visual Cortex - primary A. Cochlea - responsible for
processing point for visual sound processing and
information, where the brain transmission, converting sound
interprets and understands visual vibrations into electrical signals
stimuli. that are transmitted to the
brain.
2. EAR AND HEARING B. Vestibule - detects linear
acceleration and deceleration,
The ear is a complex and fascinating responsible for balance and
organ that plays a crucial role in our equilibrium.
ability to hear and maintain balance. C. Semicircular Canals - detect
It consists of three main parts: the rotational movements, helping
outer ear, middle ear, and inner us maintain balance and
ear. equilibrium.

 THREE PARTS OF THE EAR

THE RECEPTORS OF THE
1. Outer Ear SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
- collects sound waves and directs
them into the ear canal. HOW THESE RECEPTORS WORK?
- the ear canal, also known as the
external auditory meatus, is a narrow 1. Hair cells - embedded in a cupula
tube that leads to the eardrum to detect rotational movements.
- the outer ear is also responsible for 2. Cupula - moves in response to
collecting debris and protecting the rotational movements, causing
ear canal. stereocilia to bend.
2. Middle Ear 3. Endolymph - surrounds the hair
- transmits sound waves from the cells and cupula, and moves in
eardrum to the inner ear response to rotational movements.
TWO STRUCTURES: 4. Bending of stereocilia - allows
 Ossicles us to detect rotational movements
- consists of these small bones the and maintain balance and equilibrium.
(malleus, incus, and stapes).
- the ossicles amplify sound waves CHEMICAL SENSES - also known as
and transmit them to the inner "chemosenses," responsible for
ear. detecting chemical molecules in the
 Pharyngotympanic tube air we breathe and the food we eat.
(Eustachian tube)
- is a narrow tube that connects 3. SMELL (OLFACTION)
the middle ear to the back of the - The primary purpose of the
throat (pharynx). nose is to filter, warm, and
humidify the air we breathe,
3. Inner Ear ( BONY LABYRINTH) but it also contains small
- Complex structure responsible for ridges, an olfactory cleft, and
two primary functions: hearing and an olfactory epithelium, which
balance. are specialized for detecting
- Converts sound vibrations into odorants.
electrical signals that are transmitted - Olfaction is the process of
to the brain. detecting and discriminate the
 odor molecules in the air and environments and situations.
interpreting them as specific It is a complex process that
smells. involves the coordination of
- Smell plays a crucial role in our multiple senses and systems in
daily lives, influencing our our body.
appetite, mood, and memory.
 SMELL ( OLFACTION) PARTS The Vestibular System
- located in the inner ear,
A. Olfactory epithelium - a special plays a crucial role in
layer of cells inside the nose that maintaining equilibrium.
helps us smell.
B. Olfactory receptor cells - cells in FUNCTIONS:
the nose that detect odor molecules  Sends signals to the brain,
and send signals to the brain. which interprets these signals
C. Olfactory bulb - the part of the to determine the direction and
brain that processes smell speed of our movement.
information.  Makes the necessary
adjustments to help us
maintain our balance and
4. TASTE (GUSTATION)
posture.
- The tongue plays a crucial role in the
sense of taste. It contains small 1. OTOLITH ORGANS
bumps called papillae, which are  Utricle - small, sac-like
small, peglike projections that house detects horizontal motion,
taste buds. such as when we walk or
- Gustation is the process of run. It is located in the
posterior part of the
detecting chemical molecule in foods
vestibule.
and drinks and interpreting them.  Saccule - another small,
- When we eat or drink, the molecules sac-like structure that
of the substance come into contact detects vertical motion,
with the taste receptors on the such as when we jump or
tongue, allowing us to perceive the fall. It is located in the
different flavors. anterior part of the
vestibule.
 TASTE ( GUSTATION) PARTS 2. SEMICIRCULAR CANALS
 Anterior Semicircular
A. Taste buds - small bumps on the Canal -detects rotational
tongue that contain cells that detect movements, such as when
taste molecules. Found on the sides we turn our head side to
of large round vallate papillary. side.
B. Taste receptor cells - Cells in the  Posterior Semicircular
taste buds that detect sweet, sour, Canal - detects movements,
salty, bitter, and umami tastes and such as when we turn our
send signals to the brain. head from back to front.
C. Taste cortex - The part of the  Lateral Semicircular
brain that processes taste Canal - this canal detects
information. rotational movements, such
D. Gustatory cells - Are receptor as when we turn our head
cells that responds to chemicals from left to right. .
dissolved in the saliva.
 PROBLEMS OF AGING
ASSOCIATED WITH VISION
5. EQUILIBRIUM
- Also known as balance, is the  Presbyiopia - lens of the eye
ability to maintain our posture loses its flexibility, making it
and stability in various
 harder to focus on close  PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
objects. EQUILIBRIUM
 Glaucoma - group of eye
conditions that damage the  Benign Paroxysmal
optic nerve, leading to vision Positional Vertigo (BPPV) - a
loss and even blindness if left condition that causes brief,
untreated. intense episodes of vertigo
 Cataracts - cloudy areas in the triggered by specific head
lens of the eye that affect movements.
vision.  Labyrinthitis - an inner ear
infection that can cause
 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH vertigo, nausea, and balance
HEARING problems.
 Vestibular Migraine - a type
 Deafness - "hearing loss of of migraine that can cause
any degree". Slight loss to a vertigo, dizziness, and balance
total inability to hear a sound. problems.
 Sensorineural Deafness -
Damage to the receptor cells
in the spiral organ of Corti. THE NERVOUS
 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH
SYSTEM AND
SMELL NERVE
 Anosmias - complete loss of TISSUES
smell, most are results from - is a complex collection of nerves and
head injuries. specialized cells known as neurons
 Hyposmia -reduced sense of that transmit signals between
smell, which can be caused by different parts of the body.
conditions like the common - Structurally, the nervous system has
cold, allergies, or hormonal two components: the central nervous
changes. system and the peripheral nervous
 Phantosmia - smelling system.
something that is not there, - Functionally, the nervous system has
which can be caused by a head two main subdivisions: the somatic
injury, sinus infection, or (voluntary) component; and the
certain medications. autonomic (involuntary) component.

 PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH  THE THREE MAJOR FUNCTION

TASTE OF NERVOUS SYSTEM

 Ageusia - the inability to taste 1. SENSATION

anything, which can be caused - receiving information about the
by a head injury, certain environment to gain input about what
medications, or radiation is happening outside the body (or,
therapy for head or neck sometimes, within the body).
cancer. - The senses we think of most are the
 Hypogeusia - a reduced ability “big five”: taste, smell, touch, sight,
to taste. which can be caused and hearing.
by a cold, sinus infection, or 2. RESPONSE
certain medications. - The nervous system produces a
 Dysgeusi - a distorted sense of response on the basis of the stimuli
taste, which can be caused by perceived by sensory
certain medications, diabetes, structures.
or hormonal changes. - Voluntary or conscious (contraction
of skeletal muscle)
- Involuntary (contraction of smooth axon and one the dendrite
muscles, regulation of cardiac muscle, - found mainly in the olfactory
activation of glands). epithelium (where smell stimuli are
3. INTEGRATION sensed), and as part of the retina.
- Stimuli that are received by sensory 3. MULTIPOLAR NEURONS
structures are communicated to the - Have more than two processes, the
nervous system where that axon and two or more dendrites
information is processed. (usually many more).
4. PSEDOUNIPOLAR NEURONS
WHAT IS NERVE? - (pseudo – false, uni – one) is a kind
- nerves are cylindrical bundles of of sensory neuron in the peripheral
fibers that start at the brain and nervous system.
central cord and branch out to every - contains an axon that has split into
other part of the body. two branches; one branch runs to the
WHAT IS NERVE TISSUE? periphery and the other to
- it is responsible for coordinating and the spinal cord.
controlling many body activities that
is found in the brain, spinal cord and
nerves. SYNAPSES
- is a small gap at the end of a neuron
WHAT IS NERVE CELL or NEURON? that allows a signal to pass from one
- neuron or nerve cells function is to neuron to the next.
transmit electrical messages and - are found where nerve cells connect
signals throughout the body. with other nerve cells.
- are key to the brain's function,
 TYPES OF NEURONS especially when it comes to memory.
1. SENSORY NEURONS
- Are nerve cells within the nervous ACTION POTENTIAL
system - occurs when a neuron sends
- responsible for converting external information down an
stimuli from the organism's axon, away from the cell body.
environment into internal electrical - Neuroscientists use other words,
impulses. such as a "spike" or an "impulse" for
2. MOTOR NEURONS the action potential.
- Motor neurons are neurons located
in the central nervous system  PARTS OF THE NERVOUS
- they project their axons outside of SYSTEM
the CNS to directly or indirectly
control muscles. 1. CENTRAL NERVOUS
3. INTERNEURON
- Create neural circuits, enabling
SYSTEM (CNS)
- controls most functions of the body
communication between sensory or
and mind.
motor neurons and the central
- is the part of the nervous system
nervous system (CNS).
consisting of the brain and spinal
cord.
 NEURON CLASSIFICATION BY
SHAPE
THE BRAIN
1. UNIPOLAR NEURONS
- is the center of our thoughts, the
- Have one process that includes both
interpreter of our
the axon and dendrite.
external environment, and the origin
- only found in invertebrate animals,
of control
so the unipolar cells in humans are
over body movement.
more appropriately called “pseudo-
unipolar” cells.
3 major parts of the brain:
2. BIPOLAR NEURONS
* CEREBRUM
- have two processes, which extend
from each end of the cell body,
opposite to each other. One is the
- is the largest part of the brain. It is - Serves important functions in motor
composed of right and left movement, particularly movements of
hemispheres and performs higher the eye, and in auditory and visual
functions like interpreting touch, processing.
vision and hearing, as well as speech, 2. MEDULLA
reasoning, emotions, movement. - medulla oblongata helps regulate
breathing, heart and blood vessel
Four Lobes: function, digestion, sneezing, and
1. Temporal lobe swallowing.
- is located behind your ears and - This part of the brain is a center for
extends to both sides of the brain respiration and circulation.
- is involved in vision, memory, 3. PONS
sensory input, language, emotion, and - serves as a message station
comprehension between several areas of the brain.
2. Parietal lobe - It helps relay messages from the
- located above the occipital lobe of cortex and the cerebellum
the brain and behind the frontal lobe.
- is known to interpret sensory Brain have 2 hemispheres:
information, such as letting you know 1. Left hemispheres
the location of parts of your body - is responsible for controlling the
and aiding in physical navigation. right side of the body. It also performs
3. Frontal lobe tasks that have to do with logic, such
- part of the brain that controls as in science and mathematics.
important cognitive skills in humans, 2. Right hemispheres
such as emotional expression, - coordinates the left side of the body,
problem solving, memory, language, and performs
judgment, and sexual behaviors. tasks that have do with creativity and
4. Occipital lobe the arts.
- Is important to being able to
correctly understand what your eyes THE SPINAL CHORD
are seeing. - The spinal cord is a continuation of
-These lobes have to be very fast to the brainstem.
process the rapid information that our - The spinal cord is part of the CNS. It
eyes are sending. is situated inside the vertebral canal
of the vertebral column.
*CEREBELLUM - It connects a large part of the
- The little brain peripheral nervous system to the
- It receives information from the brain.
sensory systems, the spinal cord, and - Information (nerve impulses)
other parts of the brain and reaching the spinal cord through
then regulates motor movements. sensory neurons are transmitted up
- coordinates voluntary movements into the brain.
such as posture, balance,
coordination, and speech, resulting in SPINAL CORD DIVISION
smooth and balanced muscular 1. CERVICAL DIVISION
activity. - Being the anterior most segments of
the spinal cord that run across seven
*BRAIN STEM cervical vertebrae, it is located along
- controls the flow of messages the neck region.
between the brain and the rest of the - The upper portion forms as many as
body eight pairs of cervical nerves.
- Controls basic body functions such 2. THORACIC DIVISION
as breathing, swallowing, heart rate, - Running along the series of twelve T
blood pressure, consciousness, and vertebrae in the thoracic region, they
whether one is awake or sleepy. constitute 12 pairs of thoracic nerves
each of which leaving the vertebral
Three Major of Brain Stem: column below the associated
1. MIDBRAIN vertebral division.
3. LUMBAR DIVISION soma.
- It is one of the parts of spinal cord - Axons are in effect the primary
that is protected by five lumbar transmission lines of the nervous
vertebrae. system, and as bundles they help
- it gives rise to five pairs of nervous make up nerves.
extensions each of which emerges 4. AXON TERMINAL
below the associated vertebra. - Are that part of a nerve cell that
4. SACRAL DIVISION make synaptic connections with
- The same is the case with this another nerve cell or with an
region, i.e. five sacral nerve pairs effector cell (e.g. muscle cell or gland
leave your backbone just beneath cell).
each bony segment and are named as - Axon terminals contain various
S1, S2, S3, S4 and S5. neurotransmitters and release them
5. COCCYGEAL DIVISION at the synapse
- The lower most portion of the neural
tube that gives rise to one pair of GLIAL CELL
coccygeal nerves and leaves the - surround neurons and provide
vertebrae through sacral hiatus. support for and insulation between
them.
2. PERIPHERAL NERVOUS - Glial cells are the most abundant cell
types in the central nervous system.
SYSTEM - Types of glial cells include
- (The PNS) consists of the nerves and
oligodendrocytes, astrocytes,
ganglia outside the brain and spinal
ependymal cells, schwann cells,
cord.
microglia, and satellite cells
- (PNS) is the division of the nervous
system containing all the nerves that
THE EMBRYOLOGIC PERSPECTIVE
lie outside of the central nervous
- Primary and Secondary Vesicle
system (CNS).
Stages of Development. The
- The primary role of the PNS is to
embryonic brain develops
connect the CNS to the organs, limbs,
complexity through enlargements of
and skin.
the neural tube called vesicles;
(a) The primary vesicle stage has
NERVE
three regions, and
- nerves are cylindrical bundles of
(b) the secondary vesicle stage
fibers that start at the brain and
has five regions.
central cord and branch out to every
other parts of the body.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Regulates a variety of body
PARTS OF NERVE CELL(NEURONS)
processes that takesplace without
1. DENDRITES
conscious effort
- Are the structures on the neuron
- Example include heart rate,
that receive electrical messages.
digestion, adrenalin rush, salivation
- These messages come in two basic
forms: excitatory and inhibitory action
2. CELL BODY (SOMA)
THE THREE STRUCTURES OF
- is the spherical part of the neuron
AUTONOMIC
that contains the nucleus.
1. SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
- The cell body connects to the
SYSTEM
dendrites, which bring information to
- Regulates the flight-or-flight
the neuron, and the axon,
responses tasks as relaxing the
which sends information to other
bladder, speeding up heart rate and
neurons.
dilating eye pupils.
3. AXON
2. PARASYMPATHETIC NERVOUS
- or nerve fiber, is a long slender
SYSTEM
projection of a nerve cell, or neuron,
- Helps maintain normal resources.
that conducts electrical impulses
- This division also performs such
away from the neuron's cell body or
taste as controlling the bladder,
flowing down the heart rate, and of some brain disorders and forms a
constricting eye pupil. basis for therapeutic interventions
3. ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
- Is also made of a third components ENDOCRINE
known as the enteric nervous, which
is confined to the gastrointestinal
SYSTEM
tract. - a network of glands that produce
- Also called as the second brain. and release hormones.
- these hormones act as chemical
SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM messengers, regulating various bodily
- Is the part of the peripheral nervous functions Endocrine system is made
system associated with the voluntary up of glands and the hormones they
control of body movement via skeletal secrete.
muscles.
- It is also responsible for the HORMONES
movement of voluntary muscles and - are chemical messengers,
the process known as a reflex arc. transferring information and
- This system carries nerve impulses instructions from one set of cells
back and forth between the CNS to another. may be classified into 3
which is the brain, and the spinal groups.
cord, and the skeletal muscles, skin
and sensory organs. • Amines - These simple hormones
are structural variations of the amino
acid’s tyrosine. This group includes
thyroxine from the thyroid gland and
ROLE OF NUTRITION epinephrine and norepinephrine fro
- The brain plays an important part in the adrenal medulla.
the regulation of nutrition in the rest • Proteins - These hormones are
of the body, and neurologic disorders chains of amino acids. Insulin from the
can result in malnutrition as well. pancreas, growth hormone from the
- The human brain consumes an anterior pituitary gland, and calcitonin
enormous amount of energy. Despite from the thyroid gland are all
representing only 2% of the proteins. Short chains of amino acids
body s total mass, the human brain may be called peptides.
consumes 20% of the body total • Steroids - Cholesterol is the
energy because of the precursor for the steroid hormones,
increased metabolic need of its which include cortisol and aldosterone
neurons. from the adrenal cortex, estrogen and
- Nutrition plays an important role in progesterone from the ovaries, and
neurodevelopment in children and in testosterone from the testes.
preventing neurodegeneration during
aging.  MAJOR ENDOCRINE ORGANS
- Some of the earliest non-plant foods - The major endocrine organs of the
eaten included fish, the consistent body include the pituitary, pineal,
consumption of which could have thyroid, parathyroid, thymus and
provided a means of initiating and adrenal glands, pancreas, and
sustaining cerebral cortex growth gonads.
without an attendant increase in body
mass.
PITUITARY GLAND
- Although it is recognized that a
- The pituitary gland, a small organ
dietary supply of macronutrients
located at the base of the brain,
(protein, carbohydrate, and fat) is
hangs from a stalk and is protected by
essential for human health, a basic
bone. - It has two distinct parts: the
knowledge of micronutrients,
anterior lobe, which is glandular and
vitamins, and trace minerals is
produces hormones that travel
important for understanding the
through a portal system, and
pathophysiology
the posterior lobe, which is neural called pitocin. It also stimulates the
and stores hormones that are mammary glands to release milk.
released upon nervous stimulation.
PINEAL GLAND
The endocrine system work together - the pineal gland is a small, cone-
to help maintain homeostasis balance. shaped gland and only about 1 cm in
The hypothalamus is a collection of diameter that hangs from the roof of
specialized cells located in the brain, the third ventricle of the brain.
and is the primary link between two - located in the third ventricle of the
systems. brain, releases melatonin, which
affects biological rhythms and
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND reproductive behavior.
- Anterior pituitary gland essential for
the growth and development of  SECRETIONS FROM THE
bones, muscles, and other organs. It PINEAL GLAND
also enhances protein synthesis,
decreases the use of glucose, and Melatonin - communicates
promotes fat information about environmental
destruction. lighting to various parts of the body.
- has some effect on sleep/awake
 SECRETION FROM THE cycles and other biological events
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND connected to them, such as a lower
production of gastric secretions at
Growth hormone (Gonodotropic night.
H)
- Stimulates the growth ovarian Serotonin - a neurotransmitter that
follicles in the female and the regulates intestinal movements and
production of sperm in the male. affects appetite, mood, sleep, anger,
- The yellow corpus luteum remains and metabolism.
after ovulation; it produces estrogen
and progesterone. THYROID GLAND
- located at the base of the throat,
Prolactin (PRL) just the inferior to the Adam’s apple,
- stimulates the development and where it is easily palpated during a
growth of the mammary glands and physical examination. It is a fairly
milk production during pregnancy. large gland consisting of two lobes
The sucking motion of the baby joined by a central mass, or isthmus.
stimulates prolactin secretion. - The thyroid gland makes two
hormones, one called thyroid
Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone hormone, the other called
(MSH) - regulates skin pigmentation calcitonin.
and promotes the deposit of melanine
in the skin after exposure to sunlight.  SECRETIONS FROM THE
THYROID GLAND

