MODULE 1: UNDERSTANDING ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS AND PRESERVATION OF ITS

ENGRAINED RESOURCES

TOPIC: CONSERVE WORLD’S BIOMES AND RESOURCES

Lesson 1: The concept of the soil

I. Definition

Soil is a thin layer of the earth crust that is made up of a mixture of mineral particles,
organic matter, water and air formed by physical, chemical and biological processes.

II. Components of soil

These are the substances that make up soil. A mature soil consists of four
components namely; mineral matter, organic matter, air and water.

The relative proportion of the different soil components is represented on the figure
below

relative proportion of soil components

organic matter pores of air and water
mineral matter

15%

40%

45%

a. Mineral matter: This consists of broken rock particles of various sizes such as clay,
silt and sand. They are derived from the weathering of rocks.

Mineral matter makes up a large proportion of soil (about 40%). It provides the
mineral nutrients required by plants.

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 b. Organic matter: This consists of decomposed remains of plant and animal material
called humus as well as the microorganisms that live within the soil such as
bacteria, fungi, and earth worms.

Organic matter makes up a small proportion of soil, representing only about 15% of
the total volume of soil.

c. Air: these are the gases that occupy the pore spaces between the soil particles.
These include carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen.

These gases are derived from the atmosphere and some released by the organisms
that live in the soil. Soil air is rich in carbon dioxide and poorer in oxygen.

d. Water: soil water occupies the pores between the soil particles. It is derived from
the atmosphere in rainfall and from ground water below.

The pores containing air and water make about 45% of the soil’s volume.

III. The soil system

Soil is an open system because it involves inputs, processes and outputs. The
diagram below illustrates the main aspects of the soil system.

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 Soil as an open system

a. Inputs

These are the materials and energy that enter the soil body. These include;

 Water from the atmosphere.

 Gases from the atmosphere and from the respiration of soil organisms.

 Minerals from weathered rock.

 Organic matter and nutrients from plants.

 Solar energy which comes in through direct sunshine.

b. Processes

These are the actions or activities which take place in the soil. These include

 Nutrient cycling: whereby the nutrients that get into the soil are taken up by plants and
later released back to the soil when they die and decompose.

 Leaching: wherein, the water that gets into soil dissolves and washes downward the
soluble minerals or elements found in the soil as the water percolates (slowly passes
through the soil)

 Capillarity: is the opposite of leaching. It is the process by which the water in the soil
rather moves but upward in dry areas and brings up minerals or nutrients from the
lower layers to the upper layers of soil. This makes the soil fertile.

 Eluviation: in which some of the water moving through the soil washes out fine soil
material in suspension from the A horizon or top soil.

 Illuviation: whereby, the material removed from the top soil by sinking water is re
deposited in the lower layer (B Horizon) of the same soil. This helps to build the middle
layer of a soil profile.

 Organic matter decomposition: this occurs when the micro-organisms in the soil
breakdown the waste matter to form humus, a process called humification.

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 In the breakdown, some of the organic matter is converted into mineral matter, a
process called mineralisation.

c. Outputs

The outputs include:

 Water lost to the atmosphere through evaporation and transpiration.

 Nutrients lost through leaching and through flow.

 Soil particles lost through soil creep and erosion.

Lesson 2: Soil characteristics or properties

I. Meaning

Soil characteristics refer to the features that or qualities that make up a soil. These
characteristics are texture, structure, colour, depth, P.H or soil chemistry and fertility

II. Major soil properties

1. Soil Texture: this refers to the sizes and relative amounts of the various mineral
particles that make up the soil such as sand, silt and clay

 Clay particles are the smallest with a diametre of 0.002mm.

 Silt ranges from 0.002mm to 0.02mm.

 While sand are particles from 0.002mm to 2mm.

 By its texture, soil can be classified into twelve types namely; sand, silt, clay,
loam, sandy loam, sandy clay loam, loam sand, sandy clay, silty loam, silty clay
loam, clay loam and silty clay. The diagram below illustrates soil texture.

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 Soil texture

2. Soil structure: This is the shape of the organized groupings of soil particles called
peds. When the sand, silt and clay particles join together, they form different shapes.
Six shapes of soil structure can be distinguished namely; crumb, granular, blocky,
platy, prismatic and columnar. These are illustrated below.

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 i. Crumb: It has small individual particles and allows for free movement of water,
and so is the most productive for agricultural purposes as it is well drained and
aerated.

ii. Be Granular: Though its particles are small, it has poor drainage and aeration so
fairly good for farming.

iii. Platy: They are horizontally arranged in a planar manner. Hinders air, water and
plants roots penetration. It is not good for agriculture.

iv. Blocky: its particles are irregularly shaped, horizontally and vertically closely
fitting to each other. However, equally productive.

v. Prismatic: Peds or soil particles are upstanding with flat tops. It supports plant
growth.

vi. Columnar: Rounded vertical arranged caps and supports plant growth.

3. Soil depth: This is the thickness of the soil from the surface to the bedrock below. A
soil maybe deep, thin or skeletal. Deep soils can support tubers such as cassava
and yams, while most thin soils are poor for farming.

4. Soil fertility: This is the ability of a soil to supply enough nutrients and water for
plant growth and high yield. It depends on the soil texture structure, depth, organic,
mineral and moisture contents of the soil. Some of the nutrients are carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, calcium, potassium. There are about 17 nutrients needed by
plants to grow and function.

Lesson 3: soil formation

I. Introduction
It takes a long time (hundreds and thousands of years) for a mature soil to be formed
that can support agriculture.
II. Stages in soil formation
a. The first stage is the weathering of bedrock to produce a layer of broken rock
material called regolith. This provides the mineral material from which soils
eventually develop.

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 b. The second stage is the addition of organic matter to the mineral particles. This
occurs through decomposition and Integration of plant and animal remains by soil
organisms.
c. The final stage is that of the reorganisation and redistribution of the various soil
constituents into horizons. This is achieved by bacterial mixing and
translocation( soil translocation is the movement of fine and soluble soil material in
various directions within the soil by the aid of soil water)

III. Factors of soil formation

Soil formation is influenced by five factors as expressed by an American soil expert,
H. Jenny in the equation stated below

S= f (Cl, O, R, P, T)
S stands for soil
f for function of the following factors:
Cl is climate
O is organisms
R is relief
P is parent material
T is time
Climate and organisms constitute the active factors because their impacts become
increasingly important on soil with time, while the others are passive factors.
A. Active factors of soil formation
1. Climate
 Climate is the main factor of soil formation through precipitation and temperature.
Climate influences the breakdown and decomposition of rocks to form regolith.
Regions of high temperatures and rainfall experience rapid chemical weathering
(Tropical Regions) while hot and very cold areas have physical weathering (Tundra,
polar and deserts) which produces thin and coarse textured soils e.g desert soils.
 Climate also influences the rate of decomposition. When climate is warm, it
increases the role of soil organisms like in the tropics, but in cold in areas,
decomposition is slow and raw humus called mor humus accumulates. This is

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 acidic.
 Climate determines the intensity and direction of translocation or movement of soil
material. This gives rise to different layers or horizons. In humid climates where
there is more precipitation, there is downward translocation or leaching. This gives
rise to infertile and acidic soils such as podsols and ferralitic soils. In dry climates,
material is moved upwards through capillarity. This results in fertile and neutral or
alkaline soils such as chernozems
2. Organisms or Biological activity: This refers to the contribution of living things to
soil formation. Plants, soil organisms and man influence soil development
 Plants provide waste matter which decomposes to form humus. This adds
nutrients to the soil and also change soil colour.
 Soil organisms such as bacteria help in decomposition of organic matter and
mixing of the soil. Some bacteria such as nitrogen fixing bacteria fix nutrients into
the soil. This improves on soil fertility.
 Man adds nutrients in the soil by application of fertilizers and organic manure.
However, man can also destroy the soil by over cultivation, deforestation and over
grazing.
B. Passive factors of soil formation
3. Relief: relief through aspect, gradient and height causes differences in soil along
slope called soil catena. Deep and fertile soils develop on lowlands with gentle
slopes. Soils upslope are thin due to rapid loss by erosion and landslides.
Vegetation is scantier in highlands and this result in poor humus formation.
4. Parent material: this is the bedrock or regolith formed from weathering. It is the
parent material that determines the physical and chemical features of the soil. A
rock with large grains or crystals such as sandstone, when weathered produces
sandy soils. If it is a rock with small grains like basalt, it would give rise to clay soils.
5. Time: this is the duration through which soil is exposed to the soil forming
properties. The longer the soil is exposed and given the time to go through its
formation processes, mature soils will be formed with well-defined horizons. While
on the other hand, with limited time, the soils will be young with poorly developed
horizons.
IV. Soil profile
A soil profile is the vertical section of a soil from the surface to the bedrock below

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 showing its different horizons or layers.

A simple soil profile

The soil profile of a well-developed soil can be divided into three main horizons
namely; the A, B and C horizons.
i. A-Horizon or top soil
 It is the uppermost layer of soil from which the roots of small plants are found. It is rich
in organic matter and so often dark in colour. Biological activity is high.
 It has sub layers such as the litter, fermentation, Humus and A2 layers.
 Leaching and eluviation or downward movement of minerals is high in the A-horizon.
For this reason, it is also called the eluvial horizon.
 This layer is also vulnerable to wind and water erosion.
ii. B-Horizon
 This is the middle layer also called the subsoil. It is light in colour due to less organic

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 matter.
 It is a zone of accumulation of the material removed from the A-Horizon. For this
reason, it is described as the illuvial horizon.
 It is the layer in which the roots of big trees occur.
The two horizons: A and B are considered the true soil layer and called Solum .
iii. C-Horizon: It is made up of recently weathered materials called regolith. It is lying on
top of the unbroken rock or bedrock.

Lesson 4: soil Erosion

I. Meaning :
Soil erosion is the complete or partial removal of the top layers of the soil by natural
agents such as wind, water and ice.
II. Types of soil erosion
Soil erosion is classified into two main types based on whether it is caused by natural
or human factors. These are normal geologic and accelerated erosion.
a. Normal geologic erosion: It is caused by natural factors. It operates on the earth
surface whenever energy flows as water, wind or ice. It is slow and has been going on
from earliest times.
b. Accelerated soil erosion: It is a very fast type of erosion caused by human action. It
results in serious negative consequences as the soil is lost more than it can be
replaced.
III. Causes of soil erosion
Soil erosion is caused by both physical and human actions.
A. Physical or Natural causes
1. Strong winds: They have a force that can cause soil particles to be dislodged and
carried away by pushing on ground or by lifting and taking along in suspension.
2. Heavy rainfall causes large soil particles to be scattered by the impact of the rain drop.
These are then carried away by the runoff generated by excess rain water on the
surface.
3. The presence of steep slopes encourages runoff which carries top soil away.
4. The presence of loose soils which are structure less and have little or no organic
matter can easily be picked up by wind, water or ice.
B. Human causes/actions of man

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 1. Deforestation or destruction of vegetation cover: where the vegetation is removed,
there is no replacement of humus, no interception of raindrop impact by plants and no
roots to bind the soil together. The soil surface is left exposed to rain and wind. Rapid
deforestation in the Amazon basin for lumbering and to provide farm land has caused
acute soil erosion, which leaves behind gullies and wadies.
2. Overgrazing: This is the rearing of too many cattle, sheep, and goats on a limited land
area. As result, the vegetation is completely eaten by the animals leaving it bare and
their hooves dig deep into the soils and loosen it for eventual erosion.
3. Over cultivation: This refers to the continuous cultivation of crops on the same piece of
land year after year, without allowing it sometime to regain its natural fertility. When
this occurs, soil nutrients are exhausted, the soil becomes loose and easily carried
away by agents of erosion. Over cultivation is responsible for the rapid loss of top soil
in the Western Highlands of Cameroon.
4. Slope-wise cultivation: making ridges up and down the slope instead of across the
slope causes soil erosion. The furrows in-between the ridges form channels which
facilitate gully erosion.
5. Monoculture: This is the cultivation of the same crop each year on the same piece of
land. This exhausts the vital soil nutrients, weakens soil structure, and makes the soil
vulnerable to wind and water erosion. This is common in the cotton Belt of Southern
USA and the Wheat lands of the Prairies in Canada.
6. Deep ploughing: It also renders the soil loose. This can easily be carried away by
agents of erosion.
Lesson 5: Soil Conservation
I. Meaning:
Soil conservation is the management of the soil in a way that it does not lose its fertility.
It involves; measures to prevent further soil loss and measures to maintain soil
fertility so that it remains good for agriculture.
A. Measures or ways to check soil erosion
1. Maintaining effective vegetation cover: This can be done by planting trees and grass.
Vegetation helps to bind the soil together through the roots of the plants. It also
supplies organic materials through the leaves. Plants reduce the speed of wind and
running water and thus, reduce the speed of erosion.
2. Contour ploughing: This involves the making of ridges across a slope to reduce the
speed of running water. This is now practised on the slopes of the Western Highlands
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 of Cameroon to check erosion.
3. Terracing: This involves the cutting of the slope into steps of flat lands for cultivation.
It also reduces the speed of running water. This is practiced on the slopes of the
Mandara mountains in North Cameroon.

Terraced rice field

4. Controlled Grazing: To prevent overgrazing, the number of animals to be kept on a
grazing land must be within the carrying capacity of the grassland. This has been
achieved in Australia by subdividing the grazing land or ranch into sections called
paddocks and the rotation of animals from one paddock to another to ensure that no
part of the land has been overgrazed.
5. Strip cultivation: This is when two or more crops are planted in alternate strips parallel
to one another. Harvesting is done at different times. Sometimes, it involves the
cultivation of a portion of land while the adjacent plots on both sides are allowed to
fallow. The uncultivated plots with vegetation cover help to check the speed of the
wind and water. This prevents the entire field from being laid bare at any one time.

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 Strip cultivation
6. Planting of windbreaks: Planting of trees in more open areas helps to reduce the speed
of wind and slows down the rate of wind erosion.
7. The planting of cover or creeping crops: They protect the soil from wind and running
water.

B. Measures to Maintain soil fertility

1. Composting: The use of compost manure can replenish lost nutrients in the soil and
maintain the fertility of the soil.
2. The use of artificial fertilizers: This also helps to replace lost minerals such as
phosphate, nitrate and potassium.
3. Crop rotation: This is a farming practice which involves the growing of different crops
in successive years in the same field so that plant nutrients used by one crop can be
replaced by another. It’s a solution to the negative effects of monoculture on soil.

Lesson 6: The Ecosystem

A. Meaning
This is a natural area in which plants, animals and other organisms interact with the
non-living components of the environment. It can also be defined as a self-sustaining
unit, small or large of the earth’s surface that consist of all the organisms (plants and

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 animals) and physical features (air, water, soil and chemicals) existing and interacting
together in a particular area.
B. Types of ecosystems
Ecosystems fall under two main types namely; aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems.
a. Aquatic ecosystems: these are ecosystems that are established in water. These
include lake ecosystems, estuarine ecosystems, river ecosystems and oceans or seas
referred to as marine ecosystems.
b. Terrestrial ecosystems: they are those established on land or continents. Many of
such exist. But those that cover large area on the continents are called biomes.
Although these embody all the living things and physical features in an area, the
biomes are often named according to the dominant vegetation type found in the area.
Examples are tropical rainforest ecosystem, tropical grassland or savannah ecosystem,
temperate grassland (steppe) ecosystem.
C. Components of Ecosystem
All ecosystems are made up of two main components namely; the biotic and abiotic
components.

