International University-VNU-HCM 2023

LECTURE 3
The Geostationary orbit

Review Questions
1. What is a geostationary orbit?
A geostationary orbit is a circular orbit with 0 inclination and 35,785 km (22,236 miles) above Earth's
Equator in which a satellite's orbital period is equal to Earth's rotation period of 23 hours and 56 minutes.
The satellite travel in geostationary orbit appears to be stationary with respect to the earth and it must
travel eastward at the same rotational speed as the earth.

2. Which conditions should be fulfilled to attain a geostationary orbit?

Three conditions are required for an orbit to be geostationary:
1. The satellite must travel eastward at the same rotational speed as the earth because if the satellite is to
appear stationary, it must rotate at the same speed as the Earth, which is constant.
2. The orbit must be circular, which satisfies Kepler’s second law in which constant speed means that
equal areas must be swept out in equal times.
3. The inclination of the orbit must be zero, which avoids the movement from North to South of the
satellite.

3. Why the term “geosynchronous” is used instead of “geostationary”?

The term “geosynchronous” is used to differentiate the “real-world” GEO orbit from the ideal
geostationary orbit which cannot be achieved because of shifts caused by the gravitational fields of the
sun and moon and Earth’s equatorial elliptically.

4. Discuss the phenomenon of Sun Transit Outage.

The Sun Transit Outage is an interruption in or distortion of geostationary satellite signals caused by
interference from solar radiation. It occurs when the transit of the satellite between earth and sun such that
the sun comes within the beamwidth of the Earth-station antenna and becomes an extremely noisy source,
which completely blanks out the signal from the satellite. This effect lasts for 6 days around the equinoxes
and they occur for a maximum period of 10 minutes.

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5. What are the limits of visibility?

The limits of visibility are east and west limits on the geostationary which are visible from any given
earth station. The limits will be set by the geographic coordinates of the earth station and the antenna
elevation. The lowest elevation in theory is zero, when the antenna is pointing along the horizontal.

6. How is a geostationary satellite launched to a GEO?

Satellites may be directly injected into low-altitude orbits, up to about 200 km altitude, from the initial
launch of easterly launches with the lowest orbital inclination, which is determined by the latitude of the
launch site. At the perigee, in the case of a rocket launch, the rocket injects the satellite with the required
thrust into the Hohmann transfer orbit, which is between the initial LEO and the final high-altitude orbit.
Then, at the apogee, the apogee kick motor (AKM) changes the satellite's velocity to place it into a
circular orbit in the same plane.
In order to change the inclination, a velocity change is required normal to the orbital plane. Changes in
inclination can be made at either one of the nodes, without affecting the other orbital parameters.

7. What are Look angles? Derive an equation for the same

The look angles for the ground station antenna are the azimuth and elevation angles required at the
antenna so that it points directly at the satellite.

The azimuth angle for an earth station antenna: 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|𝐵|

𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 )
Azimuth angles related to angle A:

λ𝐸 𝐵 𝐴𝑧

<0 <0 A

<0 >0
360° − 𝐴

>0 <0
180° − 𝐴

>0 >0
180° + 𝐴

The elevation angle for an earth station antenna: 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂

𝑑 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏

8. Write a note on Polar Mount Antennas.

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The Polar Mount Antennas are antennae that use single actuators to move the antenna in a circular arc.
With the polar mount antenna, the dish is mounted on an axis termed the polar axis such that the antenna
bore sight is normal to the polar axis. The dish is tilted at an angle ∂ relative to the polar mount until the
bore sight is pointing at a satellite position due south of the earth station.

δ = 90° − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( )𝑠𝑖𝑛 λ

𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂
𝑑 𝐸
− λ𝐸

9. Is it preferable to operate with a satellite positioned at West rather than East of Earth station
longitude? Justify.
When the satellite's longitude is east of the earth station, the satellite enters an eclipse during daylight
(and early evening) hours of the earth station. This can be undesirable if the satellite has to operate on
reduced battery power. When the satellite's longitude is west of the earth station, an eclipse does not occur
until the earth station is in darkness, when usage is likely to be low. Thus, Satellite longitudes, which are
west, rather than east, of the Earth station, are more desirable.