 SECRETION FROM THE The thyroid gland plays a vital role in

POSTERIOR LOBE metabolism and regulates the body’s
metabolic processes.
Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
- stimulates the reabsorption of water Calcitonin - influences bone and
by the renal tubules. Hyposecretion of calcium metabolism; maintains a
this hormone can result in diabetes homeostasis of calcium in the blood
insipidus. plasma.

Oxytocin - timulates the uterus to  SECRETION OF THE THYROID

contract during labor, delivery, and GLAND
parturition. A synthetic version of this
hormone, used to inducelabor, is
Thyroxine (T4) and
Trioodothyronine (T3) - essential to Cortisol - regulates carbohydrate,
BMR – basal metabolic rate (the rate protein, and fat metabolism; has an
at which a person’s body burns anti-inflammatory effect; helps the
calories while at rest); influences body cope during times of stress.
physical/mental development and
growth Hyposecretion of T3 and T4 = Corticosterone - like cortisol, it is a
cretinism, myxedema, Hashimoto’s steroid; influences potassium and
disease, Hypersecretion of T3 and T4 sodium metabolism.
= Grave’s disease, goiter, Basedow’s
disease. The two pairs of parathyroid Aldosterone - essential in regulating
glands are located on the dorsal or electrolyte and water balance by
back side of the thyroid gland. They promoting sodium and chloride
secrete Parathyroid (PTH) which plays retention and potassium excretion.
a role in the metabolism of
phosphorus. Too little results in Androgens - several hormones
cramping; too many results in including testosterone; they promote
osteoporosis or kidney stones. the development of secondary sex
characteristics in the male.
PARATHYROID GLAND
- The parathyroid glands are tiny  SECRETION FROM THE
masses of glandular tissue most often ADRENAL MEDULLA
found on the posterior surface of the
thyroid gland. Dopamine - used to treat shock. It
- Typically, there are two parathyroid dilates the arteries, elevates systolic
glands on each thyroid lobe, that is, a blood pressure, increases cardiac
total of four parathyroids; but as output, and increases urinary output.
many as eight have been reported,
and some may be in other regions of Epinephrine - is also called
the neck or even in the thorax. adrenalin. It elevates systolic blood
pressure, increases heart rate and
THYMUS GLAND cardiac output, speeds up the release
of glucose from the liver… giving a
 SECRETION OF THE THYMUS spurt of energy, dilates the bronchial
tubes and relaxes airways, and dilates
The thymus gland has two lobes and the pupils to see more clearly. It is
is part of the lymphatic system. It is a often used to counteract an allergic
ductless gland and secretes thymosin. reaction.
This is necessary for the Thymus
normal production for the immune Norepinephrine - like epinephrine, is
system. released when the body is under
stress. It creates the underlying
ADRENAL GLAND influence in the fight or flight
- The triangular-shaped adrenal response. As a drug, however, it
glands are located on the top of each triggers a drop-in heart rate.
kidney. The inside is called the Pancreas Islets - the pancreas,
medulla, and the outside layer is close to the stomach in the abdominal
called the cortex. cavity, is mixed gland. The pancreatic
islets, also called the Islets of
Hormones of Adrenal Gland Langerhans, are little masses of
- The adrenal cortex produces three endocrine tissue of the pancreas.
major groups steroid hormones, which
are collectively called The Islets of Langerhans - are
corticosteroids. small clusters of cells located in the
pancreas.
 SECRETION FROM THE
ADRENAL CORTEX  SECRETIONS FROM THE ISLETS
OF LANGERHANS
Alpha cells facilitate the breakdown THE ROLE OF NUTRITION
of glycogen to glucose. This elevates - Nutrients play a major role in
the blood sugar. Delta cells suppress providing nutrition to each organ and
the release of glucagon and insulin. gland to efficiently fulfill their funtion.
Beta cells secrete the hormone Without nutritional balance, our body
insulin, which is essential for the us inefficient to manufacture energy
maintenance of normal blood sugar needed for metabolism Here's how
levels. Inadequate levels result in nutrition impacts various aspects of
diabetes mellitus. endocrine function.

 SECRETION OF THE TESTES Macronutrients: Providing the

The testes produce the male sex building blocks proteins fats
hormone called testosterone. It is carbohydrates.
essential for normal growth and
development of the male sex organs. Micronutrients: Supporting hormone
Testosterone is responsible for the synthesis and activity selenium
erection of the penis. chromium Vitamin D.

 SECRETION OF THE PLACENTA The functions of the endocrine system

During pregnancy, the placenta are intricately connected to the
serves as an endocrine gland. It body’s nutrition. This organ system is
produces chorionic gonadotropin responsible for regulating appetite,
hormone, estrogen, and nutrient absorption, nutrient storage,
progesterone. and nutrient usage, in addition to
other function, such as reproduction.
 SECRETION OF
GASTROINESTINAL MUCOSA Foods rich in Vitamins B5 and B6
The mucosa of the pyloric area of will help you to regulate the pineal
the stomach secretes the hormone gland, while aiding in the production
gastrin, which stimulates the and the distribution of melatonin, the
production of gastric acid for hormone that regulates the all-
digestion. important circadian rhythms. These
The mucosa of the duodenum and foods include lentil beans, avocados,
jejunum secretes the hormone sweet potatos, tuna and turkey.
secretin, which stimulates pancreatic
juice, bile, and intestinal secretion.
CARDIOVASCULAR
 SECRETION OF THE THYMUS
GLAND
SYSTEM
- Cardio - heart
Has two lobes, and is part of the
Vascular - vessels or tubes
lymphatic system, it is a ductless - the system that circulates blood and
gland and secretes thymosin. This is lymph through the body, consists of the
necessary for the Thymus normal heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph,
production of T cells for the immune and the lymphatic vessels and glands.
system. - Delivers oxygen and nutrients to the
body tissues and carries away wastes
AGING OF THE ENDOCRINE such as carbon dioxide via blood.
- As the body changes occur that - also called the Circulatory System.
affect the endocrine system,
SIZE, FORM, AND LOCATION
sometimes altering the production,
- The heart is located in the thoracic
secretion, and catabolism of cavity between the lungs. The heart,
hormones. Understanding these trachea, esophagus, and associated
changes and their impact on various structures form a midline partition called
organ systems is crucial for the mediastinum.
developing effective strategies to - The adult heart has the shape of a blunt
promote healthy aging and prevent cone and is slightly larger than a closed
age-related diseases. fist.
Apex- the blunt, rounded point of the 5. Coronary Arteries – supply blood to
cone. the wall of the heart.
Base – the larger, flat portion at the 6. Cardiac Veins – carry blood from the
opposite end of the cone. wall of the heart back to the right atrium.

 3 GENERAL COMPONENTS OF  HEART CHAMBERS AND INTERNAL

CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM ANATOMY
1. Heart 2. Blood 3. Blood - The right and left atria
Vessels - The atria of the heart receive blood from
the veins.
HEART - It works as a pump to move Right Atrium – has two major openings,
the blood around the body. where large veins enter from various
- It has four chambers— the left and parts of the body: superior vena cava and
right atrium (upper chambers) and inferior vena cava.
left and right ventricles (lower Left Atrium – has four openings to
chambers). receive the four pulmonary veins from the
lungs.
 THE ANATOMY OF THE HEART Interatrial Septum – a cardiac muscle
- The heart is surrounded by a space that separates the two atria.
called the pericardial cavity.
- The pericardial cavity is formed by the Right and Left Ventricle
pericardium or pericardial sac. - The ventricles of the heart are its major
- The pericardium consists of fibrous pumping chambers.
pericardium and an inner layer of a thin - They eject blood into the arteries and
layer of connective tissue serous force it to flow through the circulatory
pericardium. system.
Interventricular Septum - separates
Parietal Pericardium – portion of serous the two ventricles.
pericardium lining the fibrous
pericardium.  HEART VALVES
Visceral Pericardium – portion covering Atrioventricular Valves (AV)
the heart surface. - located between the two atria and the
Pericardial Fluid – produced by the two ventricles.
serous pericardium that helps reduce Tricuspid Valve – the AV between the
friction as the heart moves within the right atrium and the right ventricle and
pericardial sac. has three cusps.
Bicuspid Valve/Mitral Valve – the AV
 EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE between the left atrium and the left
HEART ventricle and has two cusps.

Right and Left Atrium – located at the - These valves allow blood to flow from
base of the heart. the atria into the ventricles but prevent it
Right and Left Ventricles – extend from flowing back into the atria.
from the base of the heart toward the - Each ventricle contains cone-shaped
apex. muscular pillars called papillary
Coronary Sulcus – extends around the muscles. When the ventricles contract,
heart, separating the atria from the the papillary muscles contract and
ventricles. prevent the valves from opening into the
atria.
 SIX LARGE VEINS THAT CARRY
BLOOD TO THE HEART  BLOOD FLOW