Components of ecosystem
1. Biotic components: This refers to all the living things in an ecosystem. These include
all the plants, animals and microorganisms found in an area. All the living things fall
into two groups; producers and consumers or heterotrophs.
a. The producers: These are all the organisms that can make their own food using
inorganic substances. These are mainly green plants. They do so through the process
of photosynthesis.

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  In this process, they absorb water from the soil and combine with carbon dioxide
taken in from the atmosphere in the presence of sunlight to produce carbohydrate.
 Oxygen is given off as a by-product. Photosynthesis takes place on the green
pigment of pants called chlorophyll.
 Since they manufacture their own food, the producers are also called autotrophs,
meaning self-feeders.
b. The consumers or Heterotrophs: These are all the organisms or living things in an
ecosystem that cannot manufacture their own food but depend on other organisms for
their food and energy.
 Depending on what they eat to get food or energy, the consumers have been
classified as herbivores, carnivores, omnivores and decomposers or detritivores.
 Herbivores are organisms that eat herbs or plants for their food or energy.
Examples are caterpillars, grasshoppers, rabbits, goats and cows.
 Carnivores are organisms that consume the flesh or meat of the herbivores to get
food energy. There are small and large carnivores. Examples are cats, dogs, and
lion. Sometimes, the large carnivores prey on the small carnivores.
 Omnivores are organisms which consume both herbs and flesh. Man and fox are
examples.
 Decomposers or detritivores are organisms that consume waste or dead matter to
gain food energy. These include micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi and
macro-organisms such as earthworms and termites. Decomposers break down
waste matter into simpler substances. In so doing, they convert some of the
organic matter into minerals which can be used again by the living plants. They
therefore ensure that what has been used and is now waste matter can be used
again. This is known as natural recycling of materials.
2. Abiotic components: these are the non-living things or conditions in an area. These
embody soil, climate (sunlight and precipitation), minerals from weathered rocks, water
and solar energy.
D. Characteristics of Ecosystems and Notion of Equilibrium
A. Characteristics
The characteristics of ecosystems include the following;
 They are well structured. All ecosystems are made up of two main parts namely; the
physical or abiotic environment and the biotic components.

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  They are sustained by various forms of relationships and interactions. These, in all
cases include the flow of energy and the cycling of materials.
 They occupy different spaces which maybe land (terrestrial ecosystem) or water
(aquatic ecosystem).
 They vary greatly in size and scale. Some are small while others are large such as
the rain forests of the Congo basin.
 All ecosystems are open systems, receiving and losing inputs and outputs of
matter/energy across their boundaries. The inputs include animals which migrate in
from neighbouring ecosystems, seeds brought in by animals, runoff or wind, plants
introduced by man, solar energy from sunshine, and water mainly from precipitation
but also from underground sources. The outputs include animals that migrate out
or are hunted; seeds carried out by wind, running water or animals, heat given off by
the surface or by burning, plants harvested among others.
 Generally, ecosystems have arbitrary boundaries. For example, forest and grassland
ecosystems gradually merge. It is often much more common to find a broad
transitional zone called ecotone than a sharp dividing line.
 Ecosystems are always in a state of dynamic equilibrium.
B. Notion of ecosystem equilibrium
 All ecosystems under natural conditions are in a state of equilibrium. Ecosystem
equilibrium refers to a stable state in the ecosystem which exists when the natural
environment and the resources found there can adequately support all the biotic
components without negative consequences.
 The biotic and abiotic components are in harmony with each other. The ecosystem
will therefore continue to exist with the same species so long as there is no
extreme natural disaster or human interference to destroy it.
 This equilibrium occurs when inputs and outputs of energy and matter are balanced.
It also occurs when the numbers of plants or producers are enough to support the
number of herbivores, who in turn are just enough to support the other consumer
organisms.
 This equilibrium is a dynamic one because changes do take place in the area. For
example; young plants and animals grow to replace old ones. Soils and atmospheric
conditions also change slightly no to create imbalance.
Lesson 7: Functioning of Ecosystems

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 Ecosystems function and survive due to the flow of energy and the cycling of materials or
nutrients. These occur through a food chain or web.
I. Energy flow:
Any ecosystem is sustained in part by the flow of energy through it. Energy is needed
by all the living things for growth, reproduction, work and survival.
The sun is the main source of energy in ecosystems. Solar energy is converted by
green plants through photosynthesis into food or chemical energy. This is then passed
down to all the other organisms in the form of food through the food chain or web.

Energy flow and nutrient cycling in a food chain

 Food chain: It is a line of organisms through which energy and matter are
transferred as one type of living thing or its product is consumed by another as food
and is in turn consumed by another. It normally moves from plants or producers to
the herbivores that eat the plants, and then to the carnivores and omnivores that
consume the previous organisms.
The decomposers obtain their own energy by consuming the waste matter from all
the other organisms. Below is an example of a food chain.

Grass grasshopper chick hawk

II. Trophic level

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Trophic level refers to the feeding position of an organism in a food chain. Most food
chains have three or four trophic levels, each of which regroups organism with the
same feeding habit (plant eaters, meat eaters etc).
 The first trophic level (T1) is composed of all the green plants (producers) which
manufacture food energy through photosynthesis.
 The second trophic level (T2) consists of all herbivorous animals (primary
consumers) that feed on the plants to gain energy. For example; grasshoppers,
caterpillars, goats and rabbits.
 The third trophic level (T3) is occupied by carnivores or secondary consumers
which eat the flesh of herbivores to derive food energy. Most food chains end at
this level.
 The fourth trophic level (T4) usually encountered in longer food chains
embodies top carnivores or tertiary consumers which get their energy by eating
other carnivores. This may also include omnivores that feed on other carnivores
all the lower tiers.
 The position of decomposers is a little confusing because they break down dead
matter from all previous levels to obtain energy. Technically, they do not
represent a specific trophic level.
 At each stage of energy transfer, some amount is lost. Only about 10% of energy
is transferred to the next trophic level while 90% is lost through respiration or
used by the previous organisms for life processes. The food chain therefore
appears in the form of a pyramid to show energy loss. This is called the pyramid
of energy.

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 Food chain in the form of pyramid to reflect energy loss
This fall in energy has caused a reduction in the number of organisms that are found at
higher trophic levels. Hence, the higher the trophic level, the smaller the number of
organisms.
 Food web: It is a more complex food chain in which some animals feed from
different sources or trophic levels to gain energy.

Lesson 8: Material Cycling

A. Meaning of nutrients and nutrient cycle
a. Nutrients: nutrients are chemical elements or compounds required by plants for growth
and functioning. There are about seventeen nutrients required by plants in various
amounts. Some of the nutrients are derived from the atmosphere where they exist as
gases such as oxygen, while others are derived from rocks when they are weathered
such as calcium and potassium. Decaying organic matter also releases nutrients into

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 the soil.
b. Nutrient cycling: Nutrient cycling also called biogeochemical cycling is the movement
of nutrients from the source in the natural environment through the different biotic
components of ecosystem and back to the source or natural environment for reuse.

Nutrient cycling in ecosystem

 The general nutrient cycle is simple and goes through the food chain or web.
Nutrients are taken in by plants from the atmosphere or soil reserve and built into
new organic matter.
 From plants, the nutrients are passed unto the herbivorous animals which feed
directly on the green plants and then to the carnivores which obtain their chemical
elements by consuming the herbivores in turn.
 Nutrients held within the living organisms constitute the biomass store. When the
plants die or shed their leaves, or when the animals die or excrete, their waste
product lying on the surface constitute the litter nutrient store since dead matter
does not decompose immediately. The litter is eventually decomposed by soil
organisms (decomposers) and the nutrients stored within it are released and
returned to the soil store or physical environment (nutrient pool) for re-circulation.

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 B. Classification of nutrients in Ecosystems
On the basis of the amount required by plants, nutrients have been classified as macro
nutrients and micro nutrients
a. Macro nutrients: These are those required in large quantities by plants to grow. There
are four namely; nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and carbon. The absence of nitrogen for
example in the soil will lead to stunted growth and yellowish leaves (chlorosis).
b. Micro nutrients: They are those needed in small quantities by plants. These are
calcium, magnesium, potassium, sulphur and phosphorus.
C. The Carbon Cycle as an Example of Nutrient Cycle
Carbon is an important component of all living cells. It is important for plant growth as
it is one of the ingredients used in the process of photosynthesis. The carbon cycle can
be summarised as follows:
 Carbon is derived from two main sources namely: from the atmosphere where it
exists as carbon dioxide (makes up 0.33% of the total volume of air); and from
rocks, where it is found in the form of hydrocarbon compound such as
petroleum, coal or as calcium carbonate in limestone rocks.
 It is absorbed from the atmosphere by green plants and transformed into
carbohydrate in the process of photosynthesis.
 This is passed onto the animals which consume plants.
 Carbon is sent back to the atmosphere as animals release CO2 in the process of
respiration.
 Also, when plants and animals die, they decompose and carbon is released to
the atmosphere.
 Undecomposed plant and animal materials are transformed into fossil fuels
such as petroleum, peat, coal, lignite and natural gas in a process called
fossilisation or carbonification. Carbon stored in this formed is eventually
returned to the atmosphere through the burning or combustion of these fossil
fuels. This occurs when the fossil fuels are exploited and used as sources of
energy to generate machines or run cars. The carbon is converted into carbon
dioxide and sent to the atmosphere through the exhaust pipes and cycle
continues.

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 The carbon cycle

TOPIC: TROPICAL BIOMES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

Lesson 9: Tropical Rainforest (Selva) Biome
A. Location
It is found in areas between latitudes 0o and 5o north and south of the equator. It occurs
in the Congo basin including the southern Low plateau of Cameroon, the Coastal
lowland of West Africa, the Amazon Basin in South America, and South East Asia (Indo-
Malaysian archipelago).

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 Areas of tropical rainforest biome
B. Characteristics
a. Climate
These areas experience the tropical rainforest climate also called the equatorial
climate. This climate has the following characteristics:
 High temperatures throughout the year of about 27oC on average but a low
temperature range of just about 3oC.
 High rainfall of more than 1500mm per annum that is spread throughout the year.
 However, there are two periods of heavy rainfall around March and September, and
two periods of low rainfall around August and December. The peak periods
correspond to the equinoxes when the sun is over head at the equator to cause air
to rise for condensation to occur. The dry period corresponds to the solstices when
the overhead sun is away from the equator.

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 Relative humidity is high, usually above 60%.
 Summarily, the climate is often described as warm and moist.
b. Soil
The main type of soil in the selva is ferralitic soil. It has the following features
 Very deep profile caused by deep chemical weathering. The year round warm moist
climatic conditions favour rapid and deep chemical weathering.
 Reddish-brown colour due to the presence of insoluble oxides of iron and
aluminium, which are not leached. The soils become yellowish with depth.
 Contain rock-like masses called laterites within the profile. They are formed when
iron and aluminium oxides become too concentrated. This often makes ploughing
and plant root penetration difficult.
 Clayey in texture due to the dominance of chemical weathering.
 Low nutrient content due to intensive leaching given that rainfall is heavy
throughout the year.
 Acidic due to leaching of nutrients.
c. Vegetation
The warm and moist climatic conditions have favoured the growth of vegetation
dominated by trees called tropical rainforest. It has the following characteristics
 It is thick with little undergrowth.
 It is made up of many kinds of plant species of hardwood growing together such as
mahogany, ebony, obeche, greenheart and palm etc. There are more than 200 tree
species per hectare.
 The vegetation is stratified into three main layers. This consists of a top layer of tall
trees of over 50m, the middle layer of usually young individuals of the emergent
species (20-30m) and sparse ground layer of few herbs and shrub in the shade.
This layer arrangement is the result of the upward struggle for sunlight.
 It has broad evergreen leaves since water and heat for growth are available
throughout the year. The trees are never leafless.
 The trees are tall with branchless trunks to search for sunlight. Branches only
develop at the uppermost part of the trunk.
 The trees have large buttress roots which stand above the ground to support their
great height and heavy weight.
d. Animal life

24
 There are many kinds of animals and birds given the variety of plants and food
available. These include monkeys, apes, gorillas, elephants, lions, squirrels and a
variety of bird species.
e. Resources of the Selva Biome and Human Activity
A. Resources
They include
 High temperatures year round and ample sunshine which provide potentials for
solar energy production.
 Abundant rain-water year round.
 Hardwood and timber from the dense forest.
 Medicinal plants from the forest.
 Variety of food resources such as fruits and eru.
 Less fertile but deep ferralitic soils for tuber and tree crop cultivation.
 Different animals for beef.
 Mineral-rich subsoil.
B. Human activity
 Agriculture: Though with a low nutrient content, the deep ferralitic soils have
favoured various agricultural practices in the area such as shifting cultivation and
plantation agriculture involving palm oil, rubber and cocoa production.
 Lumbering: The variety of tree types mainly of hardwood of economic importance
have favoured lumbering. These are exploited mainly by foreign owned companies
for export and for the construction of houses, railways and the making of furniture.
 Harvesting and hunting of food and animals: A variety of food resources such as
fruits and eru are also harvested for home consumption and for sale. Most of the
inhabitants of the forest are also involved in hunting. This is because of the many
species of animals found here.
 Tourism: The presence of giant trees and a variety of animal species serve as major
tourist attractions. The setting up of sanctuaries and forest reserves to safeguard
this ecosystem has further favoured tourism. For example, the Dja forest reserve
and the Mfou sanctuary in south and centre regions of Cameroon respectively are
great tourist attractions.
 Mining: There are a variety of minerals within the subsoil of the selva ecosystem
which have favoured the mining in some areas e.g Tin mining in the Amazon basin.

25
  Exploitation of medicinal plants: Medicinal plants from the forest are harvested and
concocted to treat various ailments or illnesses. The pygmies are efficient
traditional healers.

Lesson 10: Tropical Grassland (Savannah) Biome

I. Location
It is located between latitudes 5o and 15o north and south of the equator. It lies
between the rainforest and hot desert biomes. These include the Savannah of West,
Central and East Africa( covering the Western Highlands and Adamawa Plateau of
Cameroon), the Campos of the Brazilian Highlands, the Ilanos of the Orinocco basin
and the Savannah of Northern Australia.