Textbook Questions
3.1. Explain what is meant by the geostationary orbit. How do the geostationary orbit and a
geosynchronous orbit differ?
A geostationary orbit is a circular orbit with 0 inclination and 35,785 km (22,236 miles) above Earth's
Equator in which a satellite's orbital period is equal to Earth's rotation period of 23 hours and 56 minutes.
The satellite travel in geostationary orbit appears to be stationary with respect to the earth and it must
travel eastward at the same rotational speed as the earth.
Geosynchronous orbit is used to differentiate the “real-world” GEO orbit from the ideal geostationary
orbit which cannot be achieved because of shifts caused by the gravitational fields of the sun and moon
and Earth’s equatorial elliptically.

3.6. An earth station is located at latitude 35°N and longitude 100°W. Calculate the antenna-look
angles for a satellite at 67°W.
𝑅 = 6371 𝑘𝑚, 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂 = 42164 𝑘𝑚,

ϕ𝐸 =− 100°, λ𝐸 = 35°, ϕ𝑆𝑆 =− 67°, 𝐵 = ϕ𝐸 − ϕ𝑆𝑆 =− 100° + 67° =− 33°

( )
Then, 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 λ𝐸 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− 33°) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (35°)) ≈ 46. 6°

The azimuth angle for the earth station antenna: 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|𝐵|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|−33°|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 46.6° ) ≈ 48. 56°
By inspection, λ𝐸 > 0 and 𝐵 < 0, applies 𝐴𝑧 = 180° − 𝐴 = 180° − 48. 56° = 131. 44°

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2 2
The range: 𝑑 = 𝑅 + 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂 − 2𝑅𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏

2 2
= (6371 𝑘𝑚) + (42164 𝑘𝑚) − 2 × 6371 𝑘𝑚 × 42164 𝑘𝑚 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 46. 6° ≈ 38069. 05 𝑘𝑚

The elevation angle: 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂

𝑑 ) (
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠
42164 𝑘𝑚
38069.05 𝑘𝑚 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 46. 6° ≈ 36. 42°

3.7. An earth station is located at latitude 12°S and longitude 52°W. Calculate the antenna-look angles
for a satellite at 70°W
𝑅 = 6371 𝑘𝑚, 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂 = 42164 𝑘𝑚,

ϕ𝐸 =− 52°, λ𝐸 =− 12°, ϕ𝑆𝑆 =− 70°, 𝐵 = ϕ𝐸 − ϕ𝑆𝑆 =− 52° + 70° = 18°

( )
Then, 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 λ𝐸 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑠 (18°) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− 12°)) ≈ 21. 52°

The azimuth angle for the earth station antenna: 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|𝐵|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|18°|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 21.52° ) ≈ 57. 40°
By inspection, λ𝐸 < 0 and 𝐵 > 0, applies 𝐴𝑧 = 360° − 𝐴 = 360° − 57. 40° = 302. 6°

2 2
The range: 𝑑 = 𝑅 + 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂 − 2𝑅𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏

2 2
= (6371 𝑘𝑚) + (42164 𝑘𝑚) − 2 × 6371 𝑘𝑚 × 42164 𝑘𝑚 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 21. 52° ≈ 36312. 41 𝑘𝑚

The elevation angle: 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂

𝑑 ) (
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠
42164 𝑘𝑚
36312.41 𝑘𝑚 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 21. 52° ≈ 64. 79°

3.8. An earth station is located at latitude 35°N and longitude 65°E. Calculate the antenna-look angles
for a satellite at 19°E.
𝑅 = 6371 𝑘𝑚, 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂 = 42164 𝑘𝑚,