1. Superior Vena Cava and Inferior RIGHT

Vena Cava – carry blood from the body 1.Superior Vena Cava/ Inferior Vena Cava
to the right atrium. (SVC/IVC)
2. Four Pulmonary Veins – carry blood 2.Right Atrium (RA)
from the lungs to the left atrium. 3.Tricuspid Valve (TV)
3. Two Pulmonary Trunk and Aorta 4.Right Ventricle (RV)
– exit the heart. Aorta carries blood from 5.Pulmonary Valve (PV)
the left ventricle to the body. 6.Pulmonary Artery (PA)
4. Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries
- carry blood to the lungs. LEFT
1.Pulmonary Veins
2.(PV) left Atrium (LA) 3. Eosinophils - contain cytoplasmic
3.Mitral/Bicuspid Valve (MV) granule that stain bright red with eosin,
4.Left Ventricle (LV) an acidic stain
5.Aortic Valve (AV)
6.Aorta 2 KIND OF AGRANULOCYTES
(a very small granule)
BLOOD 1. Lymphocytes - smallest WBC
- provides important nourishment to all 2.Monocytes - largest WBC
body organs and tissues and carries away
waste materials. Platelets
- also known as thrombocytes; they are
Functions: produced in the red bone marrow from
- transport gases and nutrients, waste megakaryocytes, which are large cells.
products, processed molecules, and - small fragments of megakaryocytes
regulatory molecules. break off and enter the platelets, which
- regulation of pH and osmosis play an important role in preventing blood
maintenance of body temperature loss.
protects against foreign substances
- clot formation This prevention is accomplished in
- Makes 8% of the total body weight. two ways:
- 4-5 liters in female - The formation of platelet plugs, which
- 5-6 liters in male seal holes in small vessels
- 55% of the blood is composed of plasma - The formation of blood clot, which help
Plasma - a yellowish liquid that contains seal off larger wounds in the vessels
RBC, WBC, Platelets, waste products and
other substances.  THREE MAIN STAGES
1. The chemical reaction can be started in
 PRODUCTION OF FORMED two ways:
ELEMENTS a. the contact of inactive clotting factors
Hematopoiesis - the process of blood exposed with tissue can result in their
cell production. activation;
Stem Cells - in which all the formed b. chemicals, such as thromboplastin
elements of blood are derived from.
2. Prothrombinase acts on inactive
Red Blood Cell- also known as clotting factor called prothrombin to
erythrocytes; oxygen rich convert it to its active form called
Hemoglobin - a pigmented and iron thrombin
protein compound which is the main
component of RBC which gives blood red 3. Thrombin converts the inactive clotting
color. factor to fibrinogen into its active form,
- its function is to transport oxygen from fibrin, a threadlike protein
the lungs to the various tissues of the A clot is a network of fibrin that traps
body and to assist in the transport of blood cells, platelets and fluid.
carbon dioxide from the tissues to the
lungs. BLOOD TYPING
1. Transfusion - is the transfer of blood
White Blood Cell - also known as or blood components from one individual
leukocytes; whitish in color because they to another
lack in hemoglobin.
2.Infusion - is the introduction of fluid
other than blood, such as saline or
glucose solution, into the blood
Function: - The surface of red blood cells has
1.To protect the body against invading molecules called antigens and the
microorganisms plasma includes protein called
2.To remove dead cells and debris from antibodies.
the tissues by phagocytes - Antibodies are very specific, meaning
that each antibody can combine only with
3 KINDS OF GRANULOCYTES a certain antigen
(large cytoplasmic granule)
1. Neutrophils - most common WBC Agglutination - formed when antibodies
2. Basophils - least common WBC bind to the antigens on the surface of the
red blood cells, it is the clumping of the diastolic pressure is the standard blood
cells. pressure for a resting young adult male,
O-/O negative - universal donor which is reported as 120/80.
AB+/AB positive - universal recipient - The greater the resistance in a blood
vessel, the more rapidly the pressure
BLOOD VESSELS - a tubular decreases as blood flows through it.
structure carrying blood through the - Resistance to blood flow in veins is low
tissues and organs. because of their larger diameters. The
resistance mostly occurs to the arterioles
FUNCTIONS and capillaries because of their small
- Carry blood diameters.
- Exchange nutrients, waste products and
gases Capillary Exchange
- Transport - There are about ten billion capillaries in
- Regulate blood pressure the body; Nutrients diffuse across the
- Direct blood flow capillary walls into the interstitial spaces,
and waste products diffuse in the opposite
Vasoconstriction – contraction of the direction.
smooth muscle in the blood vessels. - Small amount of fluid is forced out of
Vasodilation – relaxation of the smooth capillaries. Most of that fluid, but not all,
muscle in the blood vessels. reenters the capillaries at their venous
Arterioles – transport blood from small ends.
arteries to capillaries. Blood pressure - forces fluid out of the
capillary.
 3 TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS Osmosis – moves fluid in it.
1. Artery
- has the thickest wall, allowing it to  HOMEOSTATIC REGULATION OF
withstand the high pressure created by THE VASCULAR SYSTEM
the heart. HOMEOSTATIC
- a vessel that carries blood high in - The process of maintaining a stable
oxygen content away from the heart to internal environment.
the farthest reaches of the body (Red). - Only the brain receives a more or less
Aorta is the largest artery of the body. constant supply of blood whether you are
active, resting, thinking, or engaged in
2. Vein any other activity.
- It is less muscular and stretchy than an - Three homeostatic mechanisms ensure
artery; blood moves through it with low adequate blood flow, blood pressure,
pressure. distribution, and ultimately perfusion:
- Carry blood back towards the heart. neural, endocrine, and autoregulatory
Have thinner walls. Have valves that mechanisms.
prevent backflow of blood.
NEURAL REGULATION
3. Capillary - The nervous system plays a critical role
- Are the smallest of blood vessels. They in the regulation of vascular homeostasis.
serve to distribute oxygenated blood from The primary regulatory sites include the
the arteries to the tissues of the body and cardiovascular centers in the brain that
to feed deoxygenated blood from the control both cardiac and vascular
tissues back into the veins. functions.
- It has the thinnest wall to allow
substances such as oxygen and sugars to BARORECEPTOR REFLEXES
pass through its wall—into or out of the - Baroreceptors are specialized stretch
blood. receptors located within thin areas of
Blood Flow - refers to the movement of blood vessels and heart chambers that
blood through a vessel, tissue or organ respond to the degree of stretch caused
and is usually expressed in terms of by the presence of blood.
volume of blood per unit of time. - They send impulses to the
Blood Pressure - The force exerted by cardiovascular center to regulate blood
blood upon the walls of the blood vessels pressure.
or the chambers of the hearts. - Increased blood pressure results in
increased rates of baroreceptor firing,
Resistance whereas decreased blood pressure results
- Slow blood flow. 120 mm Hg for the in slower rates of fire, both initiating the
systolic pressure and 80 mm Hg for the
homeostatic mechanism to restore blood 80% and diabetes by over 90% in both
pressure. men and women.
- Multiple guidelines have been
CHEMORECEPTOR REFLEXES promulgated by various organizations
- Chemoreceptors monitor levels of including the American Heart Association
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and hydrogen (AHA) and the Dietary Guidelines for
ions (pH), and thereby contribute to Americans (DGA 2010 and 2015) for heart
vascular homeostasis. They signal the healthy diets.
cardiovascular center as well as the - These guidelines are generally
respiratory centers in the medulla consistent with each other and
oblongata. recommend a dietary pattern high in
- Located near the baroreceptors in the vegetables, fruits, whole grains, nonfat
aortic and carotid sinuses. diary, seafood, legumes, and nuts. Adults
who consume alcohol should do so in
EPINEPHRINE AND NOREPINEPHRINE moderate amounts. These guidelines
- They increase heart rate and force of have also recommended limiting
contraction, while temporarily constricting processed meat, sugar-sweetened foods,
blood vessels to organs not essential for and beverages and refined grains.
flight-or-fight responses and redirecting
blood flow to the liver, muscles, and
heart. LYMPHATIC
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE SYSTEM
- The primary trigger prompting the - is part of the body’s defense system
hypothalamus to release ADH is against microorganisms and other
increasing osmolality of tissue fluid, harmful substances
usually in response to significant loss of - Includes lymph, lymphocytes,
blood volume. lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
tonsils, the spleen and the thymus
RENIN-ANGIOTENSIN-ALDOSTERONE gland.
MECHANISM
- Increasing angiotensin II will stimulate  FUNCTIONS OF THE LYMPHATIC
the production of antidiuretic hormone SYSTEM
and aldosterone. In addition to renin, the 1. Fluid balance
kidneys produce erythropoietin, which - 3 L of fluid enters the lymphatic
stimulates the production of red blood capillaries where the fluid is called Lymph.
cells, further increasing blood volume. 2. Fat absorption
- absorbs fats and other substances from
CIRCULATORY PATHWAYS the digestive tract.
1.Pulmonary circuit - which circulates 3. Defense
blood through the lungs, is the right - it produces and releases lymphocytes (a
ventricle. type of white blood cell) and other
2.Systemic circuit - The left ventricle is immune cell.
the pump for the systemic circuit, which
provides the blood supply for the tissue Structure of Lymphatic System
cells of the body. • It begin as open-ended capillaries,
which feed into larger lymphatic vessels,
THE ROLE OF NUTRITION and eventually empty into
- Nutrition plays a pivotal role in either the bloodstream by a series of ducts.
reducing the risk of cardiovascular • Lymph travels through the lymph nodes
disease or increasing it. Nutrition needs to which are commonly found near the groin,
be placed in the context of a positive armpits, neck, chest and abdomen.
lifestyle including physical activity, weight •“Humans have about 500-600 lymph
management, not smoking cigarettes, nodes through out the body”
etc.
- In fact, studies have demonstrated that LYMPHATIC CAPILLARIES AND
positive lifestyle decisions such as not VESSELS
smoking, engaging in at least 30 min of • Lymphatic Capillaries - are tiny,
physical activity per day, consuming a closed-ended vessels consisting of simple
diet containing more fish, whole grains, squamous epithelium.
fruits, and vegetables and maintaining a - Also called the terminal lymphatic, are
healthy weight can reduce the risk of vessels where the interstitial fluid enters
coronary heart disease (CHD) by over
the lymphatic system to become lymph - are rounded structures, varying in size
fluid. from that of small seeds to that of shelled
- Lymphatic capillaries are interlaced with almonds.
the arterioles and venules of the - are distributed along the various
cardiovascular system. lymphatic vessels, and most lymph
- Collagen fibers anchor a lymphatic passes through at least one lymph node
capillary in the tissue before entering the blood.
(inset). 
- Interstitial fluid slips through spaces Capsule – a dense connective tissue that
between the overlapping endothelial cells surrounds each lymph nodes.
that compose the lymphatic capillary. Trabeculae – extensions of each capsule.
Lymph Nodules – formed from
Larger Lymphatic Vessels, Trunks, the lymphatic tissues that
and Ducts consists of lymphocytes and other cells.
The lymphatic capillaries empty into Lymphatic Sinuses – spaces between
larger lymphatic vessels, which are lymphatic tissue which contain
similar to veins in terms of their three- macrophages on a network of fibers.
tunic structure and the presence of Germinal Centers – lymph nodules
valves. containing the rapidly dividing
lymphocytes.
LYMPHATIC VESSELS – the lymphatic
capillaries join to form larger lymphatic The major routes into the lymph node are
vessels, which resemble small veins. afferent lymphatic vessels and the cell
Lymphatic trunks - the superficial and and lymph fluid that leave the lymph
deep lymphatic vessels. node via may do so by another set of
Cisterna chyli - a sac-like chamber vessels known as efferent lymphatic
receives lymph from the lower abdomen. vessels.
Lymphatic Tissue - consists of many
lymphocytes and other cells, is found SPLEEN
within lymphatic organs. - is roughly the size of a clenched fist, and
it is located in the left, superior corner of
LYMPHOCYTES originate from red bone the abdominal cavity.
marrow and are carried by the blood to White Pulp is lymphatic tissue
lymphatic organs. surrounding the arteries within
the spleen.
PRIMARY LYMPHOID ORGANS AND Red Pulp - consists of a fibrous
LYMPHOCYTE DEVELOPMENT network, filled with macrophages and
red blood cells, and enlarged capillaries
Primary lymphoid organs: the bone that connect up to the veins.
marrow and thymus gland. - Thespleen also functions as a blood
• Bone marrow - is a loose collection of reservoir, holding small volume of blood.
cells where hematopoiesis occurs, and the
yellow bone marrow is a site of energy THYMUS GLAND
storage which consists largely of fat cells. - is a bilobed gland roughly triangular in
• Thymus gland - is a boiled organ found shape. It is located in the superior
in the space between the sternum and mediastinum, the partition dividing the
the aorta of the heart. thoracic cavity into left and right parts. It
is
TONSILS also the site for the production and
Three group of Tonsils: maturation of lymphocytes.
1. Palatine tonsils – usually are referred
to as “tonsils”, and are located on each Immune System
side of the posterior opening of the oral Immunity is the ability to resist damage
cavity. from foreign substances, such as
2. Pharyngeal Tonsil or Adenoid – is microorganisms, and harmful chemicals
located near the internal opening of the such as toxins released by the
nasal cavity. microorganisms.
3. Lingual Tonsil – is on the posterior
surface of the tongue.  TWO DIVISION OF IMMUNE
SYSTEM
LYMPH NODES • Cell-Mediated Immune System
- the efforts of the WBCs known as
phagocytes and Tcells
• Antibody-Mediated Immune System your respiratory system and become
- the other half of the immune system - stuck
controlled by antibodies. This represents -Hair-like structures called cilia sweep this
the third line of defense in the immune mucus into the throat for coughing or
system. swallowing.
• Saliva
Two types of Immunity: - Saliva contains many chemicals that
• Active Immunity break down bacteria. Thousands of
- Your body has been exposed to the different types of bacteria can survive
antigen in the past either through: these chemicals.
-Exposure to the actual disease causing • Stomach Acid
antigen – You fought it, you won, you - Swallowed bacteria are broken down by
remember it incredibly
-Planned exposure to a form of the strong acids in the stomach that break
antigen that has been killed or weakened down your food.
– You detected it, eliminated it,
and remember it. 2. Chemical Mediators – are molecules
• Passive Immunity responsible for many aspects of innate
- You don’t produce the antibodies. A immunity.
mother will pass immunities on to her Examples:
baby • Lysozyme in tears and saliva kills
during pregnancy - through the placenta certain
- These antibodies will protect the baby bacteria.
for a short period of time following birth • Histamine, Complement,
while its immune system develops. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes-stimulates
phagocytosis.
CATEGORIES OF IMMUNITY • Interferons – protect cells against viral
1. Innate Immunity – the body infections.
recognizes and destroys foreign
substances, but the response to them is 3. Cells
same each time the body is exposed to
them. THE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE
2. Adaptive Immunity – the body • White Blood Cells
recognizes and destroys foreign - Are the most important cellular
substances, but the response to them components of immunity. They are
improves each time the foreign produced in the bone marrow and
substances is lymphatic tissue and then released into
encountered. the blood.
- If invaders actually get within the body,
INNATE IMMUNITY then your white blood cells (WBCs) begin
Innate Immunity is accomplished by: their attack
Mechanical Mechanisms, Cells, Chemical - WBCs normally circulate throughout the
Mediators, Inflammatory Response blood, but will enter the body’s tissues if
invaders are detected.
1. Mechanical Mechanisms - prevents
the entry of microorganisms and Chemotaxis – the movement of white
chemicals into the body in: blood cells toward the important
a. The skin and mucous membranes form chemicals such as the complement,
barriers leukotrienes, kinins, and histamine.
that prevent their entry. - Chemical released from microorganisms
b. Tears, saliva, and urine act to wash or damaged tissues attract the white
them from blood cells, and they leave the blood and
the surfaces of the body. enter affected tissues.
- These white blood cells are responsible
THE FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE for eating foreign particles by engulfing
• Skin them.
- The dead, outer layer of skin, known as - Once engulfed, the phagocyte breaks
the epidermis, forms a shield against the foreign particles apart in organelles
invaders and secretes chemicals that kill called Lysosomes.
potential invaders.
• Mucus and Cilia Phagocytosis – is the ingestion and
- As you breathe in, foreign particles and destruction of particles by cells called
bacteria bump into mucus throughout phagocytes.
Neutrophils – are small phagocytic cells binding sites, that is, they are specific for
that are usually the first cells to enter certain antigens.
infected tissues from the blood in large
numbers. 4.Inflammatory Response
Pus – is an accumulation of fluid, dead - Injured body cells release chemicals
neutrophils, at a site of infection. called histamines, which begin
Macrophages - are monocytes that inflammatory response
leave the blood, enter tissues, and - Capillaries dilate
enlarge about fivefold. - Pyrogens released, reach hypothalamus,
- Macrophages are also found in and temperature rises
uninfected tissues. If microorganisms - Pain receptors activate
enter uninfected tissues, the - WBCs flock to infected area like sharks
macrophages may phagocytize the to blood.
microorganisms before they can
replicate or cause damage. ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
Basophils – derived from the red bone Antigens – substances that stimulate
marrow, are motile white blood cells that adaptive immune responses. Two groups
can leave the blood and enter infected are:
tissues. 1. Foreign Antigens – are produced
Mast Cells – located at potential points outside of the body (bacteria and viruses).
of entry for microorganisms into the body 2. Self Antigens - are produced by the
such as skin, lungs, GIT, and urogenital person’s body that stimulate an immune
tract. system response.
Eosinophils – are produced in red bone
marrow, enter the blood and within a few Adaptive immune system response to
minutes enter tissues. antigens was historically divided
- Enzymes released by the eosinophils into:
breakdown chemicals released by 1. Humoral Immunity - when plasma