Areas of tropical grassland biomes

II. Characteristics
A. Climate
The climate of this biome is called the Tropical Continental Climate. It has the
following features

26
  It is a hot climate having two distinct seasons namely; the wet and dry seasons of
varying lengths.
o
 Temperatures are high with an annual mean of 21 C but a high annual temperature
range of about 11oC.
 Rainfall is moderate to low, hardly above 1500mm per annum. It decreases from
1500mm near the rainforest border to about 500mm at the border with the tropical
desert.
 Rainfall is concentrated only in the wet season, which is longer near the rainforest
(9months) but decreases in length to barely 2-3 months at the desert margins.
 Drought is common when the dry season is prolonged.
B. Soil
There are two types of soil in the savannah namely: ferruginous soil in wooded
savannah zone with longer rainy season; and tropical black soil in some areas such as
scrub savannah with shorter rainy season.
 Ferruginous soil is leached with low nutrient content. It contains within its profile
rock-like masses called laterites makes cultivation difficult. These are oxides of iron
and aluminium which have hardened up to alternating wet and dry seasons.
 Tropical black soils are not leached since they are found in the drier parts of the
savannah. They are fertile soils due to upward movement of minerals or nutrients
through capillarity from the rocks and layers below.
C. Vegetation
The vegetation is known as the Tropical grassland or Savannah. it has the following
characteristics
 The vegetation is made up of mainly grass with scattered trees and shrubs. Since it
is a mixture of grasses and trees, it is preferably described as woodland. Plant
species include elephant grass, acacia, fig tree and baobab.
 It changes in form as an adaptation to the reduction in the amount and duration of
rainfall as one moves from the border with the rainforest to the desert margins. The
three subtypes include; Guinea, Sudan and Sahel Savannas.
 The Guinea Savannah is more wooded with tall grass mainly of elephant grass. It is
found next to the tropical rainforest where rainfall amount is higher (1000m to
1500mm) and the rainy season is longer (about 9 months).
 The Sudan savannah consists of continuous grass cover mixed with shorter trees.

27
 It lies next to the guinea savannah where rainfall reduces to between 500 and
1000mm and the wet season lasts only for about 4 to 5 months.
 The Sahel Savannah is the most dried type made up of patches of grasses
separated by bare ground and small thorny bushes. Rainfall here is low (300 to
500mm) and the wet season shortest (3 months only).
 Most of the trees are deciduous. This means they shed their leaves during the dry
season to reduce loss of water through transpiration.
 Others, such as the Baobab, have large trunks to store water for use during the dry
periods.
 Some grasses avoid drought by remaining inactive or dormant during the dry
season. The leaves dry off and die but the root s and seeds and remain dormant
and germinate at the start of the wet season.
 Most of the plants such as acacias have long and deep roots to search for water in
the moist rock layer below the surface in the dry season.
 Conclusively, most of the plants growing in the savannah are xerophytic
(Xerophytes). That is, adapted to grow in dry conditions.
D. Animal life
The animals are herbivores such as zebra, giraffe, rhinoceros, antelope, and elephant.
Carnivores like lion, tiger, leopard, hyena and lynx also exist to prey on the herbivores.
III. Resources of the savannah Biomes and Human Activity
A. Resources
The resources offered by the physical milieu include:
 Abundant grass for pasture.
 Wood and timber from the scattered trees.
 The high temperatures year round.
 Rain water during the wet season.
 Fertile tropical black soils and less fertile ferruginous soils.
 Different animals for beef etc.
B. Human activity
 Livestock farming: The abundant grass is the major resource that is used as
pasture for animal rearing. The animals reared include cattle, sheep, goats and
horses. Mainly traditional methods are used to rear animals. This involves pastoral
nomadism by which the herders and animals move from place to place in search of

28
 fresh pasture. This is because rainfall is seasonal and fresh pasture is scarce
during the dry season.
 Arable farming: mainly crops which require little water to grow are cultivated. These
include cereals or grain crops such as maize, millet, sorghum; as well as legumes
such as groundnuts and beans. Cotton is one of the export crops.
 Tourism: it is another human activity in the savannah. This is due to the presence of
wildlife and the creation of national parks e.g. the Waza national park in northern
part of Cameroon.
 Few industries have been set up which use mainly the crop and animal products as
raw materials e.g. textile (using cotton) and leather (animal skin) manufacturing
and food processing.

Lesson 11: Tropical Monsoon Biome

I. Location
This biome is located between latitudes 10o and 13o north and south of the equator. It
occurs in East Asia (covering India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Thailand, Indo-China),
Southern China, and Northern Australia.

Tropical monsoon areas

Areas of tropical monsoon biomes
II. Characteristics

29
 A. Climate
The climate is known as tropical monsoon climate. It is best developed in South East
Asia. This is a rare type of climate that has alternate wet and dry seasons but with
excessive rainfall during the rainy season. Its characteristics are similar to that of
those of the equatorial climate but for the fact that rainfall is concentrated only in the
wet season. It has the following characteristics
 High temperature of about 27oC on average year-round.
 Heavy rainfall of over 1500mm concentrated only in wet season.
 Dry season exists with no rainfall.
B. Soil
The main zonal soil here Ferralitic soil, which is leached with low fertility. However,
fertile alluvial soils occur in the Ganges, Indus, Hwang-ho plains.
C. Vegetation
The vegetation is called the tropical deciduous forest vegetation. It has the following
features
 Less dense and more undergrowth than rainforest.
 Deciduous in nature
 It has fewer species than selva e.g teak, sal, Indian bamboo
D. Animal life
Fewer species exists e.g. tigers, leopards, elephants, cheetah and many snakes.
III. Human activity
These include
 Wet and dry paddy rice cultivation, shifting cultivation, bush fallowing and plantation
agriculture.
 Lumbering
 High tech manufacturing of electronics.

Lesson 12: Tropical Hot Desert Biomes

I. Location
It is located between latitudes 15o and 35o north and south of the equator. Examples of
tropical deserts include the Sahara Desert, Kalahari and Namib Desert in Africa, Arabian
Desert in the Middle East, Thar Desert in India, Atacama Desert in South America,
Mohave or Californian Desert in USA and the Great Australian Desert.

30
 Tropical hot desert areas

Areas of tropical Hot Desert Biomes

II. Characteristics
A. Climate
It has the hot dry tropical climate with very high temperature (mean annual temperature
is 32oC). Rainfall is low and irregular. The annual rainfall is 250mm.
B. Soil
Desert soils have the following characteristics:
 Have very shallow profile, measuring only few centimetres from the top to the
bottom of their profiles.
 They have brownish-grey to white colour due to their high lime and salt content.

31
  Desert soils are devoid of soil water.
 They have very little or no organic matter due to an absence of vegetation cover.
 The B horizon is made up of an accumulation of gypsum and salt.
 The C horizon is partially decomposed. Generally, horizons are poorly differentiated
and inconspicuous in desert soils. Because of the high lime content, the soils would
be able to support crops for a long time if they are carefully irrigated. The major
problem is therefore the lack of soil water. Its saline content also poses a problem
because this hinders plant growth.
C. Vegetation
It is made up of very scanty vegetation with a lot of bare surface. The few plants that
grow in the desert are drought-resistant plants called xerophytes. To survive the dry
condition, the plants have developed the following adaptations:
 Have long tap roots to search for water deep down the rocks.
 Have thick stem to store water.
 Have little or no leaves to reduce loss of water e.g. date palm, baobab and cactus.
D. Animal life: There are few animals due to the scanty vegetation; e.g Desert fox and
snake
III. Resources and Human activity
A. Resources
 Abundant solar energy which can be exploited to provide solar electricity.
 Presence of minerals such as petroleum. The major oil-producing countries of the
Middle East are located in desert environments.
 Fertile soils in oasis.
 Some of the desert landforms such as rock pedestals, yadangs, zeugens serve as
tourist attractions.
B. Human Activity
 Pastoral Nomadism.
 Irrigation farming
 Oil drilling
 Tourism

TOPIC: TEMPERATE BIOMES AND THEIR SIGNIFICANCE

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 Lesson 13: Mediterranean Biome
I. Location
o o
It is located between latitudes 30 and 45 north and south of the equator mainly on
western sides of continents. The major areas are around the Mediterranean Sea,
Central California, Central Chile, around Cape Town, and Southern Australia.

Mediterranean Biome
Areas of Mediterranean biome

II. Characteristics
A. Climate
The climate of this biome is called Mediterranean climate or the temperate warm
western margin climate. It has the following characteristics:
 Unlike other climates which have wet summers, the summers of the Mediterranean
climate are rather warm and dry, while winters are cool and wet.
 The average temperature is 16oC.

33
  Rainfall is moderate about 840mm and occurs in winter (and not in summer). This
is because, during summer, the winds blow from land to the sea (i.e. offshore). Any
available moisture is carried away from land and condensation cannot take place to
produce rain. In winter, the winds blow from sea to land (onshore) bringing moisture
which rises and condenses to form rain.
B. Soil: The type of soil is called the brown forest soil . It is reddish brown, with a high
humus content and is relatively fertile.
C. Vegetation: The vegetation here is called Mediterranean woodland or forest.
Characteristics include;
 It is dominated by trees and shrubs.
 The vegetation has fewer species than selva. Examples of trees are oak tree, fig
tree, eucalyptus and cypress. Examples of shrubs are laurel, myrtle and oleander.
 Vegetation is less dense than selva due to limited rainfall amounts.
 There is more undergrowth since more sunlight reaches the ground as the trees are
widely spaced.
 Broad leafed evergreen.
 Some of the trees are deciduous and have long tap roots to search for water during
the short drought in summer.
Much of the natural vegetation has been destroyed today and secondary vegetation
called marquis comprising of shorter shrubs has developed.
D. Animal life: Rabbit, squirrel, fox, muskrat are common.
III. Resources of the Mediterranean biome and Human activity.
A. Resources: They include
 Moderate rainfall and mild temperature coupled with the brown forest soils which
favour grain and fruit cultivation (grapes, citrus and apple).
 The animals and woodland vegetation provide raw materials for food processing
industries.
B. Human activities
 Commercial farming (cereal cultivation of wheat, barley and maize)
 Market gardening involving the cultivation of vegetables.
 Viticulture, fruit farming involving citrus fruits such as oranges and lemons; and
apples.
 Sheep/goat rearing.

34
  Light manufacturing

Lesson 14: Temperate Grassland (steppe) Biome

I. Location
It is located between latitudes 30o and 45o north and south of the equator. It occurs in
the Prairies of North America, the Downs of Australia, the Pampas of Argentina, the
Steppes of Europe and Asia, the Manchuria of grassland of China and the Veldt of
South Africa.

aaaareas of temperate grassland biome

Temperate grassland areas

Areas of temperate grassland biome

II. Characteristics

A. Climate

The climate of this biome is called Warm Temperate continental climate or steppe
climate. It has the following characteristics:

 It has a warm summer and a cold winter. Average temperature in summer is about
19oC while in winter, temperature falls to below 0oC (of about -20oC).

35
  Low precipitation of about 510mm per year. It occurs in the form of snow and rain.

B. Soil

The soil is the black earth known as chernozems. It is very fertile because leaching is
low due to the low rainfall in the region. Chernozems have the following characteristics

 Fairly deep profiles.

 The A horizon is rich in organic matter (humus) and bases such as calcium,
potassium, sodium and magnesium and typically deep (25cm).

 Because of its high organic content, the soil is black or dark brown in colour.

 It usually displays an excellent crumb structure (porous) and has a neutral or

slightly alkaline pH of between 7 and 7.5.

 Horizons are not clearly recognisable. The B horizon is rich in lime and calcium
carbonate nodules.

 Chernozems are among the most fertile soils in the world and constitute the cereal
lands of the world.

C. Vegetation

The vegetation of this biome is called temperate grassland vegetation. Its

characteristics and mode of adaptation to the predominantly dry conditions are as
follows

 It is treeless. The major grasses include big blue stem, the little blue stem and black
-eyed susan.

 The plants are mainly xerophytic. For example;

 They lie dormant during the prolonged drought.

 They develop protective mechanisms against dryness e.g. leaves curl up to

prevent evaporative loss of water.

36
  Have rapid growth cycle. That is, germinate, grow, develop flowers and die
within a short period.

D. Animal life

Animals found here include prairie dogs, hares, mice, wild horses and buffaloes.

III. Resources of the Steppe biome and Human activity

A. Resources

They include:

 Treeless grassland as natural pasture.

 The predominantly dry climatic conditions coupled with the fertile chernozems
favour cereal cultivation.

 The generally gentle relief favour mechanized farming.

 The different animals for beef and meat and raw materials for certain industries.

B. Human activity

 Extensive commercial farming: This involves the cultivation of cereals especially

wheat and maize e.g. in the Canadian Prairies.

 Pastoral farming (ranching and nomadic herding): The major types of animals
reared are cattle, sheep, goats and horses.

 Manufacturing: industries involving the production of canned food, leather from the
animal material and other dairy products.

Lesson 15: Coniferous Forest (Taiga) Biome

I. Location

It is located between latitudes 45o and 65o only in the northern hemisphere. It occurs in
Northern parts of North America in Central Alaska and Central Canada, Siberia and the
northern part of Eurasia.

37
 Areas of coniferous forest biomes

II. Characteristics

A. Climate

The climate is called Cold humid temperate continental climate or the Siberian type. It
has the following characteristics:

 Long cold winters with temperatures far below freezing point (-68oC) and short
summer with temperature of about 18oC.

 Low precipitation of about 530mm spread year round. It occurs in the form of snow
in winter and as rain in the short summer.

B. Soil

The type of soil here is called podzols, a Russian term for ash-grey coloured soil. It is
leached and acidic soil with low fertility.

 Unlike the other soil types, podzols have sharp boundaries between the horizons.

38
  On the surface lies a layer of raw humus. This is due to the low temperatures which
limit organic matter decomposition by soil organisms.

 Below this is an ash-grey A2 sandy layer that is rich is silica but heavily leached and
bleached of its sesquioxides, bases and clay.

 The B-horizon contains an accumulation of iron and aluminium that sometimes

form an impermeable hard pan. This horizon is characteristically reddish brown in
colour.

 Below this is the weathered parent material or C horizon.

 Generally, podzols have a shallow profile, heavily leached and acidic with a pH value
of 4. Podzols are not naturally fertile and need to be improved by the addition of
lime and fertilizer.

C. Vegetation:

The vegetation is made up of coniferous forest. It has the following characteristics:

 It is made up of few species of trees which occur in stands. These include pine,
spruce and birch.

 The trees are conical in shape to avoid snow accumulation.

 They have needle-like leaves to reduce transpirational loss of water.

 The coniferous forest is always evergreen so as to permit photosynthesis

whenever light is available.

 The trees have shallow roots to make use of melt water in the top soil during the
short summer.

 Trees have thick barks to withstand the cold conditions.

D. Animal life

The animals are few, mainly bear and reindeer, mink, beaver, muskrat and silver fox.
Most have thick hair (fur) to protect them against cold.

39
III. Resources and human activity

A. Resources

 The long cold winters cause the accumulation of ice on the surface for skiing.

 The coniferous forest provides soft wood for furniture making.

 Animal skin from animals is used for leather work.