ϕ𝐸 = 65°, λ𝐸 = 35°, ϕ𝑆𝑆 = 19°, 𝐵 = ϕ𝐸 − ϕ𝑆𝑆 = 65° − 19° = 46°

( )
Then, 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 λ𝐸 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑠 (46°) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (35°)) ≈ 55. 32°

The azimuth angle for the earth station antenna: 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|𝐵|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|46°|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 55.32° ) ≈ 61. 01°
By inspection, λ𝐸 > 0 and 𝐵 > 0, applies 𝐴𝑧 = 180° + 𝐴 = 180° + 61. 01° = 241. 01°

2 2
The range: 𝑑 = 𝑅 + 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂 − 2𝑅𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏

2 2
= (6371 𝑘𝑚) + (42164 𝑘𝑚) − 2 × 6371 𝑘𝑚 × 42164 𝑘𝑚 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 55. 32° ≈ 38893. 43 𝑘𝑚

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The elevation angle: 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂

𝑑 ) (
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠
42164 𝑘𝑚
36312.41 𝑘𝑚 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 55. 32° ≈ 17. 28°

3.9. An earth station is located at latitude 30°S and longitude 130°E. Calculate the antenna-look angles
for a satellite at 156°E.
𝑅 = 6371 𝑘𝑚, 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂 = 42164 𝑘𝑚,

ϕ𝐸 = 130°, λ𝐸 =− 30°, ϕ𝑆𝑆 = 156°, 𝐵 = ϕ𝐸 − ϕ𝑆𝑆 = 130° − 156° =− 26°

( )
Then, 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐵 𝑐𝑜𝑠 λ𝐸 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− 26°) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (− 30°)) ≈ 38. 89°

The azimuth angle for the earth station antenna: 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|𝐵|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 ) = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑠𝑖𝑛( 𝑠𝑖𝑛|−26°|
𝑠𝑖𝑛 38.89° ) ≈ 44. 29°
By inspection, λ𝐸 < 0 and 𝐵 < 0, applies 𝐴𝑧 = 𝐴 = 44. 29°

2 2
The range: 𝑑 = 𝑅 + 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂 − 2𝑅𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑏

2 2
= (6371 𝑘𝑚) + (42164 𝑘𝑚) − 2 × 6371 𝑘𝑚 × 42164 𝑘𝑚 × 𝑐𝑜𝑠 38. 89° ≈ 37419. 51 𝑘𝑚

The elevation angle: 𝐸𝑙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( 𝑎𝐺𝑆𝑂

𝑑 ) (
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠
42164 𝑘𝑚
36312.41 𝑘𝑚 )
𝑠𝑖𝑛 38. 89° ≈ 43. 20°

3.19. Explain what is meant by the earth eclipse of an earth-orbiting satellite. Why is it preferable to
operate with a satellite positioned west, rather than east, of earth station longitude?
If the earth’s equatorial plane coincided with the plane of the earth’s orbit around the sun (the ecliptic
plane), geostationary satellites would be eclipsed by the earth once each day.
When the satellite's longitude is east of the Earth station, the satellite enters an eclipse during daylight
(and early evening) hours of the Earth station. This can be undesirable if the satellite has to operate on
reduced battery power. When the satellite's longitude is west of the earth station, an eclipse does not occur
until the earth station is in darkness, when usage is likely to be low. Thus, Satellite longitudes, which are
west, rather than east, of the Earth station, are more desirable.

3.20. Explain briefly what is meant by sun transit outage.

The Sun Transit Outage is an interruption in or distortion of geostationary satellite signals caused by
interference from solar radiation. It occurs when the transit of the satellite between earth and sun such that
the sun comes within the beamwidth of the Earth-station antenna and becomes an extremely noisy source,

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which completely blanks out the signal from the satellite. This effect lasts for 6 days around the equinoxes
and they occur for a maximum period of 10 minutes.

6 Introduction to Space Communication