basophils and mast cells. from an immune animal was injected into
Plasma Cells - is a B cell that has the blood of nonimmune animal, the
differentiated in response to antigen, nonimmune animal became immune. This
binding, and has thereby gained the process involves human fluids (humors).
ability to secrete soluble antibodies. 2. Cell-mediated Immunity – the blood
Natural Killer Cells - is a circulating cells alone could be responsible for
blood cell that contains cytotoxic T cells immunity.
of the adaptive immune response. It is
among the body’s first lines of defense ANTIBODIES
against viruses and certain types of - are protein produced in response to
cancer. an antigen. They make up a large portion
2 TYPES OF LYMPHOCYTES: of the proteins
• B cells – give rise to cells that produce in plasma.
proteins called antibodies which are found - They are called gamma globulins
in the plasma. They are responsible for because they are found mostly in the
humoral immunity, which is now called gamma globulin part of plasma.
the antibody- mediated immunity. - Antibodies are also called
• T-Cells – often called “natural killer” immunoglobulins because they are
cells, recognize infected human cells and globulin involved in the immunity.
cancer cells. T-cells will attack these - The five general classes of
infected cells, quickly kill them, and then immunoglobulins
continue are denoted IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD.
to search for more cells to kill.
Cytotoxic T cells - produces the effects • IgG - Activates complement and
of cell-mediated immunity and helper T functions to increase phagocytosis; can
cells can promote or inhibit the activities cross the placenta and provide immune
of both antibody-mediated immunity protection to the fetus and newbom;
and cell-mediated immunity. responsible for Rh reactions such as
hemolytic disease of the newborn.
Major histocompatibility complex • IgM - Activates complement and acts as
(MHC) molecules – are glycoproteins an antigenbinding receptor on the surface
and they have binding sites for of B cells; responsible for transfusion
antigens. reactions in the ABO blood system; often
- Different MHC molecules have different the first antibody produced in response to
an antigen
• IgA - Secreted into saliva, tears, and 5. Protease Inhibitors – are drugs that
onto mucous membranes to provide interfere with viral proteases. Examples
protection on body surfaces; found in are: ritonavir and indinaver.
colostrum and milk to provide immune
protection to the newborn. TRANSPLANTATION
• IgE - Binds to mast cells and basophils • Major Histocompatibility Complex
and stimulates the inflammatory response Genes – the genes that code for the
• IgD - Functions as antigen-binding production of the MHC molecules.
receptors an B cells • Histocompatibility – refers to the
ability of tissues (histo) to get along
ANTIBODIES PRODUCTION (compatibility) when tissues are
• WBCs gobble up invading particles and transplanted from one individual to
break them up another.
• They show the particle pieces to T-cells, • Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA)
who identify the pieces and find specific genes – MHC genes in the humans.
B- cells to help Rejection of a graft is caused by a normal
• B-cells produce antibodies that are immune response to foreign HLAs.
equipped to find that specific piece on a
new particle and attach. Graft Rejection can occur in 2
different directions:
THE IMMUNE RESPONSE AGAINST 1. Host-versus-graft rejection – the
THE recipient’s immune system recognizes
PATHOGENS the donor tissue as foreign and rejects the
- Although the immune system can be transplant.
described in terms of innate, antibody- 2.Graft-versus-host rejection – the
mediated, and cell- mediated immune donor tissue recognizes the recipient's
system, there is really only one immune tissue
system. as foreign, and the transplant rejects the
recipient, causing destruction of the
 DISEASES ASSOCIATED WITH recipient’s tissue and possible death.
DEPRESSED OR OVERACTIVE - To reduce graft rejection, a tissue match
IMMUNE SYSTEM is performed. Only tissue with HLAs
similar to the recipient’s have a chance of
1. Allergy/Hypersensitive Reaction – being accepted.
is a
harmful response to an antigen that does CANCER IMMUNOLOGY
not stimulate an adaptive immune The immune system detects tumor cells
response in most people. and destroys them before a tumor can
• Allergen – the antigen. The processes form.
that eliminate the allergen produces • T cells, NK cells, and macrophages are
undesirable effects such as strong involved in the destruction of tumor cells.
inflammatory reactions.
2. Autoimmune Disease – the immune
system incorrectly treats self-antigens as
foreign substances. VACCINE
Examples are: Thrombocytopenia, lupus Antigens are deliberately introduced into
erythematous, rheumatoid arthritis, the immune
rheumatic fever, diabetes mellitus system to produce immunity
type 1, and myasthenia gravis, • Because the bacteria has been killed or
3. Immunodeficiency – is a failure of weakened, minimal symptoms occur
some part of the immune system to • Have eradicated or severely limited
function properly. It can be congenital several diseases from the face of the
(present at birth) or acquired. Earth, such as polio and smallpox.
Examples: Congenital – Severe combined
immunodeficiency (SCID) HOW LONG DOES ACTIVE IMMUNITY
Acquired – AIDS, HIV LAST?
4. Opportunistic Infections – involves • It depends on the antigen.
organisms that normally do not cause • Some disease-causing bacteria multiply
disease but can do so when adaptive into new forms that our body doesn’t
resistance is suppressed. recognize, requiring annual vaccinations,
Examples: pneumonia, tuberculosis, like the flu shot.
syphilis, candidiasis. • Booster shot - reminds the immune
system of the antigen
• Others last for a lifetime, such as
chicken pox. RESPIRATION
Includes the following process:
THE ROLE OF NUTRITION 1. Ventilation/breathing
• Providing a diet high in nutritious foods
2. Exchange of oxygen and carbon
rich in vitamins and minerals supports
optimal function of the immune system by dioxide between the air in the lungs
providing antioxidants to slow damage of and the blood.
cells caused by free radicals (Lobo 2010) 3. Transport of oxygen and carbon
or assisting in T-cell production (Cohen dioxide in the blood.
2017). 4. Exchange of oxygen and carbon
• It is now recognized that the complex, dioxide between the blood and
integrated immune system requires tissues.
several
micronutrients that have essential, often The respiratory system consists of the
synergistic roles at every phase of the
nose, the nasal cavity, pharynx,
immune response (Gombart et al, 2020).
In fact, even marginal deficiencies in
larynx, trachea, bronchi, and
certain lungs.
nutrients have been shown to impair the
immune system (Gombart et al, 2020). Upper Respiratory Tract - refers to
• Micronutrients are believed to work the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx.
collectively to support an optimum Lower Respiratory Tract - larynx,
immune system. Based on a variety of trachea, bronchi, and lungs.
systematic and clinical data, vitamins A,
B6, B12, C, D, E, folate, zinc, iron, copper, NOSE - refers to the visible structure
and selenium (read our Vitamin and
forms a prominent feature of the face.
Mineral: a brief guide) are particularly
important to boosting immune response
NASAL CAVITY - extends from the
nares to the choane.
RESPIRATORY Nares (nostrils) are the external
openings of the nose.
SYSTEM Choane are the openings in into the
- are the organs in animals that pharynx.
exchange gases with the Nasal Septum - partition dividing the
environment. nasal cavity into right and left sides.
Hard Palate - forms the floor of the
Respiration is used several different nasal cavity, separating the nasal
ways: cavity from the oral cavity.
• Cellular respiration is the aerobic Conchae - three prominent bony
breakdown of glucose in the ridges that are present on the lateral
mitochondria to make ATP. walls on each side of the nasal cavity.
Paranasal Sinuses - are air-filled
“Respiration” is an everyday term spaces within bone.
that is often used to mean Nasolacrimal Ducts - carry tears
“breathing.” from the eyes, also open into the
nasal cavity.
PARTS OF THE RESPIRATORY
SYSTEM INCLUDE: PHARYNX - Is the common
• Trachea passageway of both the respiratory
• Bronci and digestive systems.
• Bronchioles Nasopharynx - is the superior part.
• Alveoli Soft palate - forms the floor of the
nasopharynx.
FUNCTIONS Pharyngeal tonsil - the posterior
• Gas exchange part of the nasopharynx which aids in
• Regulation of blood pH defending the body against infection.
• Voice production Oropharynx - extends from the uvula
• Olfaction (sensation of smell) to the epiglottis, and the oral cavity
• Innate Immunity opens into the oropharynx.
Palatine Tonsils - located in the subdivides into respiratory
lateral walls near the border of the bronchioles.
oral cavity and the oropharynx. - Each respiratory bronchiole
Lingual Tonsil - located on the subdivides to form alveolar ducts,
surface of the posterior part of the which are like long, branching
tongue. hallways with many open doorways.
Laryngopharynx - passes posterior - The doorways open into alveoli,
to the larynx and extends from the tip which are small sacs.
of the epiglottis to the esophagus.
Respiratory Membrane .- is where
LARYNX - Is located in the anterior gas exchange between the air and
throat, and it connects superiorly to blood takes place.
the pharynx and inferiorly to the Pleural Cavities - each lung is
trachea. surrounded by a separate pleural
Vestibular folds (false vocal cavity. Each pleural cavity is lined
cords) - they prevent air from leaving with a serous membrane called
the lungs, such as when a person pleura. The pleura consists of a
holds his breath. parietal and visceral part.
Vocal folds (true vocal cords) - the • Parietal Pleura - which lines the
primary source of voice production. walls of the thorax, diaphragm, and
mediastinum.
TRACHEA - or windpipe, is a • Visceral Pleura - which covers the
membranous tube that consists of surface of the lungs.
connective tissue and smooth muscle,
reinforced with 16-20 C-shaped  PROCESS OF BREATHING
cartilage.
Ventilation or breathing - process
BRONCHI - The trachea divides into of moving air into and out of lungs.
the left and right main (primary)
bronchi each of which connects to a 2 phases of Ventilation:
lung. 1. Inspiration/Inhalation -
movement of air into the lungs.
LUNGS - The lungs are the principal 2. Expiration/Exhalation -
organs of respiration. Each lung is movement of air out of the lungs.
cone-shaped, with its base resting on
the diaphragm and its apex extending The flow of air into and out of the
superiorly to a point about 2. Cm lungs is governed by two physical
above the clavicle. principles:
- The right lung has 3 lobes called the 1. Changes in volume result in
superior, middle, and inferior lobes. changes in pressure: as the volume of
- The left lung has 2 lobes called the a container increases, the pressure
superior and inferior lobes. within the container decreases and
- Each lung is divided into broncho- vice versa.
pulmonary segments separated from 2. Air flows from areas of higher to
one another by connective tissue lower pressure: the greater the
septa. pressure difference, the greater the
- The main bronchi branch many rate of airflow.
times to form the tracheobronchial
tree. AIRFLOW
Lobar bronchi - two in the left ling - The air enters the respiratory system
and three in the right lung, conduct through nares (nostrils) to the
air to each lobe. nasal cavity straightly to the
- The bronchi continue to branch pharynx. Then in passes through the
many times, finally giving rise to larynx down to the trachea where
bronchioles. the air then enters into the primary
- The bronchioles also subdivide bronchi and then to the lobar
numerous times to give rise to (secondary) bronchi then to the
terminal bronchioles, which then tertiary bronchi. The air then flows
through the terminal bronchioles result in a powerful urge to take a
down to the respiratory breath.
bronchioles.
Embryonic Development of the
GAS EXCHANGE Respiratory System
- It is the diffusion of gases between - The development of the respiratory
the alveoli and the blood in the system begins at about week 4 of
pulmonary capillaries. gestation.
. - Week 28: enough alveoli have
Respiratory Membrane - is all of matured that a baby born
the areas in which gas exchange prematurely at this time can usually
between air and blood occurs. breathe on its own.
P0 - partial pressure of oxygen. - WEEK 7-16: Bronchial buds
Pco. - partial pressure of carbon continue to branch as development
dioxide. progresses until all of the segmental
bronchi have been formed. -
TRANSPORT OF GASES Beginning around week 13, the
Oxygen Transport - about 98.5% of lumens of the bronchi begin to
the oxygen combines reversibly with expand in diameter. - By week 16,
the iron-containing heme groups of respiratory bronchioles form. The
hemoglobin. fetus now has all major lung
Oxyhemoglobin - hemoglobin with structures involved in the airway.
oxygen bound to its heme groups. - WEEK 16-24: At about week 19, the
respiratory bronchioles have formed.
The amount of oxygen released In addition, cells lining the respiratory
from the hemoglobin is influenced structures begin to differentiate to
by: form type I and type II pneumocytes.
1. The partial pressure of oxygen is Once type II cells have differentiated,
low. they begin to secrete small amounts
2. The partial pressure of carbon of pulmonary surfactant.
dioxide is high. - Around week 20, fetal breathing
3. The pH is low. movements may begin.
4. The temperature is high. - WEEK 24-TERM: The respiratory
system continues to expand, and the
Carbon Dioxide Transport - after it surfaces that will form the respiratory
enters the blood, carbon dioxide is membrane develop further. At this
transported into three principal wats: point, pulmonary capillaries have
a. About 7% is transported as carbon formed and continue to expand,
dioxide dissolved in plasma. creating a large surface area for gas
b. 23% is transported with proteins. exchange. The major milestone of
c. 70% is transported in the form of respiratory development occurs at
bicarbonate ions. around week 28, when sufficient
alveolar precursors have matured so
MODIFICATIONS IN RESPIRATORY that a baby born prematurely at this
FUNCTIONS time can usually breathe on its own.
1. Nervous Control of Ventilation -
higher brain centers can modify the THE ROLE OF NUTRITION
activity of the respiratory center. Most people are surprised to learn
Example: controlling air movements that the food they eat may affect their
out of the lungs makes speech breathing. Your body uses food as fuel
possible, and emotion can make us for all of its activities. The right mix of
sob or gasp. nutrients in your diet can help you
2. Chemical Control of Ventilation breathe easier. No single food will
- A small increase in carbon dioxide supply all the nutrients you need.a
levels can cause an increase in healthy diet has lots of variety.
ventilation. A large increase, as can The process of changing food to fuel
occur while holding ones breath, can in the body is called metabolism.
Oxygen and food are the raw
materials of the process, and energy to lubricate, liquefy, buffer, and digest the
and carbon dioxide are the finished food.
products. Carbon dioxide is a waste • Mucus – secreted along the entire
product that we exhale. digestive tract; lubricates the food and
the
• Choose complex carbohydrates,
lining of the tract.
such as whole-grain bread and pasta, • Enzymes – secreted by the oral cavity,
fresh fruits and vegetables. stomach, small intestine, and pancreas;
• Eat a good source of protein at least break down large food molecules into
twice a day to help maintain strong smaller molecules.
respiratory muscles. Good choices 6) Digestion - the breakdown of large
include milk, eggs, cheese, meat, fish, organic molecules into their component
poultry, nuts and dried beans or peas. parts.
• Eat 20 to 30 grams of fiber each • Mechanical Digestion – involves the
day, from items such as bread, pasta, mastication and mixing of food.
• Chemical Digestion - accomplished by
nuts, seeds, fruits and vegetables.
digestive enzymes secreted along the
• Choose mono- and poly-unsaturated digestive tract.
fats, which do not contain cholesterol. 7) Absorption – the movement of
These are fats that are often liquid at molecules out of the digestive tract and
room temperature and come from into the blood or into the lymphatic
plant sources, such as canola, system.
safflower and corn oils. 8) Elimination - the process by which
• Limit foods that contain trans fats the waste products of digestion are
and saturated fat. For example, removed from the body.
butter, lard, fat and skin from meat, • Feces – semisolid waste product;
eliminated from the digestive tract by the
hydrogenated vegetable oils,
process of defecation.
shortening, fried foods, cookies,
crackers and pastries.  DIGESTIVE SYSTEM ORGANS
1. Digestive Tract - mouth, esophagus,
stomach, small intestine, large intestine,
DIGESTIVE rectum, and anus.
2. Accessory Organs - salivary glands,
SYSTEM pancreas, liver, and gallbladder.
- breaks down the food we eat into DIGESTIVE TRACT - a tube extending
nutrients needed for metabolic processes, from the mouth to the anus. It is also
such as making ATP, and rids the body of called the alimentary tract, or alimentary
materials that cannot be used, such as canal; “aliment” means “to nourish”.
fiber. - Begins at the mouth and terminates at
- It consists of a digestive tract – a tube the anus. Only through the process of
extending from the mouth to the anus, absorption do the nutrients in food enter
and accessory organs which secrete into and nourish the body’s “inner space.”
fluids.
ACCESSORY ORGANS - Primarily glands
 MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF DIGESTIVE located outside the digestive tract that
SYSTEM secrete fluids into it. It aids in the
1) Ingestion - the intake of solid or liquid breakdown of food. They maintain a
food into the stomach. connection to the gut by way of ducts.
2) Mastication - the process by which
the teeth chew food in the mouth. Digestive Tract Histology
3) Propulsion - the movement of food The digestive tube consists of four major
from one end of the digestive tract to the tunics, or layers:
other. (1) Internal mucosa
• Swallowing (2) Submucosa
• Peristalsis (3) Muscularis
• Mass movements (4) Serosa
4) Mixing – contractions helps the food These four layers are present in all areas
move back and forth within the digestive of the digestive
tract to mix it with digestive secretions tract, from the esophagus to the anus.
and help break it into smaller pieces.
5) Secretion - As food moves through MUCOSA
the digestive tract, secretions are added
- The innermost layer. Blood Supply
- Also referred to as mucous membrane. - The blood vessels serving the digestive
- Consist of three layers: system have two functions:
• Mucuos epithelium 1. They transport the protein and
• Lamina propria carbohydrate nutrients absorbed by
• Muscularis mucosae mucosal cells after food is digested in the
lumen.
SUBMUCOSA 2. Supply the organs of the alimentary
- Lies beneath the mucosa, a thick canal with the nutrients and oxygen
connective tissue layer. needed to drive their cellular processes.
- Contains nerves, blood vessels, 
lymphatic vessels, and small glands. Hepatic portal system – where the
Muscularis layer - thin layer of smooth veins that collect nutrient-rich blood from