B. Human activity

 Lumbering such as in Sweden

 Hunting of wildlife

 Manufacturing

 Mining of iron ore in Sweden

TOPIC: THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF CAMEROON

Lesson 16: Situation of Cameroon

A. Location and size

a. Location: Taking a close look at the African map, and Cameroon been an African
country, we will realise that Cameroon is located in west central Africa precisely at the
north eastern end of the Gulf of Guinea. She (Cameroon) lies between latitudes 20N and
130N of the equator and between longitudes 80E and 160E of the Greenwich Meridian.
Cameroon is bounded by Nigeria to the West, Chad and Central African Republic to the

40
 East, the republic of Congo, Gabon and Equatorial Guinea to the South. It is equally
bounded by two important natural features i.e. Lake Chad to the North and the Atlantic
Ocean to the South West.

b. Size: Cameroon has a total surface area o about 475, 442km2. This comprises of about
472, 710km2 of land mass and 2, 730km2 of water. The territory has the shape of a
carelessly drawn triangle with a base of about 700km and a height of about 1,200km.

B. Brief History

History remains an inevitable component of human life as it enables us to understand the

past, the present and to avoid past mistakes in future. Thus, in order to understand
geographical facts such as changes in the shape, size of the territory, changes in
population, the origin of plantation agriculture in Cameroon amongst others, a reflection of
its history important or necessary.

Unlike other African countries, Cameroon is one of the African countries whose history has
been shaped by the influence of three European powers i.e. Germany (1884 – 1916),
Britain and France (1916 – 1960 and 61) occupying different parts (West and East
Cameroon) respectively.

However, the territory was first visited by the Portuguese (1472 AD) who named it Rio-dos
Cameroes (River of prowns – present day River Wouri) from which the name of the country
evolved or was derived.

The Germans where the first to colonise the territory, which they called Kamerun. They
annexed the territory on the 12th of July 1884 (signed the Germano-Duala Treaty) and on
the 14th of July 1884, they hoisted their flag. The British who had long been invited by the
kings of Duala arrived the territory on the 19th of July 1884 (Hewett also referred to as Too
Late Hewett).

Initially, the present day Cameroon was bigger and broader in the days of the Germans
than what it is today as it included portions which are today parts of Nigeria, Chad, Central
African Republic, Congo and Gabon.

The defeat of the Germans (1916) during the First World War in Cameroon marked the end
of their 32 years of rule. After failing to establish a joint rule (Condominium) in Cameroon

41
due to cultural differences amongst others, the French and English partitioned the land
into two i.e. British West Cameroon and French East Cameroon as mandated territories.

French cameroon (East Cameroon) gained independence on 1st January 1960 and to form
The Republic of Cameroon (La Republic du Cameroun). British Southern Cameroon (West
Cameroon) gained independence on the 1st of October 1962 by joining The Republic of
Cameroon (French Cameroon). This accounts for the bilingual nature of the country today.

This joining or union marked the Reunification date and the birth of the Federal Republic of
Cameroon. Cameroon evolved from Federal system to Unitary State in 1972 following a
Referendum that was organised. The new appellation was The United Republic of
Cameroon. By presidential decree of 4th February 1984, the name changed from the United
Republic of Cameroon to the Republic of Cameroon as we know today.

Lesson 17: Administrative Set Up of Cameroon

Since November 12th 2008, Cameroon is divided into a total of 428 administrative units
following a presidential decree to ease administration. This comprises 10 regions, 58
divisions, and 360 subdivisions. It should be noted that all divisions are named after the
prominent geographic feature in the area, especially rivers or relief features. Examples are;
Mezam Division in the NW |region from River Mezam, Meme Division in the SW from River
Meme, Mfoundi Division in the Centre region from River Mfoudi, etc.

a. Regions of Cameroon

Regions Head Quarters Surface Area Total Population Division/Subdiv.

ADAMAWA NGAOUNDERE 63,701km2 1,080,500persons 05/21

CENTRE YAOUNDE 68,953km2 3,730,784persons 10/70

EAST BERTOUA 109,002km2 815,472persons 4/33

FAR NORTH MAROUA 34,263km2 3,669,624persons 6/47

LITTORAL DOUALA 20,248km2 2,037,633persons 4/34

NORTH GAROUA 66, 090km2 2,222,161persons 4/21

42
 2
WEST BAFOUSSAM 12,892km 1,834,812persons 8/40

2
SOUTH WEST BUEA 25,419km 1,427,076persons 6/31

NORTH WEST BAMENDA 17,300km2 1,855,199persons 7/34

SOUTH EBOLOWA 47,191km2 713,538persons 4/29

b. Divisions of the West Region

Divisions Headquarters

Mifi Bafoussam

Bamboutos Mbouda

Noun Foumban

Hauts-Plateaux Baham

Haut-Nkam Bafang

Menoua Dschang

Koung-Khi Bandjoun

Nde Bagangte
c. Subdivisions of Bamboutos Division

- Batcham

- Galim

- Mbouda

- Babadjou

Lesson 18: RELIEF OF CAMEROON

Like the human aspects, Cameroon’s physical landscape is quite diverse. It portrays all the

43
aspects of relief, drainage, climate, soil and vegetation found in the African continent. For
this reason, it is described as “Africa in miniature”.

A. Location of main relief units

Cameroon has five main relief units or regions, comprising two lowlands, and three
highlands. These are the Coastal Lowlands, the Northern Lowlands, the Western Highlands,
the Adamawa Plateau, and the Southern Cameroon Low Plateau

44
45
 B. Main Relief Characteristics

When describing the relief of any area, aspects such as location, height, major landforms
in an area are taken into consideration.

1. The Coastal Lowlands

a. Location: It is located along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in the South western part
of the country. It is bounded to the west by the Atlantic Ocean, to the north by the
western highlands and by the southern low plateau to the east. It covers a surface area
of about 150sqaure km , consisting of a vast or wide sedimentary zone stretching from
the Rio del Rey in the Bakassi Peninsula through the Wouri estuar y down to the south
of Kribi (the mouth of river Ntem). The Cameroon’s coastline has a total surface area
of about 360km long.

b. Height: It has an average height of between90m and 200m above sea level.

c. Major landforms: Here, we can conveniently divide it into three as follows:

- The low-lying coast: This area is dominated by basins or depressions which are
associated with depositional features and swamps. These are the Ndian, Tiko-Douala
plain and theKribi depression.

- The rocky coast: This area is covered by erosional features. It occurs in two sections
i.e. betweenIdenau and Bimbia where mount Cameroon extends to the sea and around
Kribi where the southern low plateau plunges steeply to the coast. The coast is clear of
sand and silt deposits.

- The interior coastal lowlands: It is located further away from the Atlantic Ocean and
relatively higher than the coast at the margin of the ocean. This include the Mamfe
depression (about 150km away from the coast). This depression is almost encircled by
a range of mountains, except to the west where it stretches into Nigeria.

2. The Western Highlands

a. Location: It lies north of the coastal lowlands extending from the Kupe mountains
via the west region to the North West region. It is bounded to the east by the
Southern Low plateau.

46
 b. Height: It has an average height of about2,200m above sea level.

c. Major Landforms: It is more rugged (rough) and mountainous with many high
peaks having steep slopes and deep valleys. The major landforms consist of
mostly volcanic mountains or peaks and high altitude plains. The major peaks here
are; theMbapit mountains, Mount Bamboutos, Mbam massif, Mount Oku , and part
of theKupe muanenguba mountains . The high altitude plains are; theNdop or Nun ,
the Mbaw or Tikar plains. This constitute the source of many rivers such as the
River Wouri.

For easy understanding, the western highlands can be divided into three part i.e. the
Bamileke plateau, the Bamoun plateau and the Bamenda Grassfield .

3. The Adamawa Plateau

a. Location: It occupies the central part of the country between latitude 6 0 and 8 0 N . it
lies between the Northern lowlands and the Southern Low plateau.

b. Height: This area has an average height of about1,100m above sea level.

c. Major Landforms: This area is described as a faulted plateau with steep sides and
some volcainic peaks. It is actually a block mountain. Some of the major peaks here
are; theMabng mountains (1641m) to the east,Tchabal Mbabo (2460m) ,Mambila
mountains (1821m) to the north, etc. This plateau is a dissected plateau (cut by
many rivers) draining out of the region which include theVina andMbere rift valleys .
This plateau descends sharply into the Benue depression forming the Ngaoundere
fault scarp. This plateau is the main watershed of Cameroon with rivers such as
Sanaga, Benue andLogone taking their rise from here.

4. The Southern Low Plateau

a. Location: It covers the South and South eastern part of the country. It is bounded
to the north by the Adamawa plateau, to the west by the coastal lowlands and the
western highlands.

b. Height: It has an average height of about650m

47
 c. Major landforms: It is more gently undulating and extensive erosional plain
(peneplain) with many hills and rocky massifs separated by deep valleys e.g.
Mbam, Minkon , Mount Febe and Mbankolo . This plateau slopes gently into the
Congo basin in the east but abruptly towards the coastal lowlands and marked by
alternating depressions and granitic massifs towards the north marking a
transition to the Adamawa plateau.

5. The Northern Lowlands

a. Location: It occupies the northern part of the country. It extends from the foot of
the Adamawa plateau to the shores of Lake Chad.

b. Height: The average altitude ranges between300m and350m .

c. Landforms: This area is dominated by gently sloping plains such as the Benue
basin, the Diamare or Chad plain and Logone (Yaere) valley to the east. The main
peaks in the region include the Mandara Mo untain, Rhumsiki and the Mindif
mountains .

Lesson 19: DRAINAGE

Drainage is the organisation and distribution of water in an area. This involves streams
and rivers flowing in an area and lakes.

A. Principal watersheds of Cameroon

A watershed is the point where a river takes it rise or where it begins. It is equally referred
to as the source of a river. There are four main watersheds in the Cameroon. They include:

1. The Adamawa Plateau watershed

This constitute the main watershed in Cameroon where many rivers such as River Sanaga,
Benue and the Logone River take their rise. The rivers flow out of this plateau in all
directions forming aradial drainage pattern . The Adamawa plateau ids the only watershed
that supplies water to all the four drainage basins in Cameroon.

48
 2. The Western highlands watershed

The main rivers flowing out of here are the River Noun, River Nkam and Menchum River .
The Nkam flows out of the region to form the River Wouri, while the Noun flows out to join
the River Sanaga.

3. The Mandara Mountain watershed

This is the smallest watershed in Cameroon that has two major tributaries i.e. Tsanaga
River which flows out of the region eastwards to join the Logone River and the Mayo Louti
which flows out of the region southward to join River Benue.

4. The Southern Low Plateau watershed

The main rivers here are the Lokoundje flowing from the Nkolgam massif, River Nyong
from the central plateau, the Dja and the Boumbi Rivers from the Guimbiri Mountain
flowing down south meeting the Ngoko River.

5. Other smaller watersheds

- Mount Cameroon harbouring rivers and tributaries flowing out of the area in all
directions forming a radial drainage pattern. Rivers here include; River Meme, Moko,
Bimbia and a tributary of River Mungo.

- The Rumpi hills (1764m) from which River Moungo and Ndian take their rise and flow
southwards into the Atlantic Ocean.

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50
 B. Main Drainage Basins

1. The Atlantic Basin: It is the longest drainage basin in Cameroon. It is found in the
South and South western parts of the country. All rivers in this basin flow directly
into the Atlantic Ocean without passing through other countries except River Manyu
which flows through Nigeria. These rivers can be grouped as follows depending on
their sources of origin;

 From the Adamawa plateau i.e. River Sanaga (920km ) longest river in Cameroon,
with the Djerem, Lom and Mbam as tributaries.

 Rivers from the western highlands i.e. theManyu and Wouri (25km )

 Rivers from the southern low plateau i.e.Nyong, Lokoundje, Lobe and Ntem .

 Others include the Ndian, Meme, Akwa Yafe and Manyu which are all close to the
Nigerian border.

NB: It should be noted that some of these rivers have HEP potentials reasons why
rivers such as the Sanaga at Edea, Lom Panga, Ntem at Memve’ele have been
dammed.

2. The Congo Basin: It is found in the South eastern part of Cameroon. Very few rivers
flow through this drainage basin. Rivers that take their rise from the Guimbiri
Mountain (927m) arethe Dja and Boumba which join to form the Ngoko River . River
Kadei takes its rise from the eastern part of the Adamawa, joined by river Doume
from Guimbiri mount to form the Sangha River . The Ngoko and Sangha then joins
and flow as tributaries of river Congo which enters the sea atMatadi in the Republic
of Congo.

3. The Niger Basin: It is found in the northern lowlands specifically in the north region
of Cameron. The main river here is the Benue River and its tributaries. It flow in the
northern part through a distance of 350km and continues through Nigeria covering
a total distance of about 1400km . it tributaries are from three main watersheds as
follows;

- Those from the Adamawa plateau (Mayo Rey and Mayo Godi )

51
- From the Mandara Mountain (Mayo Loti )

- From the Western highlands (Katsina and Menchum ) which flows north-westward to
join the Benue in Nigeria.

The river Benue flow into Nigeria to join River Niger in the middle belt of Nigeria and
then flows into the Atlantic Ocean.

4. The Chad Basin: It is found in the northern lowlands of Cameroon around the Far
North region. It is the only drainage basin where the rivers end up in a lake instead
of an ocean. The main river here is the Logone River and its tributaries such as
Mayo Tsanaga, Mbere and Vina rivers . The river Logone flows through central Africa
Republic then joins the Chari before entering Lake Chad. These rivers form a
centripetal drainage pattern.

Main Drainage Characteristics

- All the rivers have been classified into four drainage basins

- They take their rise from one of the four main watersheds

- Most of the rivers are interrupted by rapids and waterfalls as the rivers flow from
highlands to the lowlands.

- The streams and rivers in Cameroon are usually affected by the changes in seasons i.e.
in the dry season, most of the rivers reduces in size, volume and speed and vice versa.

Practical Work 1: Relief and Drainage Maps of Cameroon

A. Theoretical basis: Revision of relief and drainage of Cameroon

B. Practical exercise: With the aid of a base map, sketch and locate the following;

i. Main relief units of Cameroon

ii. The main watersheds and drainage basins

iii. Principal rivers of the drainage basin

C. Contextualisation with situation: Identify the main relief units, watersheds of their

52
 locality.

Lesson 20: CLIMATE

A. Identification and location of main types

There are two main climatic types in Cameroon with sub types. These are the Equatorial
climate and the Tropical continental climate.

1. Location: The equatorial climate is experienced in the southern part of the country
from latitude 20N to 60N of the equator, while the Tropical climate dominates the
northern part from the Adamawa plateau to the shores of Lake Chad i.e. from
latitudes 60N to 130N of the equator.

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54
B. Main Characteristics of the Climatic Types

1. The Equatorial Climatic Type

It dominates in the southern part of the country and found between latitude 20N and 60N.
It is experienced in the southern low plateau, coastal lowlands and the western highlands
(especially its southern part). It is generally a hot and humid climate. It is divided into two.

a. The Guinean type

This climate is experienced in the whole of the southern low plateau, stretching down to
Kribi. It is characterised by;

- High and uniform temperature of about 260C year-round with a low temperature range
of just about 30C.

- It has abundant precipitation of about 2500mm on average per annum that is spread
throughout the year.