muscle is in a constant state of tension, the small intestine (where most
pulling the mucosa of the stomach and absorption occurs) are emptied.
small intestine into undulating folds. Peritoneum - A broad serous
membranous sac made up of squamous
MJUSCULARIS epithelial tissue surrounded by connective
- also called as Muscularis externa; a tissue. It lines the walls and organs of
muscular layer. abdominal cavity; are very smooth and
- made up of a double layer of smooth secrete a serous fluid, which provides a
muscle: the inner circular layer and the lubricating film between the layers of
outer longitudinal layer. membranes.
Myenteric plexus – between the two Mesenteries – many organs within the
muscle abdominal cavity are held in place by
layers. these connective tissue sheets.
Interstitial cells – within the myenteric Composed of two different regions:
plexus. 1. Visceral peritoneum - Covers the
abdominal organs.
SEROSA 2. Parietal peritoneum - Covers the
- Present only in the region of the interior surface of the wall of the
alimentary canal within the abdominal abdominal cavity.
cavity.
- Consists of a layer of visceral Peritoneal Cavity
peritoneum overlying a layer of loose - The space bounded by the visceral and
connective tissue. parietal peritoneal surfaces.
- Instead of serosa, the mouth, pharynx, Peritonitis
and esophagus have a dense sheath of - A potentially life-threatening
collagen fibers called the adventitia. inflammation of the peritoneal
membranes.
Nerve Supply - The inflammation can result from
- As soon as food enters the mouth, it is chemical irritation by substances, such as
detected by receptors that send impulses bile, that have escaped from a damaged
along the sensory neurons of cranial digestive tract or from infection
nerves. originating in the digestive tract, as when
- Intrinsic innervation of much of the the appendix ruptures.
alimentary canal is provided by the
enteric nervous system. (an extensive  Digestive System Process and
network of the submucosal and myenteric Regulation
plexuses within the walls of the digestive - The digestive system uses mechanical
tract). and chemical activities to break food
- These enteric neurons are grouped down into absorbable substances during
into two plexuses: its journey through the digestive system.
1. Myenteric plexus (plexus of  Digestive Processes
Auerbach) – lies in the muscularis layer  Aging and the Digestive System
of the alimentary canal and is responsible  Regulatory Mechanisms
for motility.  Hormonal Controls
2. Submucosal plexus (plexus of
Meissner) – lies in the submucosal layer Digestive Processes
and is responsible for regulating digestive - The processes of digestion include six
secretions and reacting to the presence of activities:
food.
• Ingestion, Propulsion, Mechanical or mucous membrane–lined cavity. Divided
physical digestion, Chemical digestion, into two regions:
Absorption, Defecation 1. Vestibule – space between the lips or
cheeks and the teeth.
Aging and the Digestive System: 2. Oral cavity proper – lies medial to
From Appetite Suppression to the teeth
Constipation
- Begins in the mouth and can affect LIPS, CHEEKS, AND PALATE
virtually every aspect of the digestive - Lips or labia are muscular structures
system. formed mostly by the orbicularis oris
- Taste buds become less sensitive. muscle and connective tissue. The outer
- When you have lost teeth, your gums surfaces of the lips are covered by skin.
are diseased, and your salivary glands  Labial frenula - are mucosal folds
aren’t producing enough saliva. - Cheeks form the lateral walls of the oral
- Neurosensory feedback is also cavity. It consist of an interior lining of
dampened. moist stratified squamous epithelium and
- Pathologies that affect the digestive an exterior covering of skin.
organs can occur at greater frequencies  Buccinator muscle – flattens the
as you age. cheek against the teeth
 Buccal fat pad – rounds out the profile
Regulatory Mechanisms on the side of the face.
 - Neural and endocrine regulatory - Palate is the roof of the oral cavity. It
mechanisms work to maintain the optimal separates the oral and nasal cavities and
conditions in the lumen needed for prevents food from passing into the nasal
digestion and absorption. cavity during chewing and swallowing.
 - The walls of the alimentary canal Consist of two parts:
contain a variety of sensors that help 1. Hard palate – anterior, bony part
regulate digestive functions. 2. Soft palate – posterior, non-bony part
 - Capable of detecting mechanical,
chemical, and osmotic stimuli, TOUNGE - large, muscular organ that
respectively. occupies most of the oral cavity proper
when the mouth is closed. Muscles
Hormonal Controls associated with the tongue:
 - The main digestive hormone of the 1. Intrinsic muscle – within the tongue
stomach is gastrin. itself; responsible for changing the shape
 - Gastrin stimulates the secretion of of the tongue, such as flattening and
gastric acid by the parietal cells of the elevating it during drinking and
stomach mucosa. swallowing.
 - Hormones produced by the duodenum 2. Extrinsic muscle – outside the tongue
include secretin. but attached to it; protrude and retract
 - Secretin stimulates a watery the tongue, move it from side to side, and
secretion of bicarbonate. change its shape.
 - Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates
the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and Structure of the Tongue:
bile from the liver and release of bile from 1. Fungiform papillae – role in the taste
the gallbladder. perception.
- Gastric inhibitory peptide inhibits 2. Filiform papillae - responsible for
gastric secretion and slows gastric giving tongue its texture and the
emptying and motility. sensation of touch.
- These GI hormones are secreted by 3. Lingual frenulum - giving the
specialized epithelial cells, called characteristic of rough texture.
endocrinocytes (enter the bloodstream,
through which they can reach their target TEETH
organs) - Teeth, or dentes (singular = dens) are
organs similar to bones that you use to
 DIGESTIVE SYSTEM: ORGANS tear, grind, and otherwise mechanically
OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL break down food.
- Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, - During the course of your lifetime, you
Small intestine, Large intestine have two sets of teeth.
Dentition – one set of teeth.
MOUTH - Food enters the digestive tract Teeth - 20 deciduous teeth or “baby
through the mouth, or oral cavity, a teeth”, first begin to appear at about 6
months of age. Approximately age 6 and
12, these teeth are replaced by 32 ESOPHAGUS - Part of the digestive tract
permanent teeth; Moving from the center that extends between the pharynx and
of the mouth toward the side. the stomach. It is about 25 cm long and
Types of teeth: lies in the mediastinum, anterior to the
 • 8 Incisors vertebrae and posterior to the trachea;
 • 4 Cuspids/Canines remains in a collapsed form when not
 • 8 Premolars/Bicuspids (posterior to engaged in swallowing.
the cuspids) - An upper esophageal sphincter and a
 • 12 Molars (most posterior and largest) lower esophageal sphincter, at the upper
and lower ends of the esophagus,
SALIVARY GLANDS respectively, regulate the movement of
- Regulated by autonomic nervous materials into and out of the esophagus.
system. - To enter the abdomen, the esophagus
- Increase in response to a variety of penetrates the diaphragm through an
stimuli, such as tactile stimulation and opening called the esophageal hiatus.
certain tastes.
- Consist of three pairs of large,  DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
multicellular salivary glands: SWALLOWING PHASE
1. Parotid Glands - Largest salivary - Swallowing or deglutition is the
glands. Serous glands, which produce movement of from the mouth to the
mostly watery saliva; they are located just stomach. The entire process takes about
anterior to the ear on each side of the 4 to 8 seconds for solid or semisolid food;
head. 1 second for very soft food and liquids. It
Mumps – a viral infection that can cause is a complex process that involves both
the parotid glands to become inflamed the skeletal muscle of the tongue and the
and swollen, making the cheeks quite muscles of the pharynx and esophagus.
large.
2. Submandibular Glands - are mixed There are three (3) stages in
glands with more serous than mucous deglutition: the voluntary phase, the
acini. Each gland can be felt as a soft pharyngeal phase, and the esophageal
lump along the inferior border of the phase.
posterior half of mandible. 1. Voluntary Phase - a bolus of food is
3. Sublingual Glands - The smallest of formed in the mouth.
the three large, paired salivary glands, 2. Pharyngeal Phase - a reflex initiated
are mixed glands containing some serous by the stimulation of tactile receptors in
acini but consisting primarily of mucous the area of the oropharynx. It forces the
acini. food through the pharynx.
- Lies immediately below the mucous 3. Esophageal Phase - is responsible for
membrane in the floor of the oral cavity. moving food from the pharynx to the
- Each sublingual gland opens into the stomach; takes about 5-8 seconds.
floor of the oral cavity through 10–12
small ducts. STOMACH - The stomach links the
esophagus to the first part of the small
PHARYNX - A fibromuscular passageway intestine (the duodenum). It can be a
that connects the nasal and oral cavities highly active structure, contracting and
to the larynx and esophagus. continually changing position and size. An
- Serves both the respiratory and empty stomach is only about the size of a
digestive systems as channel for air and fist. There are four (4) main regions in
food. When food enters the pharynx, the stomach:
involuntary muscle contractions close off 1. Cardia - the point where esophagus
the air passageways. It has three (3) connects to the stomach and through
subdivisions: which food passes into the stomach.
1. Nasopharynx - The most superior, 2. Fundus - dome-shaped, located
involved only in breathing and speech. inferior to the diaphragm, above and to
2. Oropharynx - Used for both breathing the left of the cardia.
and digestion; The first region food enters 3. Body - Below the fundus, the main
when it is swallowed. part of the stomach.
3. Laryngopharynx - Used for both 4. Pylorus - Funnel-shaped, connects the
breathing and digestion; Opens into both stomach to the duodenum.
the esophagus and the larynx; Formed by
the superior, middle and inferior  HISTOLOGY OF STOMACH
pharyngeal constrictor muscles. A vast number of gastric pits dot the
surface of the epithelium, giving it the
appearance of a well-used pincushion, stimulates parasympathetic neurons to
and mark the entry to each gastric gland. release acetylcholine, which then
Gastric glands secrete a complex provokes increased secretion of gastric
digestive fluid referred to as gastric juice.
juice. These glands are made up of a 3. Intestinal Phase - “slow down”
variety of secretory cells. These include phase. It has both excitatory and
parietal cells, chief cells, mucous neck inhibitory elements. When partially
cells, and enteroendocrine cells. digested food fills the duodenum,
1. Parietal cells - located primarily in intestinal mucosal cells release a
the middle region of the gastric glands. hormone called intestinal (enteric)
Produce both hydrochloric acid (HCl) and gastrin, which further excites gastric juice
intrinsic factor. HCl is responsible for the secretion. One of the effects of this reflex
high acidity (pH 1.5 to 3.5) of the stomach is to close the pyloric sphincter, which
contents and is needed to activate the blocks additional chyme from entering the
protein-digesting enzyme, pepsin. duodenum.
Intrinsic factor is a glycoprotein necessary
for the absorption of vitamin B12 in the LIVER - Located primarily in the right
small intestine. hypochondriac and epigastric regions of
2. Chief cells - located primarily in the the abdomen, just beneath the
basal regions of the gastric glands. diaphragm.
Pepsinogen is secreted by chief cells, the - It is the largest gland in the body and
inactive form of pepsin. HCl is necessary the largest internal organ of the body,
for the conversion of pepsinogen to weighing about 1.36 kg (3pounds).
pepsin. - The liver performs important digestive
3. Mucous neck cells - located in gastric and excretory functions, stores and
glands in the upper part of the stomach. processes nutrients, detoxifies harmful
Secrete thin acidic mucus that is much chemicals, and synthesizes new
different from the mucus secreted by the molecules. It has 2 sources of blood:
goblet cells of the surface epithelium. The  Hepatic artery – brings oxygen-rich
role of this mucus is not currently known. blood to the liver, which supplies liver
4. Endocrine cells - Found in the gastric cells with oxygen.
glands. Produce regulatory hormones and  Hepatic portal vein – carries blood
paracrine factors. that is oxygen-poor but rich in absorbed
nutrients and other substances from the
 VARIOUS TYPES OF ENDOCRINE digestive tract to the liver.
CELLS:
1. Enterochromaffin - like cells produce PANCREAS - a complex organ composed
histamine, which stimulates acid secretion of both endocrine and exocrine tissues
by parietal cells. that perform several functions. It consists
2. Gastrin - containing cells secrete of a head, located within the curvature of
gastrin. the duodenum, a body, and a tail, which
3. Somatostatin - containing cells - extends to the spleen.
secrete somatostatin which inhibits  - The endocrine part of the pancreas
gastrin and insulin secretion. consists of pancreatic islets, or islets of
Langerhans. The islet cells produce
Regulation of Stomach Secretion insulin and glucagon, which are very
The regulation of stomach secretion is important in controlling the blood levels of
divided into three phases: cephalic, nutrients, such as glucose and amino
gastric, and intestinal. acids, and somatostatin, which regulates
1. Cephalic Phase - “get started” phase. insulin and glucagon secretion and may
The cephalic phase is controlled by the inhibit growth hormone secretion.
CNS. It begins even before the bolus of  - The exocrine part of the pancreas is a
food enters the stomach. The smell, taste, compound acinar gland.
sight, or thought of food triggers this  - Acinar cells within the acini produce
phase. This enhanced secretion is a digestive enzymes.
conditioned reflex, meaning it occurs only
if you like or want a particular food. SMALL INTESTINE - where the greatest
2. Gastric Phase - “go for it” phase. It amount of digestion and absorption
has the greatest volume of gastric occurs. The entire small intestine is about
secretions. This lasts 3 to 4 hours and is 6 m long (range: 4.6–9 m).
set in motion by local neural and
hormonal mechanisms triggered by the Consists of three parts:
entry of food into the stomach. This
1. Duodenum - The first and shortest intestine and helps absorb nutrients from
part of the small intestine. It receives the food.
partially digested food (chyme) from the
stomach and mixes it with digestive juices Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS) - Is a
from the pancreas, liver, and gallbladder. common condition that affects the large
2. Jejunum - The middle section of the intestine. It causes discomfort and pain in
small intestine. It's primarily responsible the abdomen often accompanied by
for the absorption of nutrients, including changes in bowel habits.
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Its - It is characterized by a group of
inner lining has many folds and villi, which symptoms like abdominal pain & bloating
increase the surface area for absorption. and changes in the consistency of bowel
3. Ileum - The longest part of the small movement.
intestine. It continues the absorption
process, primarily absorbing vitamin B12, Inflammatory Bowel Disease - Is a
bile salts, and any remaining nutrients group of inflammatory bowel conditions,
that weren't absorbed in the jejunum. including CROHN’S DISEASE (Patchy
inflammation, often skipping segments of
LARGE INTESTINE - The final section of the intestine and afect all layers of
the digestive tract. The undigested intestinal wall) and ULCERATIVE DISEASE
material passes from the small intestine (Continuous inflammation, affecting the
as liquid and fiber. innermost lining of the colon. Primarily
- Cells in the smooth walls absorb affects the innermost layer of the colon).
vitamins, minerals, and water. Condensed
waster called feces, leaves the body GASTOESOPHAGEAL REFLUX DISEASE
through the rectum and anal canal. (GERD) - Is a chronic condition that
- It is about 1.5m (5ft) long. Normally 18- occurs when stomach acid or bile flows
24 hours required for materials to pass back up into the esophagus. This backflow
through the large intestine. In the colon, is known as the ACID REFLUX that can
chyme is converted to feces. The irritate the lining of the esophagus,
absorption of water and salts happen. causing heartburn and other symptoms.
Some bacteria in the intestine synthesize
vitamin K and other vitamins, which are  ROLE OF NUTRITION
passively absorbed. Nutrition plays a pivotal role in
maintaining a healthy digestive system.
Digestion in the Large Intestine - Also The food we consume provides the
called the colon. Keeps water inside the essential nutrients needed for the
body to avoid dehydration. Contains digestive process to function optimally.
bacteria which produce: Carbohydrates: Broken down into
 • Vitamin K – helps in blood clotting glucose, which provide energy for the
 • Vitamin B12 (cobalamin) - normal body.
functioning of brain and nervous system Proteins: Broken down into amino acids,
 • Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – convert used for tissue repair and growth.
carbohydrates into fuel for energy. Fats: Broken down into fatty acids, used
• Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) – to perform for energy storage and cell membrane
the normal physiologic actions of proteins. formation.
Vitamins and Minerals: Essential for
RECTUM - holds waste and other various bodily functions, including
unnecessary materials. digestion, absorption, and metabolism.
Anus - the final portion of the rectum.
 MAINTAINING GUT HEALTH
DEFACATION – excretion of feces Fiber: Promotes regular bowel
through anal sphincter. movements, preventing constipation.
Probiotics: Beneficial bacteria that aid in
 DISEASES RELATED IN THE digestion and nutrient absorption.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM Prebiotics: Non-digestible fiber that
Celiac Disease - Is an autoimmune feeds the beneficial bacteria in the gut.
disorder triggered by gluten, a protein
found in wheat, barley, and rye. SUPPORTING DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
- When people with this disease consumes Vitamins and Minerals: Certain
gluten, their immune system reacts by vitamins and minerals, such as zinc and
attacking the small intestine. vitamin B6, are essential for the
- This attack damages the villi, tiny finger- production of digestive enzymes.
like projections that line in the small
 - issued by United States Department
of Agriculture (USDA), it shows
Preventing Digestive Disorders healthy food categories in health
Balanced Diet: A well-balanced diet can proportion.
help prevent conditions like irritable
bowel syndrome (IBS), acid reflux, and
inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).  6 CATEGORIES OF NUTRIENTS
Hydration: Adequate water intake is
(Major) – carbohydrates, lipids,
crucial for proper digestion and
preventing constipation. protein, water
(Minor) – vitamins, minerals

Carbohydrates – are the bodies

METABOLISM AND main source of energy. They are found
NUTRITION in foods such as grains, fruits,
vegetables and nuts.
Although it seems that people are Lipids - although we also ingested
divided into two camps, those “who cholesterol and phospholipids, most
live to eat” and those “who eat to dietary fibers are triglycerides (neutral
live” -we all recognize the vital role of fats). We eat saturated fats in animal
food for life. The common saying products such as meat and dairy
“You are What you Eat” is true in foods and a few plant products, such
that part of the food we eat is as coconut. Unsaturated fats are
connected to our living flesh. In other present in seeds, nuts and most
words, a certain fraction of nutrients vegetable oil.
is used to build cellular molecules and Protein – good source of protein
structure and to replace worn-out include lean meat, poultry, fish, eggs,
parts. dairy products, legumes and nuts.
Water – essential for all body
However, most food are used as
functions. It is important to drink
metabolic fuels. That is they are
enough water everyday to stay
oxidized and transform into
hydrated.
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) the
Vitamins – is an organic nutrients of
chemical energy from the body cells
various forms that the body require in
need to drive their many activities.
small amount.
The energy value of foods is
Minerals – it is important for our
measured in units called
body to stay healthy. Our body uses
“kilocalories(kcal”, or
minerals for many different jobs
Calories(with a capital C) , the
including keeping your bones,
units conscientiously counted by
muscles, hearts and brain to work
dieters.
properly.
NUTRITION
- is about eating a regular balance METABOLISM
diet and good nutrition helps fuel your - comes from the Greek word
body. The foods you eat supplies “metaballein” which means to
nutrients the body needs to maintain change.
your brain, muscle, bone, nerve, skin, -is a chemical and physical processes
blood circulation and immune system. that occur in the body to convert food
and oxygen into energy.
NUTRIENTS
- is a substance in food that the body Two Types of Metabolism
uses to promote normal growth, • Catabolism/Catabolic Reaction
maintenance and repair. - breakdown larger molecules such as
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins into
HEALTHY EATING PYRAMID smaller parts.
- issued in 1992 by Walter Willet, that - also includes breakdown of
provide healthy recommendations. Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

MY HEALTHY PLATE
• Anabolism/Anabolic Reaction and converting ADP to rich energy
(Biosynthetic Reaction) ATP.
- synthesized larger molecules from
smaller constituent parts using ATP as ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS)
the energy source. - in the absence of oxygen, pyruvate
- build bones, muscle mass and new can be converted into lactate to keep
protein mass, fats, and nucleic acids. glycolysis working.
- ATP production is limited to those
Three Metabolisms: generated by glycolysis
1. Carbohydrate Metabolism - while a total of 4 ATP’s are produced
- begins in the mouth, where the by glycolysis, 2 are needed to begin
enzyme salivary amylase begins to glycolysis, so there is a net yield of 2
breakdown complex sugars into ATP molecules
monosaccharides.
- In the cells, “GLUCOSE” a six Gluconeogenesis - it is almost the
carbon sugar in process through a reverse of glycolysis, and serves to
sequence of reactions into smaller create glucose molecules for glucose
sugar and energy stored inside the dependent organs, such the brain.
molecule is released. The first step of When glucose level fall below normal
carbohydrate metabolism is -in conditions of low glucose, such
“glycolysis”. fasting, starvation or low
carbohydrate diets, glucose can be
GLYCOLYSIS synthesized from lactate, pyruvate,
-i s the process of breaking down glycerol, alanine or glutamate.
glucose into two molecules of
pyruvate. This multi steps processed 2. Lipids Metabolism
yields two ATP molecules containing; *Can be ingested in the diet
(free energy, two pyruvate molecules, * Stored in the adipose tissue of the
two high energy, electron carrying body
molecules of NADH for metabolism * Synthesized in the Liver
and two molecules of water). - fats ingested in the diet are digested
- can take place with or without in the small intestine
oxygen - Triglycerides are broken down into
-in the presence of oxygen, glycolysis monoglycerides and free fatty acids,
is the first stage of cell respiration. In then imported across the intestinal
the absence of oxygen, glycolysis mucosa
allow cells to make small amounts of - once across, the triglycerides are
ATP through a process of resynthesized and transported to the
fermentation. liver or adipose tissue.
*Glycolysis takes place in the
cytoplasm Lipolysis – is the process by which
*Takes place in the cytosol of the fats are broken down in our bodies
cell’s cytoplasm through enzymes and water or
hydrolysis
AEROBIC CONDITIONS - occurs in adipose tissue which are
- the presence of oxygen, pyruvate the fatty tissues that cushion and line
enters the Kreb’s Cycle also called our bodies and organs
the Citric Acid Cycle or
Trycarboxylic Acid Cycle. Ketogenesis – if excessive acetyl
CoA is created from the oxidation if
Kreb’s Cycle - is the sequence of fatty acids and the Krebs Cycle is
reactions by which most living cells overloaded and cannot handle it the
generate energy during the Acetyl CoA is diverted to create
process of aerobic respiration. ketone bodies.
-i t takes place in the mitochondria, - ketone bodies serve as fuel source if
consuming oxygen, producing carbon glucose are too low
dioxide and water as waste products,
(Ketone Body Oxidation) – organs • Metabolism provides the energy
that have classically been thought to needed for all body functions,
be dependent solely on glucose, such including breathing, circulating and
as brain can be actually use ketone as body movements
an alternative energy source • Proper nutrition provides the
building blocks for growth and
Lipogenesis – the process where development, including building
your body uses to convert strong bones and muscles
carbohydrates into fatty acids, which • Healthy metabolisms supports a
are the building blocks of fats. strong immune system protecting the
body from diseases
3. Protein Metabolism • Metabolism is essential for
- digestion of protein begins in the preparing damage tissues and
stomach maintaining the integrity of cells
- HCI and Pepsin begin the process of • Metabolism plays a role in
breaking down proteins into their regulating hormones, which are
constituent amino acids essential for bodily functions.
- as the chyme enters the small
intestine, it mixes with bicarbonate
and digestive enzymes URINARY SYSTEM
- The urinary system rids the body of
• In starvation, amino acids can be nitrogenous wastes while regulating
used as an energy source and process water, electrolyte, and acid-base
through the Kreb’s Cycle balance of the blood.
 METABOLIC STATE OF THE
BODY FUNCTIONS OF URINARY SYSTEM
ABSORPTIVE STATE – also called ● Excretion of waste products
Fed State ● Blood volume control
- occurs after a meal when body is ● Ion concentration regulation
digesting the food and absorbing ● pH regulation
nutrients ● Red blood cell concentration
- digestion begins when the moment ● Vitamin D synthesis
you out food in the mouth
- the food is broken down into its PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
constituent parts to be absorbed URINE
through the intestine Urine – is mostly water and contains
organic waste products such as urea,
POST-ABSORPTIVE STATE uric acid, and creatinine, as well as
– maintenance of steady-state excess ions.
concentration of plasma amino acids - The leftover liquid with waste, is
depends on released of amino acids produced constantly and stored until
from tissue protein excretion.
- dietary amino acids enters the
plasma, replenish the tissues and are URINALYSIS
metabolized during fasting - also known as Routine and
Microscopy (R&M), is an array of tests
Starvation – after 3-5 days of performed on urine, and one of the
fasting, increasing reliance on fatty most common methods of medical
acids and ketone bodies for fuels diagnosis.
enables the body to maintain blood
glucose At 60-50 ml/dl (normal 70- Filtrate - liquid that is collected by
100 ml/dl) and to spare muscle the kidneys. They return needed
protein for prolonged periods without substances to the blood and eliminate
foods excess and wastes.

Role of Nutrition and Metabolism

in the Human Body
 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS 1. Filtration – Water, ions, and small
THAT CAN BE APPLIED TO molecules move into Bowman’s
URINE Capsule.
1. Color 2. Reabsorption – 99% of the filtrate
- Urine is usually yellow-amber, is reabsorbed into peritubular
but its color changes based on capillaries.
diet and hydration. Drinking 3. Secretion – Toxic by-products,
more water makes it lighter, drugs, and other foreign molecules
while dark urine may signal are secreted into the nephron from
dehydration. Red urine can peritubular capillaries.
indicate kidney issues.
2. Smell  THE ORGANS OF THE URINARY
- Urine smell can reveal health SYSTEM
info. Diabetics may have sweet- ● Kidneys - The bean-shaped
smelling urine due to ketones organs, about the size of a
or glucose. Fresh urine has a clenched fist, produce urine,
mild smell, but old urine smells regulate blood pressure
like ammonia. through renin, and stimulate
red blood cell production in the
3. Ph regulation bone marrow with
- Normal urine pH ranges from erythropoietin.
4.6 to 8, averaging around 6. ● Renal Capsule - connective
- Diet affects this—high-protein tissue that surrounds the
diets make urine more acidic, kidneys.
while vegetarian diets make it ● Hilum - The hilum is on the
more alkaline. medial side of each kidney,
4. Density where the renal artery and
- Density or specific gravity nerves enter, and the renal
measures urine’s weight vein and ureter exit.
compared to water. Normal ● Renal sinus - It is where
urine density ranges from Hilum opens, it is a cavity that
0.001 to 0.035 contains blood vessels and is a
5. Turbidity part of the urine collection
- Urine turbidity is described as system, and fat.
clear, slightly cloudy, cloudy, ● Ureters – exits the kidney and
opaque, or flocculent. Fresh connects to the urinary bladder.
urine is usually clear or slightly ● Nephron – the functional unit
cloudy. High turbidity indicates of the kidney, where
suspended particles. approximately 1.3 million of
them in each kidney.
 GROSS ANATOMY OF THE - Each nephron consists of a
URINE TRANSPORT renal corpuscle, a proximal
1. After urine is produced, it must tubule, a loop of Henle, on
leave the kidneys, and eventually the nephronic loop, and a distal
body. tubule.
2. Urine leaves the kidneys, and is ● Collecting duct - many distal
sent to the bladder, through tubes tubules empty into collecting
called ureters. duct, which carries the fluid
3. The urine is stored in the bladder from the cortex, through the
until it is time to urinate. medulla.
4. At that time, the bladder will drain ● Urinary Bladder – is a hollow
through the urethra. The transport muscular container that lies in
and storage system protects tissues the pelvic cavity just posterior
from urine’s pH and osmolarity, to the pubic symphysis.
prevents infection, and, in males, ● Urethra – is a tube that exits
supports reproductive functions. the urinary bladder inferiorly
and anteriorly.
URINE FORMATION
 PHYSIOLOGY OF URINE Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) -
FORMATION is the volume of filtrate formed by
- Urine formation in the both kidneys per minute.
nephrons involves
1. Regulating solute VASCULATURE OF THE KIDNEYS
concentration and pH in blood - The renal artery supplies blood to
plasma the kidneys. The blood flow rate is
2. 2. Regulating water crucial for filtration, affecting solute
concentration, which helps and water retention, blood osmolarity,
control blood pressure. and blood pressure.
3. Removing metabolic wastes
and excess substances. REGULATION OF FILTRATE
FORMATION
URINE FORMATION: - The filtration rate is directly linked to
Glomerular Filtration – Water and the amount of filtrate produced by the
solutes are forced through the renal corpuscle. To increase filtration,
glomerulus capillary walls into blood flow to the glomerulus must be
Bowman’s capsule. increased, allowing more filtrate to be
Filtrate – The fluid that is produced.
filtered into Bowman’s capsule. The blood flow to the glomerulus is
Glomerular Filtration Rate is regulated by several mechanisms.
regulated by mechanisms: 1. Sympathetic Nerves
1. Autoregulation – The 2. Autoregulation of blood flow to
smooth muscle in the afferent kidneys
arteriole adjusts to blood 3. Arteriole Myogenic Mechanism
pressure changes by 4. Tubuloglomerular Feedback
constricting or dilating to
control filtration rate. ENDOCRINE REGULATION OF
2. Sympathetic control – KIDNEY FUNCTION
Nerve impulses cause afferent Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) is
arterioles to constrict or dilate, secreted by the posterior pituitary
helping to maintain blood gland and regulates water
pressure during the fight or reabsorption in the distal tubules and
flight response. collecting ducts.
3. Renin-angiotensin
mechanism – When filtration Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone –
rate decreases, the Renin and angiotensin regulate
juxtaglomerular apparatus aldosterone, which increases the
releases renin, which converts active transport of Na⁺ in the distal
angiotensinogen into tubules and collecting ducts.
angiotensin I.
Atrial Natriuretic Hormone is
TUBULAR REABSORPTION secreted by cardiac muscle cells in
- Reabsorption occurs both the right atrium when blood pressure
passively and actively. Glucose, increases. It acts on the kidneys to
amino acids, and essential ions (Na, K, decrease Na⁺ reabsorption.
Cl, Ca, HCO3) are transported from
the filtrate into the peritubular REGULATION OF FLUID VOLUME
capillaries, with about 65% AND COMPOSITION
reabsorbed in the proximal Adult male – 60% of the total body
convoluted tubule. weight consists of water.
- As these substances are reabsorbed, Adult female – 50% of the total body
water follows by osmosis. In the distal weight consists of water.
convoluted tubule, reabsorption is
hormonally controlled: aldosterone Fluid depletion in the body can
increases salt absorption, and ADH result from blood loss or dehydration.
increases water absorption. Homeostasis requires preserving
volume and osmolarity. Blood volume
helps maintain blood pressure, and • R EGULATION OF H+,
nonrenal mechanisms like BICARBONATE, AND PH
vasoconstriction quickly respond to
pressure drops. Thirst mechanisms HOMEOSTASIS
promote water intake, and hormonal The urinary system maintains fluid
mechanisms activate to recover volume by regulating water excretion
volume while maintaining osmotic in urine. It also controls electrolyte
balance, primarily affecting the concentrations and blood pH.
kidneys. Additionally, it secretes erythropoietin
to regulate red blood cell production
VOLUME SENSING MECHANISM and renin to help control blood
When blood pressure increases, pressure.
baroreceptors send more frequent
signals to the CNS, causing THE ROLE OF NUTRITION
vasodilation, including of the afferent Nutrition plays a vital role in
arterioles. This leads to increased GFR supporting the urinary system, with
and water loss by the kidneys. vitamins and minerals affecting
kidney function and urinary health.
Vitamin D helps regulate calcium
levels, preventing issues in chronic
DIURETICS AND FLUID VOLUME kidney disease, while vitamin C
A diuretic is a compound that supports immune function and
increases urine volume. Coffee, tea, prevents urinary tract infections.
and alcohol are common drinks that Vitamin B6 helps reduce kidney
contain diuretic compounds. stone risk, and folic acid supports
red blood cells, crucial for kidney
Caffeine in coffee and tea promotes health. Magnesium balances
vasodilation in the nephron, calcium and prevents kidney stones,
increasing GFR. Alcohol increases GFR while potassium regulates fluid
by inhibiting ADH release, reducing balance, essential for kidney function.
water recovery in the collecting duct. Vitamin A supports urinary tract
Diuretics may be prescribed for high tissue repair, and deficiencies in these
blood pressure to reduce blood nutrients can lead to conditions like
volume and lower blood pressure. kidney stones, UTIs, and kidney
dysfunction.
REGULATION OF EXTRACELLULAR
NA+
Sodium has a strong osmotic effect,
attracting water. Excess Na+ from
poor control or high dietary intake
increases water volume, leading to WATER,
hypertension (high blood pressure).
ELECTROLYTE,
REGULATION OF NITROGEN
WASTES
AND ACID-BASE
Nitrogen wastes are produced from BALANCE
protein breakdown during
metabolism. Ammonia is toxic, so it’s The composition of the blood
quickly converted into urea in the depends on three major factors:
liver. Human urine primarily contains • Diet,
urea, with small amounts of • Cellular metabolism
ammonium and very little uric acid. • Urine output