- There are two periods heavy rainfall around March and September i.e. the two wet
seasons. There are also two periods of low rainfall (short and long dry season). The
first occurs around December – January (long dry season) while the second occurs in
July – August (short dry season).

b. The Cameroon type

This is a type of equatorial climate whose characteristics have been modified by relief,
nearness to the sea and the monsoon winds. It is experienced in the coastal lowlands and
the western highlands. It has two distinct seasons and the rainy season is longer than the
dry season. This climate is subdivided into two;
 The maritime Cameroon or equatorial monsoon climate: It covers the coastal
lowlands extending to the mouth of River Nyong. Due to its nearness to the Atlantic
Ocean, and the influence of the south west monsoon winds, it is characterised by;
- Heavy rainfall of about 4000mm and above with places like Debunscha located in the
windward slope of Mount Cameroon receiving about 10,000mm of rainfall.
- Very long rainy season lasting for about nine months i.e. from March to November and
short dry season of only 3 months.

55
- High relative humidity of about 85% an d more
0 0
- High average temperature of about 26 C with a low range of 4 C due to thick clouds
that prevent radiative heat loss.
- Strong influence of the south west monsoon winds during the wet season.
 The Mountain Cameron type: This sub type dominates the western highlands
especially the southern sections. It is characterised by;
- Heavy rainfall of about 2500mm on average per annum. Rainfall is mostly orographic in
nature.
- Long wet season of about 8 months and a short dry season of about 4 months.
- Fairly moderate temperature of about 190C to 250C.
2. The tropical Climate Type
It covers the whole of the Northern part of Cameroon stretching from latitude 60N to
130N of the equator. There are two seasons here i.e. the rainy and dry season. The
duration of rainy season decreases while the dry season increases as one moves from
the Adamawa plateau to the shores of Lake Chad. Rainfall hardly exceeds 1500mm and
decreases towards the north to about 400mm close to Lake Chad. This climate is
subdivided into two
a. The Humid tropical or Sudan climate: It is experienced between latitudes 60N and 90N.
it covers the Adamawa plateau extending to the extreme northern part of the western
highlands as well as part of the Benue basin. It is characterised by:
- Moderate temperatures of about 210C due to its high altitude but this increases
northward.
- Longer rainy season of about 7 months and shorter dry season of about 5 months.
- Rainfall is higher on the southern limit with the equatorial climate (Adamawa plateau)
measuring about 1500mm but decreases northwards. This explains why the Adamawa
plateau is the main watershed.
b. Dry tropical climate or Sahel climate: It is experienced in the northern lowlands
covering the Diamare plains to Lake Chad. It is characterised by;
- Low atmospheric humidity less than 30%
- Long dry season of about 8 – 9 months and a short rainy season of just about 3 – 4
months.
- Frequent occurrence of drought and desertification
- High diurnal temperature with an average of about 280C. Temperature goes up to about

56
 370C in some months.
- Low and unreliable rainfall with an annual amount of between 500 and 900mm.
- Strong influence of Harmattan winds during the dry season with spiral and dusty (hazy)
winds.
C. General trends or characteristics of Cameroon’s climate
a. Temperature and Insolation
- Temperatures are high throughout the year in most parts of the country due to its
location in the inter-tropical region.
- General temperature and temperature ranges increase from south to north and from
the coast to the hinterlands e.g. 23.50C in Yaounde, 280C in Garoua.
- Insolation is much greater in the north e.g. 2969 hours per year in Garoua. Low
insolation in the south due to cloudy skies, higher precipitation, relative humidity.
b. Precipitation and humidity
- Humidity varies in the same way or order as rainfall
- Highlands receives more rain than low altitudes. E.g. The western highlands receives
more rainfall than the southern low plateau.
- Rainfall declines from the coast towards the north and interior of the country e.g.
Douala receives 4016mm, Yaounde 1596mm, Garoua 1000mm,
Kousseri 630mm.
- There are four seasons in the southern and central regions while the north from
Adamawa plateau has two seasons.
D. Factors Influencing the climate of Cameroon.
1. Latitudes: The situation of the country in the inter-tropical zone accounts for the
general high temperatures. However, places closer to the equator experience the
equatorial climate with uniform temperatures and heavy rainfall while those further
away experience tropical climate with decreasing rainfall and increasing
temperatures.
2. Relief or Altitude: This modifies climatic elements like temperature and
precipitation. Highlands experiences lower temperatures due to fall in temperatures
with height while lowlands such as Benue basin have high temperatures. Highlands
also receive higher rainfall due to orographic effect than some lowlands.
3. Air masses and winds: Two air masses accompanied by two winds affect the
climate of Cameroon. They are;
- The Tropical continental air mass: It originates from the sub-tropical high pressure belt
57
 in the northern hemisphere located over the Sahara desert. It is hot and dry bringing the
dry season. The winds that accompanies this air mass is commonly called the
Harmattan and dominates from December to February. They are dry winds.
- The equatorial maritime air mass: It originates from the St. Helena high pressure cell
in the South Atlantic. It brings the wet season since it originates from a hot tropical
area and from the ocean. It causes the equatorial climate in the south associated with
heavy rainfall. The winds accompanied by this air mass is the South west Monsoon
wind . It is dominant from March to November.
4. Distance from the sea: Coastal areas witness heavy rainfall due to their nearness to
moisture sources from the sea. This explains why rainfall decreases from the coast
to the interior. Temperature also increases away from the coast due to reduction in
the moderating influence of the sea.
Lesson 21: VEGETATION
Vegetation is an assemblage of plant species and the cover they provide on the earth
surface.
A. Identification and location of main types
The vegetation of Cameroon can be classified into two main types as follows;
1. The tropical forest: It is found in the southern part of the country (20N to 60N) of the
equator. It covers the South, East, Central, Littoral, South West and the Southern part of
the Western highlands.
2. Tropical grassland or Savannah: It covers the northern part of the country extending
from latitude 60N to 130N of the equator. It covers the North West, West, Adamawa,
North and Far North regions of Cameroon.

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 B. Main characteristics of each type
 The tropical forest
The tropical forest vegetation is found in the southern part of the country. It can be
subdivided into two main sub types i.e. the rain forest and the mangrove forest. Other
types of forests here are the montian forest and the artificial forest.
a. The tropical or Equatorial rainforest
 Location: It occupies the southern part of Cameroon covering the coastal lowlands
and the southern low plateau. This forest corresponds to the equatorial climatic
region with high temperatures and heavy rainfall.
 Characteristics of the equatorial forest.
The characteristics of the forest have been described under the Selva biome. They
include;
- The presence of many species of trees scattered throughout the forest with the most
common species being Iroko, Camwood, Obeche, Sapele, Mahogany and Ebony.
- The trees have large trunks with buttress roots
- Very large and tall trees, some of the trees are above 45m tall.
- The bottom of the forest is shaded from sunlight and this prevents the growth of plants
at the bottom thereby forming a scanty undergrowth.
- It is a dense or luxuriant evergreen forest. This is because the leaves of the trees are
always green and fresh for most period of the year due to the heavy rainfall.
 Resources
- Wide variety of fauna such as monkeys, elephants for food, tusk for ecotourism.
- The giant exploitable hard trees such as Iroko, Mahogany, Obeche, etc which yield
timber for export and wood for construction.
- Presence of palm trees for wine, wild vegetables (eru), fruits and nuts (bush mango,
bitter kola and cashew) for food.
- Deeply weathered ferrallitic soils and volcanic soils in some areas suitable for
cultivation of tubers and tree crops such as banana, cocoa, oil palm and coffee.
b. The mangrove or swamp forest
 Location: It covers the swamps along the coastal fringes from the Nigerian border
to the estuaries of the Ndian and Meme Rivers and from the Ambas Bay through the
Douala basin to the Sanaga River.
 Characteristics

60
- It has buttress and pop roots which grow above the ground surface and above water
level.
- Vegetation is made up of shorter trees or shrubs than those of the rain forest.
- There are few species which consists mainly of red mangrove species and raffia palms.
 Resources: They include mangrove trees, raffia palms, coconut palms for wood,
poles, bamboos and building materials. The swamps also serves as fish breeding
ground.
c. Other types of forest
1. Montane forest
 Location: This occurs mainly on volcanic mountains on the western highlands such
as the Oku, Ijim, Muanenguba, Bamboutos and Bamenda highlands.
 Characteristics
- It has fewer species than the main rain forest
- The trees are shorter than those of the rain forest.
 Resources: It include a variety of medicinal plants like celtis Africana, Naxia and
Prunus. Flowering plants for bee keeping, wood for construction and local craft,
fertile volcanic soils for farming. This forest also protect water catchments,
provides habitat for many endemic species and threatened species like the
Bannerman turaco in the Bambui uplands extending to Mount Oku whose red
feathers are used for traditional decorations.
2. Artificial or planted forest
This consists of man-made plantations of eucalyptus found mainly in the west,
North West and Adamawa regions, used for wood, electricity poles and construction
materials.
 The Tropical Grassland (Savannah)
Tropical grassland is the name given to the vegetation that lies in the northern part of
Cameroon. It occupies the western highlands and northern part and it is a mixture of
grasses which dominate and scattered trees or shrubs. This is due to low rainfall and
other factors such as relief, soil and man’s influence. The tropical grassland can be
subdivided as follows;
a. The Guinea Savannah or woodland Savannah
 Location: It lies next to the rain forest and covers the western highlands and the
Adamawa plateau. This is the wettest part of the savannah where rainfall ranges

61
 from 1000mm to 1500mm and the wet season is longer.
 Characteristics of the vegetation
- The vegetation is a dense woodland interspersed with tall grass of up to 3.5m, which is
essentially made up of elephant grass.
- The grasses dry up or become brownish during the dry season
- It is also called high-low tree savannah or elephant grass savannah.
b. The Sudan or Parkland Savannah
 Location: It occurs in the Benue basin, the Diamare plain and the MAndara
mountain region.
 Characteristics
- It has few and widely scattered trees which are mostly short and stunded called shrubs
- It is made up of continuous cover of grasses interspersed with shorter trees and
shrubs that become more scattered than in the first. The tussock grass here grows to a
height of 1 to 1.5m.
c. The Sahel or Dry Savannah
 Location: It occurs in the Lake Chad basin close to the Sahara desert. Rainfall here
is less than 500mm and the dry season last longer.
 Characteristics
- Some parts of the soil are exposed without plants, thus desertification is common.
- This is the most arid type of savannah which consists of patches of grasses separated
by bare soil and a scattering of small thorny trees or bushes.
- The vegetation in this region is scanty with very few short and stunted trees. This is
due to insufficient rainfall.
Lesson 22: SOIL TYPES IN CAMEROON
A. Definition:
Soil is the thin surface layer resting on the earth’s crust made up of a complex mixture of
mineral particles, organic matter, water and air formed by physical, chemical and biological
processes. The soils in Cameroon can be classified into three main groups namely Zonal,
Azonal and Intrazonal soils.

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 B. Main characteristics of each type
1. Zonal Soils
These are soils formed under the influence of climate. They cover large areas and their
distribution corresponds to the major climatic zones of the country. They are the ferrallitic
soils in the southern part of the country (equatorial climate domain ), ferruginous soils in
the northern part (humid tropical climate domain ) and tropical black earth in the dry
tropical climatic region.
a. Ferrallitic soils
They are found in the south Cameroon low plateau, parts of the coastal lowlands and
southern portions of the western highlands. These soils are characterised by;
- Deep profiles because of heavy rainfall and high temperatures throughout the year
causing deep chemical weathering.
- They are reddish-brown in colour due to the presence of iron and aluminium oxides as
the heavy rains leach most of the minerals leaving behind those oxides.
- They have hard rock like masses within them called laterites . These are concentrated
iron and aluminium oxides which makes tilling difficult.
- They are poor in nutrients thus less fertile. This is due to loss of nutrients through
leaching.
- The soils contain a lot of clay and become sticky when wet and hard to till when dry.
Chemical weathering grinds rock into very fine particles to cause the clay texture.
b. Ferruginous soils
These are found in the Adamawa plateau and the northern parts of the western highlands
with two distinct seasons. Soil minerals here adopt an upward movement during the dry
season where they are baked by the sun to form a hard layer called hardpan . These soils
have the following characteristics;
- They contain a low amount of organic matter
- They are not good for farming and cannot support forest vegetation, therefore
dominated by grass favouring animal rearing.
- They are also reddish-brown in colour due to the presence of iron and aluminium
oxides.
- They have a less deep profile due to limited chemical weathering.
c. Tropical Black earth
These are black-coloured soils containing a high percentage of humus (4% - 16%), high
percentage of phosphoric acids, phosphorous and ammonia. They are very fertile and can
64
produce high agricultural yields with its high moisture storage capacity.
They are found in the Diamare or Chad plains which experience the dry tropical climate
(Sahel climatic region), where rainfall is low. These soils are not leached since they are
found in the drier parts of the savannah. They are fertile soils due to upward movement of
minerals or nutrients through capillarity from the rocks and layers below.
2. Azonal Soils
These are young soils which do not have well developed horizons and the influence of
climate is not important in their characteristics. Their characteristics are inherited from the
rocks from which they are formed. These soils are generally fertile than the zonal soils.
They include;
a. Volcanic soils (Andosols)
These are young soils developed from volcanic ash, cinders and easily weathered volcanic
materials. They have the following characteristics;
- They are dark in colour
- They have a thin depth
- Are very fertile for intensive agriculture in the country
- They are found on recent volcanic rocks in parts of the coastal lowlands, (Mount
Cameroon, Mungo region) and the western highlands (Foumbot area, Ijim and Oku,
Wum-Befang, etc).
The principal soil forming process here is rapid weathering of ash to produce amorphous
or poorly crystalline silicate minerals such as allophane . The formation of alumino-humus
complexes protects the organic matter from mineralisation and leads to its accumulation
in these soils.
b. Alluvial soils
- Alluvial soils are very fertile and good for farming
- It is made up of fine and loose materials broken down and deposited rivers usually on
lowland areas.
- They can be found in the Tiko-Douala plain, the Mungo region and the Douala-Kribi plain,
the flood plains of the Logone valley and Benue basin in the north and the Ndop and
Mbo plains, Noun valley in the western highlands.
c. Mountain Soils (Leptosols and Regosols)
These are thin soils without distinct layers found in steeply sloping environments. Lack of
pedogenic regimes is associated with rapid removal of surface soil, shallow nature, high
erodibility and limited moisture retention. Thus making them not good for agriculture.
65
These soils are found in areas like Mt Yeye and Mbankomo around Yaounde, Mandara
Mountains and Adamawa highlands.
3. Intrazonal Soils
They are soils formed under the influence of local factors like excess water, salts or
calcareous rocks. They occur in patches within the zonal soil types.
a. Hydromorphic soils (Gleysols)
- These are soils with signs of excess wetness as indicated by oxidation/redoximorphic
features.
- They are found in low lying areas with shallow groundwater or valleys with impeded
drainage.
- They are found in the big marshes of the coastal lowlands and plains, the upper Noun
or Upper Nyong and the middle parts of the Noun Valley, Yaere along the Logone in the
Far North region.
- Water logging is their main limitation. They are mostly used for grazing or covered with
swamp forest, but can be planted to produce rice, coffee and some food crops.

Practical Work 2: Climate, Vegetation and Soil Maps Of Cameroon

 Sketching of simple distribution maps
 Construction and interpretation of a climograph of a weather station in their locality
Further Study 1: The Biological Regions of Cameroon
 Description of main characteristics
 Main human activities
Practical Work 3: Basic Principles of Map Analysis
 Definition of a map and map reading and interpretation
 Marginal information and importance
Practical Work 4: Conventional Signs and Symbols
 Meaning
 What they represent
 Significance of colours
Practical Work 5: Gridlines and Locational References
 Meaning & representation of gridlines (Eastings & and Northings)
 Locational references

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- Four – figure grid (areas) Locational references
- Six – figure grid (points)
Practical Work 6: Directions on Maps
 Compass directions
 Bearings
Practical Work 7: Scales and Map Measurements
 Meaning of scale
 Ways of expressing the scale (ratio, representative fraction, linear and statement)
 Linear measurements
- Straight line distances
- Curved (winding) distances (routes & rivers)
 Areal measurements
- Regular surfaces (rectangles, squares, etc)
- Irregular surfaces (settlements, islands, vegetation units, water bodies, etc)

Practical Work 8: Map Copying, Reduction and Enlargement

Practical Work 9: Interpreting Relief Forms from Maps
 Ways of representation of relief on map
 Principles of contours
 Identification of landforms from contours.
Practical Work 10: Calculation of Gradients & Cross Section Drawing from Maps
Practical Work 11: Description of Relief and Sketching of Relief Areas from Maps
Practical Work 12: Description of Drainage on Maps

MODULE 2: FIGHT AGAINST POVERTY AND UNDERDEVELOPMENT

TOPIC: THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
Lesson 23: Development
A. Definitions
a. Development: The term development (economic development) refers to a sustainable
increase in the standard of living of individuals, increase per capita income, education
and health care. Development is a process of positive change in the society where a

67
 majority of people have access to basic education, health care, food and housing.
b. Underdevelopment: Underdevelopment is the inability of a country to become
developed or witness economic growth and development.
c. Poverty: Poverty is a state or condition in which a person or a community lacks the
financial resources and essentials for a minimum standard of living. It also refers to
the inability for in individual to meet up with his basic necessities.
d. Sustainable development: This is a development that meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to provide their
own needs.
B. Main principles of sustainable development
 Interdependence: The community and our environment are interdependent from
local to global.
 Future protection: Everyone has the responsibility of protecting the needs and
rights of future generations.
 Diversity: Respecting our cultures, social, economic and biological values.
 Equity: Respecting and acknowledging the value and quality of every life. Justice
and equality for everyone.

Lesson 24: Indicators of development and underdevelopment

A. Traditional indicators
a. Per capita income: This is the income per head of the population. It is high in
developed than in less developed countries.
b. Gross Domestic and Gross National Product (GDP and GNP): The Gross Domestic
Product is the total output of goods and services produced within the country in a
given time usually one year. Gross National Product on the other hand is the value of
the total output of goods and services produced in a country plus Net Property
Income from Abroad (NPIA).
c. Economic structure: This is the distribution of workers within the various sectors like
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary sectors.
d. Productivity: This is the value of particular products compared to the amount of
labour needed to produce it. Workers in the More economically developed countries
(MEDCs) produce more with less effort due to presence of machines, thus being
more productive than those in the Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs).

68
 e. Education and literacy: The higher the level of economic development, the greater the
quantity and quality of education.
f. Health care and welfare: People are generally healthier in the MEDCs due to balance
diets, physical activities, as compared to LEDCs with malnourished food items.
g. Infant mortality rate: Many babies, infants survive at infancy or birth due to high
medical care hence economic development while infant mortality rate is high in the
LEDCs due to low medical care.
B. The Human Development Indices (HDI)
This is another method used to measure the level of economic development. It was used
by the United Nations since the 1950s. This index measures development through three
basic components namely;
 Life expectancy
 Literacy rate
 Standard of living
HDI is high if the value is 1. Countries ranked with top HDI are Canada, Switzerland, Japan
and Sweden.
Lesson 25: Classification of nations in terms of development levels
In terms of development levels, nations can be classified into low income or least
industrialised countries (LICs), oil rich countries, newly industrialised countries (NICs) and
advanced industrialised countries (AICs).
A. Low income countries or Least Industrialised Countries (LICs or LEDCs)
These are countries described by the United Nations as the poorest and most
economically weak. The countries that fall under this category are mostly African
countries (south of the Sahara), some Latin American and some Asian countries. These
countries are poor and less industrialised often regarded as the “poor south”. Such
countries in Africa include; Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, etc.
B. Oil Rich Countries
These are very rich countries that are involved in the production and export of oil. Though
some of these countries still remain poor with the availability of such resources, some
developmental projects are however now being carried out. Examples of oil rich countries
include; Venezuela, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Kuwait.
C. Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs)
These are less developed countries that have developed their economies on the basis of

69
the manufacturing industry. These countries have experienced a rapid growth in their
economies and now dominate manufacturing output of the LEDCs. The NICs constitute
South Africa (in Africa), Brazil (in South America), Mexico (in Latin America), China, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines and Thailand (in Asia) and Turkey (in Europe).
D. Advanced Industrialised Countries or more economically developed countries
These are the richer and more industrialised countries of the world. They are mostly north
countries and include countries in Western Europe, North America, the common wealth by
independent states (former USSR), the British Isles and the rest of Europe. They are often
regarded as the “rich north”.
E. Characteristics of Less economically developed countries (Indicators of
underdevelopment)
1. Low per capita income: The per capita income is the income per head. It is very low
in the least industrialised countries while that of the advanced industrialised
countries is high. For example, the per capita income of the least industrialised
countries such as Cameroon is about $850 while that of USA is about $16,300.
2. High agricultural engagement: A greater percentage of people in the less developed
world are engaged in agriculture, about 60%. This is because there are inadequate
secondary activities which can provide employment such as manufacturing
industries.
3. Low industrial base: Less economically developed countries have a very low level
of industrialisation. They account for only 8% of total industrial output while the
more economically developed countries have about 92%.
4. Low life expectancy: Life expectancy refers to the total number of years a new born
is supposed to live on earth. Life expectancy is low in the less economically
developed countries due to inadequate medical facilities, poor sanitation, etc.
5. High unemployment rate: The rate of unemployment is high in the LICs.
Unemployment is high because there few industries to employ people.
6. High illiteracy rate: Illiteracy rate is high in most less economically developed
countries as a result of inadequate quality schools, poor quality teacher training,
institutions and unwillingness of many youths to go to school.
7. High birth rate: Birth rate is very high in less economically developed countries as a
result of early marriages, no family planning and polygamous marriages.
Lesson 26: Rostow’s Model of Economic Growth
Welt Wittman Rostow formulated the theory of economic development, which shows the
70
different stages of economic development. Rostow’s theory explains that development is
a process that passes through five different stages in time and space. According to to him,
development is a process that has a beginning point and an end point. The five stages as
analysed by Rostow are;
 The traditional society
 Pre-condition for take off
 Take-off (transitional period)
 Drive towards maturity
 High mass consumption
A. Characteristics of main stages
a. Stage 1: The Traditional society
This stage is dominated by agricultural activities. It is at the subsistence level and non-
exploitation of resources.
- In this stage, the society is stratified with its strong traditional institutions, not
dominated by any religious norms and values
- This stage is characterised by low per capita income, high birth and death rates, high
population growth rate, high rate of illiteracy, high unemployment and low production.
b. Stage 2: Pre-condition for take-off
- In this stage, there is serious transformation of the economic and non-economic
activities and the economy begins to grow up.
- There is an expansion of trade and an increase in external affairs. There is also the
introduction of modern methods of production.
- People now develop skilled labour for specialised production.
- There is an increase in capital accumulation and an improvement in the agricultural
sector which leads to increase output and greater industrial development. Most African
countries are in this stage.
c. Stage 3: Take-off stage (Transitional period)
Here, the region experiences rapid economic growth and expansion.
- High level of manufacturing is introduced with some sustained specialisation
- High trade links, fast development in transport network like roads, airports and sea
ports also occur at this stage. Nigeria is found at this stage.
d. Stage 4: Drive to maturity
There is the diversification of the country’s economy through the spread of economic

71
activities to all the sectors.
- New inclusions appear using high technology.
- The service industry develops and more complex transport systems emerge spreading
development to other regions.
- The Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs) are found within this stage.
e. Stage 5: High Mass consumption
- This is the optimum stage of economic development
- There is high mass production and consumption of goods, increase materialisation and
the growth of quaternary activities such as research and exchange of information in
the society.
- There is also mass consumption of luxurious goods such as cars, televisions and
refrigerators.
- Most advanced industrialised countries are found here. For example USA, Japan, etc.

High High mass 5

Drive to maturity 4

Take-off 3
Economic
Level of

Pre-condition
for take-off 2
Stage

1 Traditional

Tim

B. Weaknesses of the model

- The model is too theoretical and is based on Europe and North American countries
which cannot be fully applicable to all countries.
- It assumes that all countries take off at the same time which is not usually the case.
Lesson 27: Challenges of Development
A. Causes of poverty and underdevelopment

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 I. Causes of poverty and underdevelopment

Many factors have led to underdevelopment and poverty in third world countries. These
factors, problems or causes can be grouped into environmental, economic social and
political problems.

a. Environmental problems

 Harsh climate: The harsh tropical climate of the less developed world, characterized by
high rainfall, high solar radiation (high temperature) leading to the spread of insects,
pests and diseases, muddy roads during the rainy season, poor soils e.g. ferralitic soils
of the tropical rainforest which are highly leached due to the high rainfall retards
development.

 Relief: The nature of the relief of the less economically developed countries also retard
development since their landscape is dominated by hills, mountains, valleys, gorges.
This limits development because these regions lack adequate technology to ease the
construction of roads and the establishment of industries on such landscapes.

 Limited accessibility to raw materials: reserves of gold, diamond, bauxite oil, and
metallic minerals are present in many parts of the third world countries but access to
these raw materials is limited because of poor roads and lack of transport network
facilities.

b. Economic problems

This is mostly related to shortage of capital and poor investments in various sectors of
the economy. Agriculture which is the main stay of the economy is poorly organized with
the use of rudimentary tools without any use of machinery. This limits productivity hence
underdevelopment.

c. Social problems

 Cultures and traditional beliefs: these involve many social aspects such as customs,
laws and religion of a society which are very difficult to abolish and which negatively
affects development. E.g. land fragmentation (division) through land tenure systems
which always maintain small farm holdings.

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 Diseases: High incidence and outbreak of diseases such as HIV AIDS, Cholera, and
Ebola virus, covid-19, poor diets and illiteracy due to low living standards, low level of
education and medical care reduces the quality of life and labour productivity.

d. Political problems

 Political instabilities such as civil wars, strikes and demonstrations in many parts of
Africa have caused a lot of damage to property and humans. More so, industries are
being damaged and potential investors are scared off e.g. the Boko Haram insurgency
in Nigeria and Northern Cameroon.

B. Solutions to poverty and underdevelopment

These solutions, policies and approaches vary from country to country.

 Self-sufficiency approach: This is when a country lays emphasis on investing on all

the sectors of the economy rather than concentrating in one or two areas. As such, it
promotes balanced growth e.g. China and India

 International trade: This involves trading with other countries especially exporting
products of specialization and using the revenue from the export to finance large
scale projects.
 Increase access to education: According to UNESCO, if all students in low income
countries had just basic reading skills, an estimated 171 million people could escape
extreme poverty. If all adults completed secondary education, we could cut the global
poverty rate by more than half.
 Improve food security and access to clean water: Simply eating three meals a day
and getting a healthy amount of calories and nutrients can go a long way to
addressing the cycle of poverty. When a person doesn’t have enough energy needed
to work. Improving access to clean water means that those who live in rural
communities will save time walking to their nearest water points.
 End war and conflict: The absence of war means that budgets allocated to cover the
cost of conflict can be used to deliver public services. It also reduces risks faced by
the most vulnerable communities.

Lesson 28: Global Solutions to poverty and underdevelopment: The Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs)

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The Millennium Development Goals are 8 international development goals that were
established following the millennium summit of the United Nations in the year 2000. This
was an outcome of a declaration made by world leaders to achieve development t
throughout the world in all sectors. These goals include:
 To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

 To achieve universal primary education

 To promote gender equality and women empowerment.

 To reduce child mortality rates across the globe

 To promote maternity health by reducing death due to child bearing.

 To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases like TB, etc.

 To ensure environmental sustainability

 To develop a global partnership for development

a. Achievements of the millennium development goals

Within 5 years from 2000 and beyond, some of the goals, aims and objectives of the
millennium development have been made. Many parts of the world witnessed significant
changes such as:

 Poverty and hunger reduced. People living with less than 1 dollar a day has from 1.8
billion to 1.4 billion.

 Incomes also increased by 21%. This was highly achieved as poor countries debt
reduced.

 Infant mortality rate fell from 103% to 88%.

 Life expectancy has equally risen from 63 to 65 years.

 An extra 8% of people in the less developed countries have access to clean water.

b. Failures/weaknesses of the millennium development goals

 Many countries especially in Sub Sahara Africa still witness food crises and insecurity,

75
 especially the Sahel regions.

 Extremely high child and maternal mortality still occur, with children still suffering
from starvation, kwashiorkor and malnutrition. High average girl children of child
bearing age still die during child delivery. This is an absolute weakness of the MDGs

 Large numbers still live in substandard accommodation. According to the

International Monetary Fund) the six poorest countries in descending order include
Burundi, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eritrea, Niger,
Malawi.

 Asia was the region with the fastest progress but even there, thousands still remain in
extreme poverty.

 The MDGs have mainly achieved educational objectives at the primary educational
level and have ignored secondary education right to the levels of higher educational
attainment.

Lesson 29: Success story of solving underdevelopment

(The economic miracle of Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs), e.g. Thailand, Brazil,
Malaysia, China, Mexico, South Africa etc.)
I. Factors of rapid economic growth in the newly Industrialized countries

These factors are both internal and external.

A. Internal factors

1. Favourable geographical locations: Many of the NICs are well located geographically
that gives them access to international trade. These locations facilitate easy transport
network developments. For example, raw materials and finished products are easily
imported and exported via the Indian and Pacific Oceans to and from Singapore; Latin
America has easy access to USA and Europe.

2. Capital accumulation: Many NICs have accumulated enough capital that is now used
to expand their industrial sectors. This was done through limiting population growth
which drained a lot of resources. This was very effective in South East Asian countries
like Singapore, Malaysia and Taiwan.

76
3. Level of education: Both skilled and unskilled labour is available. Sound educational
programs and research have been made available to reduce reliance on foreign
entrepreneurs.

4. Market forces: NICs with their high population densities provided a large home market
for industrial products, and also have a large external market for their manufactured
goods in USA, Europe and Africa.

5. Government policy: state governments of NICs have put strategies towards

maintaining a sound and conducive industrial base in NICs. These strategies range
from political stability, sound education base, creation of free trade zones with
abolished custom duties, devaluation of their currencies to make exports cheaper and
restrictions imposed on imports to protect home industries.

B. External factors

6. Role of international financial institutions: International institutions like the

International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank promoted manufacturing in South East
Asia and Latin American NICs in the 1960s and 1970s.