OTHER REGULATIONS KIDNEY has major roles to play which

• REGULATION OF EXTRACELLULAR help keep the blood composition
K+•REGULATION OF CL relatively constant.
• REGULATION OF CA++ AND
PHOSPHATE
KIDNEYs’ Four Major Roles The volume of water gained each day
• Excreting nitrogen containing Varies from individual to individual :
wastes (age , sex, weather, activity level, and
• Maintaining water balance of the overall health)
blood The volume of water gained each day
• Maintaining electrolyte balance of either from:
blood - Drinking Water
• Ensuring proper blood pH - Eating Moist Foods
- By-product Of The Oxidative
- A healthy young adult water
accounts probably half or more of Metabolism Of Nutrients
body weight – 50% in women and - “Water Of Metabolism”
60% in men. Regulation of water intake
- This difference reflect the fact that - The primary regulator of water
women have relatively less muscles intake is thirst.
and large amount of body fat of all
body tissues, fat contains the least • The intense feeling of thirst derives
water. from the effect of osmotic pressure of
- Water is the universal body solvent extracellular fluids on a thirst center
within which all solutes are dissolved. in the hypothalamus.
- Water occupies three main location • As the body loses water, the
within the body referred to as fluid osmotic pressure of extracellular
compartments. fluids increases.
• This stimulates osmoreceptors in
Intracellular fluid (ICF) - about 2/3 the thirst center, which cause the
of body fluid person to seek water and feel thirsty.
Extracellular fluid (ECF) - all body
fluids located outside of the cells. E Water Output
- CF includes blood plasma and - Normally, water enters the body
interstitial fluid. only through the mouth.
- but did you know that water in our
Water Balance body can be lost by a variety of routes
- exist when total water intake or ways?
equals total water output. Sensible perspiration – urine, feces
and sweat.
Water/ H20 Insensible perspiration –
- a food and a nutrient evaporation of water from the skin
- universal solvent and from the lungs during breathing.
- it is capable of dissolving more
substances than any other liquid Regulation of Water Output
- biological solvent - Water loss occurs dominantly
- All biochemical reactions occur in through the renal system.
water) - The distal convoluted tubules and
collecting ducts of the nephrons
Functions of Water regulate water output.
- It helps create saliva - Meaning , the primary means of
- It regulates your body temperature regulating water output is urine
- It protects your tissues, spinal cord, production because our kidneys
and joints works hard to eliminate /filter out all
- It helps maximize physical the unnecessary water in our system
performance to maintain balance.
- It improves blood oxygen circulation - A person produces an average of 1.5
- It helps boost energy liters (1.6 quarts) of urine per day.
- It helps improve mood - The minimum level of urine
- It helps keep skin bright production necessary to maintain
- It prevents overall dehydration normal function is about 0.47 liters
(0.5 quarts) per day.
Water Intake
 - Failure to produce the minimum - The recommendation for daily
volume of urine means that metabolic consumption of potassium is 4700
wastes cannot be effectively removed mg.
from the body, a situation that can Hypokalemia - is an abnormally low
impair organ function. potassium blood level.
Hyperkalemia - an elevated
ELECTROLYTE BALANCE potassium blood level,
- the homeostasis of electrolytes in
our body 3.Chloride
Electrolytes - electrically charged - Chloride is the predominant
minerals and compounds that help extracellular anion.
your body perform a variety of - Chloride is a major contributor to
function. They are in your blood, the osmotic pressure gradient
urine, tissues, and other body fluids. between the ICF and ECF, and plays
an important role in maintaining
• Electrolyte levels are measured in proper
blood tests, and their levels must stay hydration.
within a fairly small range, or serious - Chloride functions to balance cations
problems may arise. in the ECF, maintaining the electrical
neutrality of this fluid.
Functions of Electrolytes : - The paths of secretion and
• Helps in regulating fluids reabsorption of chloride ions in the
• Transmitting nerve signals from the renal system follow the paths of
heart, muscles, and nerve cells to sodium ions.
other cells Hypochloremia - lower-than-normal
• Maintaining the blood’s pH level blood chloride levels
Regulation of Electrolyte intake Hyperchloremia - higher-than-
• Ordinarily, responding to hunger normal blood chloride levels,
and thirst provides insufficient
electrolytes. 4.Bicarbonate
• Food and drink usually provide - Bicarbonate is the second most
sufficient amount of electrolytes. abundant anion in the blood.
- Bicarbonate ions result from a
 SIX ESSENTIAL ELECTROLYTES chemical reaction of CO2 and water.
1. Sodium - Carbon dioxide is converted into
- is the major cation of the bicarbonate in the cytoplasm of red
extracellular fluid. blood cells through the action of an
- It is responsible for one-half of the enzyme called carbonic anhydrase.
osmotic pressure gradient that exists Hypocalcemia - abnormally low
between the interior of cells and their calcium blood levels
surrounding environment. Hypercalcemia - abnormally high
- Sodium is freely filtered through calcium blood levels
the glomerular capillaries of the
kidneys,
Hyponatremia - is a lower-than- 5.Calcium
normal concentration of sodium,the - About two pounds of calcium in
most common form of electrolyte your body are bound up in bone,
disorder in the emergency room. which provides hardness to the bone
Hypernatremia - is an abnormal - Teeth also have a high
increase of blood sodium. concentration of calcium within them.
- Calcium ions, Ca2+, are necessary
2. Potassium for muscle contraction, enzyme
- Potassium is the major intracellular activity, and blood coagulation..
cation. - Calcium is absorbed through the
- It helps establish the resting intestines under the influence of
membrane potential in neurons and activated vitamin D.
muscle fibers after membrane Hypocalcemia - abnormally low
depolarization and action potentials. calcium blood levels
Hypercalcemia - abnormally high - One mechanism the body uses to
calcium blood levels, control blood pH involves the release
of carbon dioxide from the lungs.
6.Phosphate
- Phosphate is present in the body in THE ROLE OF KIDNEYS
three ionic forms: H2PO4− , HPO42, - The kidneys are able to affect blood
and PO43−. pH by excreting excess acids or
- Bone and teeth bind up 85 % of bases.
the body’s phosphate as part of
calcium-phosphate salts. BUFFER SYSTEM
- Phosphate is found in - Yet another mechanism for
phospholipids, such as those that controlling blood pH involves the use
make up the cell membrane, and in of chemical buffer system, which
ATP, nucleotides, and buffers. guard against sudden shifts in acidity
Hypophosphatemia - abnormally and alkalinity.
low phosphate blood levels
Hyperphosphatemia - abnormally ACID-BASED BALANCE OF BLOOD
increased levels of phosphates in the - Cells maintain a balance
blood. homeostasis of fluids and electrolytes
in and out of the cell.
Electrolyte Output - For the cells of the body to function
- Electrolytes are lost through properly, blood pH must be
perspiration, feces, and urine. maintained between 7.35 and 7.25 a
- Quantities lost vary with very narrow range.
temperature and physical exercise. - Blood pH is the acidity or alkalinity of
- Most electrolytes are lost through the blood
the kidneys.
To ensure that you have enough ALKALOSIS
electrolytes: - whenever the pH of arterial blood
 - stay hydrated rises above 7.45 a person is said to
 - eat foods rich in electrolytes have alkalosis.
- Alkalosis is an excessive alkaline
Regulation of Electrolyte Output condition of the body fluids or tissues
- Concentrations of sodium, that may causes weakness or cramps.
potassium, and calcium ions in body - Alkaline/alkali is a chemical
fluids are particularly important. compound that neutralizes with acids.
- The adrenal cortex secretes
aldosterone to regulate sodium and ACIDOSIS
potassium ions. - A drop in arterial blood pH to below
- Parathyroid hormone and calcitonin 7.35 results acidosis.
regulate calcium ions. - Acidosis is caused by an
- The mechanism that control overproduction of acid that build up in
positively charged ions secondarily the blood.
regulate negatively charged ions. DISTURBANCES OF ACID -BASE
ACID-BASE BALANCE BALANCE
- The body`s balance between - Disturbance of acid-base
acidity and alkalinity is referred to as homeostasis is characterized by
acid-base balance. abnormality in one or more of these
- The body uses different three parameters :
mechanisms to control the blood`s Reference (normal) range for the
acid-base balance. These mechanisms blood gas parameters
involve the: • pH = 7.35-7.45
1. LUNGS • CO2(a) = 4.7-6.0 kPa (35-45
2. KIDNEYS mmHg)
3. BUFFER SYSTEM • Bicarbonate = 22-28 mmol/L

THE ROLE OF LUNGS ACID - BASE DISORDERS

• RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS
• RESPIRATORY ALKALOSIS and proper intake of fluids and
- Deals with either the increase/ foods makes the circulation of our
decrease of Co2 (carbon dioxide) in body balance and regular. Too much
the of everything is as bad as too little.
Blood
References
• METABOLIC ACIDOSIS WATER BALANCE and ELECTROLYTE
• METABOLIC ALKALOSIS BALANCE from https://opentextbc.ca
- deals with either the Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology
increase/decrease of Hco3 5th Edition by Seeley, Stephens, and
(bicarbonate) Tate.

Respiratory Acidosis: Carbonic

Acid/CO2 Excess
- Respiratory acidosis occurs when DEVELOPMENT
the blood is overly acidic due to an
excess of carbonic acid, resulting from
AND INHERITANCE
too much CO2 in the blood.
FERTILIZATION
- union of a sperm nucleus, of paternal
Respiratory Alkalosis: Carbonic origin, with an egg nucleus, of maternal
Acid/CO2 Deficiency origin, to form the primary nucleus of
- Respiratory alkalosis occurs an embryo.
when the blood is overly alkaline due - In all organisms the essence of
to a deficiency in carbonic acid and fertilization is, in fact, the fusion of
CO2 levels in the blood. the hereditary material of two
different sex cells, or gametes, each of
Metabolic Acidosis: Bicarbonate which carries half the number
of chromosomes typical of the species.
Deficiency
- The first significant event in fertilization
- Metabolic acidosis occurs when is the fusion of the membranes of the
the blood is too acidic (pH below 7.35) two gametes, resulting in the formation
due to too little bicarbonate of a channel that allows the passage of
- If a person’s blood pH is below material from one cell to the other.
7.35, then he or she is in metabolic - Fusion in advanced animals is usually
acidosis. followed by penetration of the egg by
a single spermatozoon. The result of
Metabolic Alkalosis: Bicarbonate fertilization is a cell (zygote) capable of
Excess undergoing cell division to form a new
individual.
- Metabolic alkalosis - It occurs
- The fusion of two gametes initiates
when the blood is too alkaline (pH several reactions in the egg. One of these
above 7.45) due to too much causes a change in the egg membrane(s),
bicarbonate so that the attachment of and penetration
- Acid-base homeostasis can be by more than one spermatozoon cannot
attributed to one or more of three occur.
broad causes: disease of, or damage - The most important result of fertilization
to, any one of four organs (kidneys, is egg activation, which allows the egg
lungs, brain, gastrointestinal tract) to undergo cell division. Activation,
whose normal function, as outlined in however, does not necessarily require the
intervention of a spermatozoon;
the first article of this series, is
during parthenogenesis, in which
necessary for acid-base homeostasis. fertilization does not occur, activation of
- disease that results in abnormally an egg may be accomplished through the
increased production of metabolic intervention of physical and chemical
acids, such that normal acid-base agents.
homeostatic mechanisms - Maturation is the final step in the
production of functional eggs (oogenesis)
Role of Nutrition that can associate with a spermatozoon
Fluids and electrolytes are both and develop a reaction that prevents the
essential for our cells, organs and entry of more than one spermatozoon. In
body systems to work properly. Right addition, the cytoplasm of a mature egg
can support the changes that lead to pregnancies (in which the egg never left
fusion of spermatozoal and egg nuclei and the ovary) and abdominal ectopic
initiate embryonic development. pregnancies (in which an egg was “lost”
to the abdominal cavity during the
EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT transfer from ovary to uterine tube.
Embryogenesis - is the development of - Even if the embryo has successfully
an animal or plant embryo. Embryonic found its way to the uterus, it does not
development starts with always implant in an optimal location (the
the fertilization of an egg cell (ovum) by fundus or the posterior wall of the uterus).
a sperm cell, (spermatozoon). Once Placenta previa can result if an embryo
fertilized, the ovum becomes a implants close to the internal os of the
single diploid cell known as a zygote. uterus (the internal opening of the
cervix). As the fetus grows, the placenta
The zygote can partially or completely cover the
undergoes mitotic divisions with no opening of the cervix.
significant growth (a process known
as cleavage) and cellular differentiation, EMBRYONIC MEMBRANES
leading to development of a multicellular - During the second week of development,
embryo. after passing through an with the embryo implanted in the uterus,
organizational checkpoint during mid- cells within the blastocyst start to
embryogenesis. In mammals, the term organize into layers. Some grow to form
refers chiefly to the early stages the extra-embryonic membranes needed
of prenatal development, whereas the to support and protect the growing
terms fetus and fetal embryo: the amnion, the yolk sac, the
development describe later stages. allantois, and the chorion.