7. Trade blocs: Most NICs have grouped themselves into trade blocs such as ASEAN,
SEATO, LAFTA and EU, as such they benefit from protection against foreign
competition and free trade amongst members.

8. Role of multinational and transnational corporations: These corporations have carried

out heavy investments in the industrial sectors of the NICs which has propelled their
economic growth.

Lesson 30: Economic Activities

A. Meaning
Economic activities are those undertakings for which an income is derived and
through which man earns a living.

B. Classification of economic activities

They can be classified under primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary.

1. Primary activities: These are mainly concerned with the direct extraction of the raw
materials from the natural environment without changing their form. Primary

77
 economic activities are very dominant in the least industrialized countries where
raw materials are highly available. These activities include; farming, fishing, forestry,
mining and hunting.

2. Secondary activities: these are activities mainly concerned with the transformation
or processing of the raw materials into semi finished or finished goods for
consumption. Secondary activities include automobile industry, textile industry,
chemical industry, food processing industry, iron and steel industry, ship building
industry etc.

3. Tertiary activities: they are mostly concerned with the provision of services for the
population. They include; transport, communication, banking, domestic service
professions (driving, teaching, trading, health services), and advertisement.

4. Quaternary activities: These are activities mostly concerned with research, transfer
of information and communications technology. These activities are important
because they help companies to function. E.g. research, arts, science and law.
Lesson 31: Agriculture
A. Meaning
Agriculture is a systematic or careful cultivation of crops or rearing of animals for human
consumption or commercial purposes. The main types of agriculture practiced include
market gardening, cattle rearing, mixed farming, extensive farming and livestock rearing,
plantation agriculture and subsistence farming.
B. Importance
Although manufacturing and service industries exist, agriculture still remains the most
important human and economic activity. The following are some of the importance of
agriculture;
1. Agriculture is the oldest form of man’s activities as it was discovered by the early
man in 5000BC. It supplies man with food necessary for his survival.
2. It employs about 75% of the world’s population directly, by working on the land,
cultivating crops and the rearing of animals.
3. Agriculture provides the main raw materials for most industries thus guaranteeing
jobs and a way of life for those directly employed in agriculture.
4. It provides income to farmers which in turn provide them with the purchasing power
to acquire other needs.

78
 5. It plays a crucial role in the economic development of countries especially in LICs
as it brings in a lot of revenue.
C. Agriculture as a system
A system is a set of objects or parts all linked together and functioning as a unit.
Agriculture as a system involves inputs, processes and outputs with a feedback
mechanism. The system works as a continuous cycle and can be termed as an agricultural
cycle.
 Inputs: It involves physical, human and economic inputs that determine the type of
farming activity in any particular area.
 Processes: It involves the various farming methods used and would vary from place
to place according to the inputs and the level of technology available in an area.
 Outputs: They are mainly the crops produced and the animal products obtained from
animals reared.
 Feedbacks: It is simply what has been reinvested into the farms such as waste
products recycled into manure and revenue used for purchasing inputs such as seeds,
chemicals, fertilizers and equipment and paying wages for labour inputs in the farms.

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 STRUCTURES &
INPUTS PROCESSES OUTPUTS
Physical Inputs Structures Crops produced
- Climate - Farm houses
(rainfall/te - Maize
- Fields
mperature) - Beans
- Land - Trucks
- Potatoes
- Relief - Ploughs
- Rice
- Soil fertility - Tractors
- Vegetables
- Water Processes
supply - Ploughing - Coffee
For
- Planting seeds
Human/Econo - Groundnut consumption
mic Inputs - Weeding grass s or marketing
- Capital
- Seeds - Harvesting Animal products
crops - Meat
- Labour - Milk
- Rearing
- Fertilisers/ animals
- Skin
manure
- Irrigating
- Hides
- Market farms

- Techniques - Cross breeding - Wool

- Tools
Waste
- Governmen Energy or
product
Recycling waste revenue
(income)
Investments back into farms

Figure: Agriculture as a system

Lesson 32: Intensive Agriculture (Arable Farming)

A. Meaning
It is an agricultural system in which capital is extended and much labour is applied to a
small area of land I order to increase its productivity.
B. Types
1. Market gardening: This is the intensive cultivation of vegetables and fruits near urban
centres for commercial purposes. It is called “Truck farming” in USA and it is highly
80
 developed in advanced countries such as western Polders, Holland, Belgium, Germany
and Southern France.
2. Mixed farming: This is an intensive farming system where crops are cultivated together
with the rearing of animals on the same farm. It is practiced in temperate regions like
the US Corn Belt.
3. Dairy farming: This is an intensive farming system where cattle are reared for the
production of milk. The milk or dairy product is further processed into cheese, butter,
etc. it is highly practiced in Western Europe, North East Australia and USA.
4. Horticulture: This is the intensive cultivation of flowers for sale.
5. Viticulture: It is the intensive cultivation of vine fruits for the production of wine. Vine
fruits such as citrus, grapes, apples are cultivated. E.g in South France around the
Mediterranean coast of Languidoc and Aquitaine.
C. Characteristics
- Farm sizes are small
- High use of human labour i.e. labour intensive
- Farms are scientifically managed involving seed selection.
- Constant application of fertilizers to maintain soil fertility.
- Only products of high value are involved so as to cover the high cost of production.
- Yields per hectare is high due to technology and seed selection.
D. Factors favouring intensive agriculture
a. Physical factors
The physical factors favouring intensive commercial farming include the following.
1. Suitable climate: The wet climatic conditions with rainfall fairly distributed
throughout the year and moderate temperatures between 150 to 200 in summer
favours intensive farming.
2. Fertile soils: The fertile soils mostly alluvial and loam soils are suitable for the
cultivation of crops such as vegetables, tomatoes and flowers.
3. Supply of water from rivers: There is regular supply of water through irrigation
where more water is needed in the farms. This is in areas where there is less rainfall.
b. Human and Economic factors
4. Good transport facilities: The presence of efficient means of transport such as
roads, canals and railways have facilitated the fast transportation of perishable
crops such as vegetables, tomatoes and flowers to the markets.
5. Presence of large markets: The large population of urban centres provides a large
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 market for the crops cultivated under intensive farming.
6. Availability of capital: The farmers obtain capital from financial institutions such as
banks and cooperatives to invest in the farms.
7. Availability of labour: The large population usually provides abundant cheap labour
needed by intensive farming. People working on farms maybe skilled or unskilled
labourers.
8. Government action: Government influence intensive crop cultivation through
regulations and subsidies to farmers. Governments also offer advice and training to
farmers and also build infrastructure from farms to market centres.
E. Problems and solutions
a. Problems
- Poor climatic conditions such as severe winter in temperate regions with very low
temperatures hinder the growth of crops, and also destroy some perishable crops such
as lettuce and flowers.
- The farm sizes are very small and require a lot of inputs in order obtain maximum yield.
- The high use of fertilisers is causing water pollution.
- It faces strong competition from other areas producing similar crops.
b. Solutions
- Poor weather conditions in winter are controlled by the use of Glass houses for the
growing of crops.
- The problem of water pollution caused by the use of fertilisers is solved by the
increasing use of organic manure.
- The risk of competition is solved by diversification of farming activities.
Lesson 33: Intensive Livestock Rearing: Diary farming
A. Meaning
Dairy farming is a highly intensive type of livestock farming involving the rearing of cows
for the production of milk for the market. The milk is processed in dairy factories
(creameries) into a wide range of dairy products e.g. butter, cheese, creams and various
brands of evaporated, condensed or powdered milk.
Dairy farming is practiced in various parts of the Western Europe e.g. Britain, Denmark, the
Netherlands, Southern Scandinavia and Switzerland. In North America, it is practiced South
of the Great lakes and in the North Atlantic states of North America. In the southern
continents, it is practiced in South East Australia, the Auckland Peninsula and Taranki
lowlands in New Zealand. Dairy farming is also now being established around the major
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Japanese cities.
B. Characteristics of Dairy farming
- Farm sizes are small ranging from 50 – 70 hectares
- Machines are used e.g. for milking and feeding the cows
- Farming is capital intensive
- Production is geared for the urban market
- There is the use of improved cattle breed such as Ayrshire, Jersey and Frisian that
produce abundant milk.
C. Factors favouring the activity
1. Climate: The cool continental climate characterised by high summer temperatures
of about 180C, mild winter temperatures of 90C and an annual rainfall of 500mm is
suitable for the growth of pasture on which cattle feed.
2. Soils: The soil found where this activity is practiced is very fertile. In the Great Lake
region, it is the chernozems while in Western Holland, it is the fine grained loose
soils. This supports the growth of pasture and fodder.
3. Topography: Dairy farming is practiced in areas of gentle or level topography. This
eases the movement of cattle and herdsmen in the farm and soil erosion is limited.
4. Market: Dairy farming is practiced mostly near urban areas that provide a ready
market for the products.
5. Transport: The dairy farming areas are well served with good road and railway
transport network. This permits quick collection and delivery of fresh milk to the
creameries before it get s sour. The proximity of dairy farms to the urban centres
also reduces transport cost.
6. Cattle breeds: High quality cattle breeds such as Ayshire, Jersey and Rresian are
used. These breeds have very high milk yield with high butter fat content.
7. Scientific methods: Modern scientific methods of cattle breeding and herd
management are used to allow high yields to be attained. For instance, mechanical
equipment such as milking machines and feeding towers are used.
8. Preservation: The dairy farms and milk processing centres are equipped with good
preservation facilities capable of conserving fresh milk for longer periods.
D. Problems and solutions
a. Problems
- Sometimes, winters are too severe, making farmers to keep their cattle under cover for
long.
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- Dairy products are too perishable hence require careful handling and management to
keep them from being damaged.
b. Solutions
- More land is acquired for the cultivation of artificial pasture for the feeding of animals
in winter
- The dairy farms and milk processing centres are equiped with good preservation
facilities capable of conserving fresh milk for long.

Lesson 34: Extensive Agriculture (Arable Farming)

A. Meaning
Extensive farming or extensive commercial farming can be defined as the large scale
cultivation of a single crop on a large piece of land with greater use of machinery and less
labour force of commercial purposes. Examples of areas where extensive mechanised
farming is practiced are the Prairies of Canada and the Steppes of central Russia. The
types of crops cultivated are mostly grain crops such as wheat, corn and barley.
B. Types
a. Plantation agriculture: It is the large scale cultivation of a single crop through the use
of machines for commercial purposes. Crops are well organised in rows and farms are
scientifically managed. It is highly practiced in the tropical rain forest of Africa, Latin
America and South East Asia, producing cash crops like cocoa, coffee, rubber, etc.
C. Characteristics of Extensive Agriculture
- Farm sizes are very large, ranging from about 250 to 6000 hectares.
- It involves the cultivation of a single crop (monoculture)
- Farming is highly mechanised by the use of ploughs and combine harvesters.
- The yield per hectare of land is low, and per person is high
- There is less use of human labour in the farms.
- The crops are cultivated mainly for sale.
D. Factors favouring extensive agriculture
a. Physical factors
1. Suitable climatic conditions: The cool temperate continental type of climate with cool
winters and warm summers with moderate rainfall well distributed throughout the year
have influenced extensive mechanised farming in Canada and Russia.
2. The nature of relief: The gently undulating or flat land favours extensive commercial
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 farming. These conditions facilitate the use of machines such as ploughs and combine
harvesters.
3. Nature of soils: Extensive commercial farming is practiced in areas where there are
fertile soils such as loam soils and fertile soils full of organic matter such as
chernozems I the Prairies of Canada and the steppes in Russia.
b. Human and economic factors
4. Use of machines: The availability of machines such as ploughs and combine
harvesters are used for large scale cultivation and harvesting of crops.
5. Availability of transport means: There is the presence of god transport facilities such
as roads, railways and sea routes which are used for the transportation of crops to the
market centres and abroad.
6. The availability of vast markets: There is a large internal and external market for the
crops produced in extensive farming. The internal markets are found at home while the
external markets are found in foreign countries.
7. Presence of good storage facilities: There are good storage facilities such as elevators
constructed for the storage of grain crops before exportation.
8. Cooperative system of farming: The cooperatives provide the farmers with cheap
agricultural inputs organise oversea trade for the crops produced. This reduces cost of
production and encourages large scale production.
9. Government action: The government give grants or subsidies to farmers in order to
encourage more investments in the agricultural sector.
E. Problems and solutions
a. Problems
- Fluctuations in climatic conditions can cause difficulties in the cultivation of some
crops during certain periods.
- Monoculture is dangerous because if the crops are attacked by blight, the farmers
would lose much of their income.
- Monoculture results to soil exhaustion and consequently a fall in production.
- Falling prices in the world market would lead to loss of income by the farmers.
b. Attempted solutions
- Modern weather station devices have been developed to forewarn farmers of changes
in weather conditions.
- The problem of price fluctuation is solved by diversification of farming activities
- Soil exhaustion is solved by application of fertilisers or organic manure to retain soil
85
 fertility.
- Chemicals are used to spray crops against diseases.

Lesson 35: Extensive Agriculture (Pastoral Farming)

A. Meaning
Pastoral nomadism is defined as the large scale rearing of livestock where the herdsmen
move with their animals from place to place in search of pasture and water. Pastoral
nomadism is practiced in Northern Nigeria by the Bororos and Fulanis, in Kenya by the
Masai, in Sudan by the Sudanese and the Lapps of Sweden.
B. Characteristics of pastoral nomadism
- The herders move from place to place with their animals in search of pasture and
water.
- No scientific method of rearing is applied therefore animals are occasionally attacked
by pests and diseases.
- The rearers rear the animals to increase their numbers for prestige and not for sale.
- The rearers live in temporal homes
- Animals are a source of livelihood as the herdsmen depend on the animals for their
food and clothing.
C. Factors that favour pastoral nomadism
The factors that favour pastoral nomadism are as follows;
1. Availability of vast pasture land: There is the availability of vast pasture land that
permits extensive livestock rearing.
2. The absence of tse tse flies and animal diseases: The areas where extensive
livestock rearing is practiced are free from tse tse flies and animal diseases such
as trypanosomiasis.
3. The skilfulness of rearers: The animal rearers have the skill of extensive livestock
rearing. This is the case with the Fulani and Bororos who rear large number of cattle.
4. Suitable climatic conditions: The suitable climatic conditions with adequate rainfall
and moderate temperatures in the rainy season favour the growth of pasture for
extensive livestock rearing.
5. Presence of associated industries: Pastoral nomadism has also been encouraged
by the presence of associated industries. These industries use the by products
such as hides and skins for the production of shoes and leather bags.
D. Problems and solutions
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 a. Problems
- Seasonal change is a serious problem to pastoral nomadism. In the dry season when
drought occurs, large number of livestock is affected because of scarcity of pasture
and water. In the rainy season, the valleys become infested with tse-tse flies and
animal diseases which affect the animals.
- There is overgrazing in most parts of the grazing land, leading to inadequate pasture
for grazing of animals.
- Most of the herdsmen are illiterates and do not have any knowledge of modern
scientific methods of livestock rearing such as cross breeding.
- The animals are attacked by insects and flies which cause skin diseases resulting to
unhealthy animals.
- The livestock is of very low quality consequently low production of milk.
b. Attempted solutions
- There is the creation of many veterinary services in order to fight against insects and
diseases affecting the animals.
- Farms have been constructed to conserve water for livestock in the dry season.
- The animal rearers are given education on modern methods of livestock rearing such
as cross breeding and vaccination.
- There is the introduction of ranches for greater scientific care of the animals.
Lesson 36: Impacts of Agriculture on the economy

Lesson 37: The Green Revolution
A. Meaning

The Green Revolution refers to the use and application of modern scientific methods or
techniques in farming so as to increase output and prevent hunger. This modern method
began after the Second World War. This is because as the world’s population is increasing,
there is rising concern in many countries to provide an adequate food supply. For example,
countries such as India, China and Indonesia (NICs) made great effort to increase the
supply of rice and wheat using irrigation, new seeds and fertilizers.