PRE-IMPLANTATION EMBRYONIC ORGANOGENESIS

DEVELOPMENT - At some point after the different germ
- Following fertilization, the zygote and its layers are defined, organogenesis begins.
associated membranes, together referred The first stage in vertebrates is
to as the conceptus, continue to be called neurulation, where the neural
projected toward the uterus by peristalsis plate folds forming the neural tube. Other
and beating cilia. During its journey to the common organs or structures that arise
uterus, the zygote undergoes five or six currently include the heart and somites.
rapid mitotic cell divisions. Although
each cleavage results in more cells, it FETAL DEVELOPMENT
does not increase the total volume of the - The very moment a male sperm cell
conceptus. penetrates a female egg cell, a new
human life comes into being. This event,
IMPLANTATION known as fertilization, forms a tiny, single-
- At the end of the first week, the celled human distinct from his or her
blastocyst encounters the uterine wall mother.
and adheres to it, embedding itself in the - This little life is called a zygote,
uterine lining via the trophoblast cells. meaning “yoked or joined together.” It's
Thus begins the process of implantation, the living seed that will be a newborn
which signals the end of the pre- baby in nine months’ time.
embryonic stage of development.
- When implantation succeeds and the • Days 4-12 - Embryo implants in
blastocyst adheres to the endometrium, mother's uterus
the superficial cells of the trophoblast - By day four the zygote has left the
fuse with each other, forming fallopian tube and entered the uterus,
the syncytiotrophoblast, a multinucleated where it can benefit from the nutrients its
body that digests endometrial cells to mother will provide.
firmly secure the blastocyst to the uterine - At this time the placenta - a mix of
wall. In response, the uterine mucosa tissue from both mom and embryo - will
rebuilds itself and envelops the blastocyst form. The placenta allows oxygen,
nutrients, and water from the mother’s
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO blood to feed the embryo, and waste like
- In most ectopic pregnancies, the embryo CO2 removed, without intermixing the
does not complete its journey to the blood’s genetic material.
uterus and implants in the uterine tube, • Week 3 - heart begins to beat at
referred to as a tubal pregnancy. day 21
However, there are also ovarian ectopic
- Now that the zygote is safely within the • Week 23 - Baby can learn and
uterine lining, forming the circulatory remember
system tops the to-do list. Only 10 days - Several studies suggest that a baby can
after implantation a heart will begin to begin to learn and remember her
beat, at about day 21 or 22 after experiences by this point.
fertilization (or 5 weeks since last • Week 24-27 - Eyes open, can smell
menstrual period). - The baby’s eyelids have been sealed
• Week 4-5 - respiratory system shut since week 9 as her eyes developed,
develops but now they’re mature enough to
- The respiratory system is next in line: reopen. She will react with a startled blink
two lung buds will emerge before the end and increased heart rate if she hears a
of the fifth week after fertilization (7th loud sound.
week LMP). • Third Trimester
- A transparent sac called the amnion - Able to hear before birth, the fetus
begins to envelop the embryo at about becomes highly familiar with the sound of
the same time. The amniotic fluid within his mother’s voice. So much so that the
will shield her from blows and infection, newborn baby, studies demonstrate,
provide temperature control, and assist prefers her voice to others. The newborn
muscle and lung growth. also prefers “female voices to male voices
• Week 6-7 - brain waves become and familiar lullabies heard before birth to
detectable new lullabies after birth.”
- Although too little to be felt by mom yet, • Birthday
she's already testing out her limbs, and - Birth comes, on average, 268 days, or
reacts to touch. Brain waves are 38 weeks and 2 days, after
detectable at this stage, and finer shapes fertilization and is initiated by the baby.
like the ears are already emerging. At birth, the placenta’s role in the supply
• Week 8 - digestive system of oxygen is suddenly replaced by air
functional breathing and, often, a loud cry.
- At 8 weeks, the digestive system is
functioning, and the brain makes up Maternal Changes During Pregnancy,
almost half the embryo’s total weight. The Labor and Birth
face is developed enough now that the - A full-term pregnancy lasts
baby can squint and move her jaw, and approximately 270 days (approximately
hair has begun to grow. 38.5 weeks) from conception to birth.
• Week 9-10 - baby develops Because it is easier to remember the first
fingernails and toenails day of the last menstrual period (LMP)
- At this point, she can grasp, sigh and than to estimate the date of conception,
stretch, and feel light touch through obstetricians set the due date as 284
nerves in the face, palms and feet. She days (approximately 40.5 weeks) from the
has formed distinct fingers and toes and LMP.
may occasionally have the hiccups.
- At 10 weeks fingernails and toenails, as Effects of Hormones
well as fingerprints, begin to form. The - Progesterone secreted by the corpus
embryo is now about 1 1/2 inches long. luteum stimulates the production of
• Week 11-14 - Baby begins thumb- decidual cells of the endometrium that
sucking nourish the blastocyst before
- At 14 weeks, the baby’s facial muscles placentation. As the placenta develops
are developed enough for him to use. and the corpus luteum degenerates
Thumb-sucking may also begin around during weeks 12–17, the placenta
this time. gradually takes over as the endocrine
• Week 16- 18 - Begins to kick organ of pregnancy.
- By 16 weeks, the fetus has the same - The placenta converts weak androgens
response as adults to physical suffering, secreted by the maternal and fetal
releasing cortisol and norepinephrine into adrenal glands to estrogens, which are
the blood in response to pain. This is also necessary for pregnancy to progress.
when she’ll begin to explore more Estrogen levels climb throughout the
voluntary muscle movements, and pregnancy, increasing 30-fold by
eyebrows, eyelashes and fine hair appear. childbirth.
• Week 20-22 - Baby begins to
respond to sound Relaxin - another hormone secreted by
- The ability to hear will develop fully in the corpus luteum and then by the
these weeks, and the fetus will be able to placenta, helps prepare the mother’s
respond to sound. body for childbirth. It increases the
elasticity of the symphysis pubis joint and the growing uterus on the stomach. The
pelvic ligaments, making room for the same decreased peristalsis that may
growing fetus and allowing expansion of contribute to nausea in early pregnancy is
the pelvic outlet for childbirth. Relaxin also thought to be responsible for
also helps dilate the cervix during labor. pregnancy-related constipation as
- The placenta takes over the synthesis pregnancy progresses.
and secretion of progesterone throughout - The downward pressure of the uterus
pregnancy as the corpus luteum also compresses the urinary bladder,
degenerates. Like estrogen, progesterone leading to frequent urination. The
suppresses FSH and LH. It also inhibits problem is exacerbated by increased
uterine contractions, protecting the fetus urine production. In addition, the maternal
from preterm birth. This hormone urinary system processes both maternal
decreases in late gestation, allowing and fetal wastes, further increasing the
uterine contractions to intensify and total volume of urine.
eventually progress to true labor.
- The anterior pituitary enlarges and Circulatory System Changes
ramps up its hormone production during - Blood volume increases substantially
pregnancy, raising the levels of during pregnancy, so that by childbirth, it
thyrotropin, prolactin, and exceeds its preconception volume by 30
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH). percent, or approximately 1–2 liters. The
- Thyrotropin, in conjunction with greater blood volume helps to manage
placental hormones, increases the the demands of fetal nourishment and
production of thyroid hormone, which fetal waste removal. In conjunction with
raises the maternal metabolic rate. This increased blood volume, the pulse and
can markedly augment a pregnant blood pressure also rise moderately
woman’s appetite and cause hot flashes. during pregnancy.
- Prolactin stimulates enlargement of the
mammary glands in preparation for milk Physiology of Labor
production. - Childbirth, or parturition, typically occurs
- ACTH stimulates maternal cortisol within a week of a woman’s due date,
secretion, which contributes to fetal unless the woman is pregnant with more
protein synthesis. than one fetus, which usually causes her
- In addition to the pituitary hormones, to go into labor early. As a pregnancy
increased parathyroid levels mobilize progresses into its final weeks, several
calcium from maternal bones for fetal physiological changes occur in response
use. to hormones that trigger labor.

Weight Gain Patterns of Inheritance

- The second and third trimesters of - The observable traits expressed by an
pregnancy are associated with dramatic organism are referred to as its phenotype.
changes in maternal anatomy and An organism’s underlying genetic
physiology. The most obvious anatomical makeup, consisting of both physically
sign of pregnancy is the dramatic visible and non-expressed alleles, is called
enlargement of the abdominal region, its genotype.
coupled with maternal weight gain. This
weight results from the growing fetus as Key Terms
well as the enlarged uterus, amniotic • Monohybrid: a hybrid between two
fluid, and placenta. species that only have a difference of one
gene
Changes in Organ Systems During • Homozygous: of an organism in which
Pregnancy both copies of a given gene have the
- Nausea and vomiting, sometimes same allele
triggered by an increased sensitivity to • Heterozygous: of an organism which
odors, are common during the first few has two different alleles of a given gene
weeks to months of pregnancy. The • Punnett square: a graphical
source of pregnancy nausea is thought to representation used to determine the
be the increased circulation of pregnancy- probability of an offspring expressing a
related hormones, specifically circulating particular genotype
estrogen, progesterone, and hCG.
• Mendelian crosses: In one of his
- A common gastrointestinal complaint
experiments on inheritance patterns,
during the later stages of pregnancy is
Mendel crossed plants that were true-
gastric reflux, or heartburn, which results
breeding for violet flower color with plants
from the upward, constrictive pressure of
true-breeding for white flower color (the P
generation). The resulting hybrids in the - he complete dominance of a wild-type
F1 generation all had violet flowers. In the phenotype over all other mutants often
F2 generation, approximately three- occurs as an effect of “dosage” of a
quarters of the plants had violet flowers, specific gene product: the wild-type allele
and one-quarter had white flowers. supplies the correct amount of gene
product whereas the mutant alleles
The Punnett Square Approach for a cannot.
Monohybrid Cross Example of multiple alleles for rabbit coat
- A Punnett square applies the rules of color: Four different alleles exist for the
probability to predict the possible rabbit coat color (C) gene.
outcomes of a monohybrid cross and their
expected frequencies. Sex-Linked Traits
- When fertilization occurs between two - A gene present on one of the sex
true-breeding parents that differ in only chromosomes (X or Y in mammals) is a
one characteristic, the process is called a sex-linked trait because its expression
monohybrid cross, and the resulting depends on the sex of the individual.
offspring are monohybrids. Mendel
performed seven monohybrid crosses Key Terms
involving contrasting traits for each • Emizygous: Having some single copies
characteristic. of genes in an otherwise diploid cell or
Example of a test cross: A test cross can organism.
be performed to determine whether an • X-linked: Associated with the X
organism expressing a dominant trait is a chromosome.
homozygote or a heterozygote. • Carrier: A person or animal that
transmits a disease to others without
Alternatives to Dominance and itself contracting the disease.
Recessiveness • Sex chromosomes: A chromosome
- With the inclusion of incomplete involved with determining the sex of an
dominance, codominance, multiple organism, typically one of two kinds.
alleles, and mutant alleles, the 
inheritance of traits is complex process. - In mammals, females have a
homologous pair of X chromosomes,
whereas males have an XY chromosome
Key Terms pair.
• Allele: one of several alternative forms - The Y chromosome contains a small
of the same gene occupying a given region of similarity to the X chromosome
position on a chromosome so that they can pair during meiosis, but
• Incomplete dominance: a condition in the Y is much shorter and contains fewer
which the phenotype of the heterozygous genes.
genotype is distinct from and often - Males are said to be hemizygous
intermediate to the phenotypes of the because they have only one allele for any
homozygous genotypes. Incomplete X-linked characteristic; males will exhibit
dominance is the expression of two the trait of any gene on the X-
contrasting alleles such that the individual chromosome regardless of dominance
displays an intermediate phenotype. and recessiveness.
• Codominance: a condition in which - Most sex-linked traits are X-linked, such
both alleles of a gene pair in a as eye color in Drosophila or color
heterozygote are fully expressed, with blindness in humans.
neither one being dominant nor recessive • Human male karyotype: A human
to the other. Codominance is a variation male possesses XY chromosomes, as seen
on incomplete dominance in which both in the bottom left of this karyotype. The Y
alleles for the same characteristic are chromosome is much shorter than the X
simultaneously expressed in the chromosome, unlike all the other
heterozygote. homologous chromosome pairs.

- Diploid organisms can only have two X-Linked Traits

alleles for a given gene; however, - Drosophila males have an XY
multiple alleles may exist at the chromosome pair and females are XX.
population level such that many Eye color in Drosophila was one of the
combinations of two alleles are observed. first X-linked traits to be identified, and
- One mutant allele can also be dominant Thomas Hunt Morgan mapped this trait to
over all other phenotypes, including the the X chromosome in 1910.
wild type.
X-Linked Crosses Vitamin C: Important for tissue growth
- In an X-linked cross, the genotypes of and repair, and immune function.
F1 and F2 offspring depend on whether Vitamin B12: Involved in red blood cell
the recessive trait was expressed by the formation and neurological health.
male or the female in the P1 generation.
- Regarding Drosophila eye color, when Minerals
the P1 male expresses the white-eye Iron: Necessary for oxygen transport and
phenotype and the female is homozygous energy production; especially important
red-eyed, all members of the during pregnancy and adolescence
F1 generation exhibit red eyes. The Calcium: Vital for bone development and
F1 females are heterozygous (XWXw), and nerve function
the males are all XWY, having received Zinc: Plays a key role in immune function,
their X chromosome from the protein synthesis, and DNA synthesis.
homozygous dominant P1 female and Iodine: Important for thyroid function and
their Y chromosome from the P1 male. brain development.

Punnett square analysis Nutrition is crucial for the development of
of Drosophila eye color: Punnett an individual, from prenatal stages
square analysis is used to determine the through childhood and adolescence,
ratio of offspring from a cross between a affecting physical growth, cognitive
red-eyed male fruit fly (XWY) and a white- function, and immune health.
eyed female fruit fly (XwXw). Furthermore, the nutrients we consume
can influence gene expression through
Recessive Carriers epigenetic mechanisms, which can impact
- When they inherit one recessive X-linked inheritance patterns and the potential for
mutant allele and one dominant X-linked certain health conditions in future
wild-type allele, they are carriers of the generations. The proper intake of key
trait and are typically unaffected. Carrier nutrients is therefore essential not only
females can manifest mild forms of the for optimal development but also for
trait due to the inactivation of the influencing the inheritance of traits and
dominant allele located on one of the X disease risk.
chromosomes.
- Inheritance of a recessive X-linked
disorder: The son of a woman who is a
carrier of a recessive X-linked disorder will
have a 50 percent chance of being
affected. A daughter will not be affected,
but she will have a 50 percent chance of
being a carrier like her mother.

 Role of Nutrition
Key Nutrients Involved in
Development and Inheritance

Proteins: Essential for growth and repair

of tissues and cells. Sources include meat,
dairy, legumes, and nuts
Carbohydrates: Provide energy
necessary for cell functions and growth.
Found in grains, fruits, and vegetables
Fats (Omega-3 Fatty Acids): Critical for
brain development and cognitive function.
Found in fish, flaxseeds, and walnuts.

Vitamins
Folic Acid: Vital for cell division and
neural tube development during
pregnancy
Vitamin D: Supports bone health and
regulates immune function
Vitamin A: Essential for vision, immune
function, and skin health