B. Characteristics of the green revolution

 Use of high yielding varieties of seeds produced by scientists.

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 Efficient use of chemical fertilizers to obtain high output.

 Areas experiencing drought and desertification are irrigated to carryout farming by

improving soil moisture.

 Greater use of mechanization to increase the area under cultivation. E.g. tractors are
greatly used in South East Asian countries.

 Diseases are combated by the use of fungicides, pesticides and herbicides.

C. Advantages or benefits of the green revolution

 There has been an increase in agricultural productivity.

 Improved standards of living as farmers sell their surplus.

 Development in infrastructure such as road construction.

 Bilateral trade between countries, yielding more revenue for the countries involved.

D. Disadvantages or problems of the green revolution

 High yielding varieties are costly to grow because they need more application of
fertilizers.

 The use of machines in cultivating increase rural unemployment.

 Farmers who can afford to grow high yield varieties get richer than those who cannot
afford.

 Pesticides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers have caused water pollution.

 The high use of fertilizers and chemical sprays to fight crop diseases has made some
crops not good for consumption as it causes health problems.
Lesson 38: Impacts of Agriculture on the Environment
The impacts of agriculture on the environment may be positive or negative. Some
agricultural practices degrade the environment while some improve it.
a. Negative impacts of agriculture on the environment
 Agriculture leads to pollution of the land, air and water. This is through the use of
chemicals to increase agricultural output.

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  Agriculture can also lead to soil erosion. Vegetation is destroyed by grazing or to
create new farmlands, thereby accelerating soil erosion.
 In areas where irrigation is practiced, the accumulation of salt in the soil and water
logging of the soil are very common.
 Agricultural activities have led to loss of vegetation and habitat in several areas of the
world. The forest is destroyed mostly by arable farmers while the grassland is
destroyed by nomadic herding.
 Mechanisation of agriculture has destroyed the natural scenery which is very vital for
the tourist industry.
 Burning of farms and making of Ankara destroy the bacterial living in the soil.
 The dredging of and channelling of water courses to improve land drainage in
agricultural areas have destroyed aquatic life.
b. Positive impacts of agriculture on the environment
 Agro forestry which is practiced by some farmers is friendly to the environment. The
farmers cultivate crops and plant natural trees at the same time.
 Organic farming with the use of organic manure improves the soil fertility and reduces
chemical pollution.
 The fallow system of agriculture is also important positively on the environment. This
is because farms are allowed to regain their fertility naturally.
Further Study 2: Problems of tropical agriculture
The tropical farmers or farmers in the least industrialized countries encounter many
difficulties as far as agriculture is concerned. These difficulties can be examined under
natural and human and economic problems.
A. Natural/ physical problems of agriculture in the tropics

1. Climatic conditions of the tropics: The harsh, warm and humid climatic conditions of
the tropics encourage the rapid growth of plant diseases and insects which destroy the
crops cultivated. The intense heat also causes rapid decomposition of perishable
crops, meat and fish and droughts also cause a lot of damage to crops cultivated.

2. The existence of insects and pests: The presence of pests such as weevils destroy the
grains produced and tse tse fly causes diseases such as trypanosomiasis (sleeping
sickness) to animals such as cattle in the tropics. Mosquitoes also cause diseases
such as malaria to the farmers in the tropics.

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3. The existence of plant diseases: such as swollen shoot and black pod damage crops
such as coffee, cocoa and potatoes in the tropics leading to fall in production of crops.

4. Poor reddish soils: The tropical soils are mostly poor reddish soils made of laterites
which are infertile for agriculture. The soils are seriously leached by heavy rainfall
thereby rendering the soil infertile for agriculture.

B. Human and economic problems

5. Illiteracy: most of the farmers at the tropics are illiterates. They despise modern
methods of farming and prefer their old outdated primitive methods which do not
improve productivity. E.g. “Ankara system” practiced in the western Highlands of
Cameroon.

6. Poverty: tropical farmers are very poor and cannot buy farm equipment, fertilizers and
chemicals. So they will always depend on small farms and natural fertility of the soil.

7. Malnutrition of farmers: feeding habits in the tropics is generally poor leading to

unbalanced diet. This causes constant illnesses of farmers which retards efficiency in
he farms.

8. Poor farm- to- market roads: The farm -to -market roads are poor, hindering the
transportation of farm produce to market at the right time. The few roads available are
often muddy and impassable in the rainy season and very dusty in the dry season.

9. Poor storage facilities: The farmers have poor storage facilities which lead to loss of
food stuffs such as corn and beans which are being destroyed by pests such as
weevils.

10.Low market prices of crops: The prices of crops are constantly low in the markets
especially in the world market which have caused some of the farmers to abandon
their farms and engage into other lucrative activities such as commerce and fishing.

C. Solutions to tropical agriculture

1. The infertility of the soil is improved upon through the application of chemical
fertilizers, organic manure and lime. This is to increase fertility of the poor and
infertile ferralitic and ferruginous soils in the tropical regions.

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 2. The use of chemical sprays such as insecticides, fungicides, pesticides to fight
against insects and diseases that attack crops in the tropical regions.

3. Transport facilities have been made available to farmers to assist them carry farm
inputs to the farms and outputs or harvest to the market. Many farm-to-market roads
have been improved upon and farmers can now cultivate crops far off from the
market.

4. Improvement in technology has developed new strains of disease resistant crops and
seeds cross breed species of animals and irrigation methods.

5. Agricultural development schemes: Many state governments have introduced

schemes which help to improve on agriculture. These schemes have gone a long way
to solve the problems posed by the natural environment like drought. For example the
Kainji Dam project in Nigeria and Aswan High Dam project of Egypt are used for
irrigation to extend the area under cultivation.
Lesson 39: Spatial Patterns of Agriculture: Von Thünen’s Model of Agricultural Land use
A. Aims
This model of agricultural land use was brought by Heinnch Johann Von Thunen in his
book titled the “Isolated state” in 1826. He was a German and owned a farm at Rostock in
Northern Germany. The aim or objective of Von Thunen was to explain how and why
agricultural land use or intensity vary with distance from the market or city centre.
B. Assumptions of the model
To conclude his aim or objective, he made some assumptions as follows;
- There existed an empty wild land uncultivated called an ‘Isolated state”
- Only one market or city centre exists and it was centrally located.
- A uniform plain surrounding the city where soil fertility and climate are the same called
an isotropic plain
- Only one form of transport exist which is the horse and cart.
- The aim of all farmers is to maximise profits, as such they act as economic men.
Based on his assumptions, Thunen suggested six types of land uses which were located in
circles. They were.
 Farming systems like market gardening and dairy farming should be carried out
closer to the market, since they all involve perishable products which get bad easily.
 Wood was equally needed for fuel and heat, since it was bulky, to reduce cost of

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 transportation, its location should be closer to the city or market.
 There should be a 6 year crop rotation and transition zone at the third location. The
crops should be intensively cultivated i.e. pasture-rye- pasture – barley – pasture –oat,
etc.
 A 7 years less intensive crop rotation at the 4th zone
 A three field extensive crop rotation at the fifth zone (rye, pasture-fallow). These
products use less bulky or not heavy and not equally perishable to transport.
 The last ring was based on animal rearing especially in ranches far away from the city.

1 Fruits and

2 Dairying
3 Mixed crops and
4 Wheat
5 Ranching

Figure: The Von Thunen Land use Model

C. Principles (Locational rent or Economic rent)

Von Thunen used the principle of locational rent in explaining the spatial pattern of
agricultural land use. Locational rent is the difference between the revenue received by
the farmer for crops sold and the total cost of producing the transporting these crops to
the markets. Economic rent is therefore the profit received from the crops sold .
Economic rent reduces as distance from the market increases. If economic rent falls to
zero (0), farmers may stop the production of crops because no profits is realised.
Locational rent or economic rent is calculated as:
LR (ER) = Y(M – C – td)
Where LR/ER = Locational or Economic rents
Y= Yield per unit area or land
M= Market Price per unit of crop grown

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C= Production cost
T= Transport cost per unit of commodity
D=Distance from the market
Von Thunen used different crops to illustrate the model.

Potatoes
and
Margin of

Returns Milk
per unit production

Wheat

A B C
Market 0
(city) Potatoes Distance from the market
Dairy
& Wheat or cereal
productio
n

- Bulky and heavy crops such as potatoes with high transport cost should be grown
closer to the market. This is because income from it falls sharply away from the
market. Therefore, for this crop to be profitable, it should be cultivated around urban
fringes.
- Perishable crops such as vegetables, tomatoes, lettuce, etc should also be located
near market or urban centre because of high demand and perishability.
- Crops such as wheat should be grown far away from the market because it is not
perishable and heavy but cheaper to transport and still profitable.
These three commodities have different profit margins and are found at a great distances
from the market.
The diagram above illustrates that potatoes can be grown most profitably around the
market i.e. between 0 and A because of high transport cost while milk production (dairy)
can take place between A and B closer to the market and finally wheat can be grown
between B and C further away from the market because it is cheaper to transport and not
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perishable.
Margin of transference as on the diagram is the margin where one crop gives way for the
cultivation of another crop.
D. Criticisms or weaknesses of Von Thunen’s Model.
- In real world situations, it is very difficult to find a place with such a unique climate, flat
lands and the same soil fertility.
- The model can’t be applied today as there are improvements in electricity, transport
systems and vehicles as well as there are storage systems.
- Not all farmers cultivate products for sale, some cultivate for home consumption.
- The “Isolated state” as put forward by Von Thunen does not exist in real world situation,
since there is serious competition in the market.
Lesson 40: Arable Agriculture in Cameroon
Arable farming systems involve crop cultivation both cash crop and food crop farming. In
Cameroon, these can be seen under subsistence and commercial agriculture.

I. Commercial Agriculture (Export cash crop farming systems)

Export cash crops are cultivated in plantations. There are two types of plantations
in Cameroon. These include the capitalist and peasant plantations.

a. Capitalist plantations

These are large extensive plantations concerned with the cultivation of cash crops like
tea, banana, rubber and oil palm. These plantations are located in the humid tropical
rainforest region which occupies the coastal lowlands and the south Cameroon plateau.

Examples of capitalist plantations include;

 The Cameroon Development Corporation (CDC). It is found in the South West region
where the following crops are cultivated: Banana, rubber and oil palm in Fako Division
and rubber in Meme and Kupe Maneneguba Divisions.

 The Cameroon Tea Estate which grow tea plantations in Tole-Buea, South West
region, Ndu and Ndawara in the North West region and Djututsa in the Western region.

 The PAMOL estates in Ndian division which covers 9000 hectares produce palm oil.

 SOCAPALM owns oil palm plantations in Dibombari, Mbongo and Edea.

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 HEVECAM has rubber plantations at Niete near Kribi in the South region.

 In the Centre region, SOSUCAM owns sugar cane Plantations at Mbandjock and
Nkoteng and tobacco estates at Bokito.

 LA COMPAGNIE FRUITIERE; a French fruit company produces banana and pineapples

around Nkongsamba.

The map below shows export cash crop distribution in Cameroon.

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 Cash crop production in Cameroon

Characteristics of Capitalist Plantations

 The plantations are large, covering hundreds of hectares.

 The plantations are owned by the government or multinational corporations who

provide large capital inputs.

 Monoculture is practiced with a single crop grown for export.

 There is the use of scientific techniques of farming e.g. application of fertilizers, use of
machines and chemical sprays.

 Output is essentially for export.

 The plantations have transformation factories in them (e.g. oil mills and rubber
factories)

 Social facilities like health units, recreation are provided.

b. Peasant plantations
These are smaller plantations owned by individuals. Examples of crops cultivated
include
 Arabica coffee cultivated in the Western highlands especially in Sa, Upper Sanaga in
the Centre region.
 Cocoa cultivated in Lekie and Mbam and Inougou in the Centre region, Mvila anf Nkem
Valley in the South region, Manyu, Meme and Fako in the South West region.
 Cotton cultivated mainly in the north region specifically in Benue, Mayou and Louti and
Mayo Ray divisions. It is also cultivated in the extreme north precisely in the mayo
Tsanga and mayo kami divisions.
 Tobacco is cultivated in the east region mainly in Kadey and Lom and Djerem Division
and also in Mefou and Afamba in the centre region.
Characteristics of Peasant Plantations
The basic characteristics of peasant plantations include:
 Small farm sizes usually 2 hectares averagely.
 Owned by small peasant farmers who also provide the labour.

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 Mixed cropping is practiced in which a farm has a mixture of cash crops and food
crops.
 Mostly family labour is used though labour maybe hired during harvesting period.
 Less scientific methods are used. No machinery is available, little fertilizer application
is practiced, hoes, cutlasses and axes are major tools.

Case Study: The CDC- Banana Plantation in Tiko- Cameroon

The CDC plantation is located along the Tiko-Douala highway. This plantation covers a
total area of 2200 hectares. It was initially created by the CDC but because of poor
management and inadequate market, the corporation went into partnership with Delmonte,
a multinational fruit organization based in USA in 2002 but was taken back by CDC by
2013. The map below shows the location of this plantation

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Characteristics of farming
 The plantation is specialized in the cultivation of a single crop, banana.
 The plantation is large, covering about 2200 hectares.
 Output is mainly for export.
 The plantation employs a large labour force needed for planting, harvesting and
transportation.
 The farms are highly organized with crops planted in rows.
 Mechanization, training and research are carried out in the plantation.
Method of Farming

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Small pieces of rhizomes (bulbs) are selected from healthy plants and these are planted in
shallow holes about 2 metres apart in a prepared farm. As it grows, weeds are constantly
removed. After about 15 months, the plants mature and bear fruits. Harvesting begins just
before the banana ripens. It is harvested usually with much care and transported to the
processing point with the use of cableways. There, the banana is cut into “hands” and
packed into boxes. The boxes are then taken to the Douala seaport for export.

Factors favouring the activity

A. Physical factors
1. Climate: The equatorial climate (maritime type) of this region characterized by a high
rainfall of about 2000mm and a high and uniform temperature of about 27o C favours
the growth of the banana plant.
2. Soil: The region has essentially the volcanic soil which is quite deep, well drained and
rich in plant nutrients. This soil favours banana cultivation and requires little use of
fertilizer.
3. Topography: The topography is level hence permits good drainage and limits soil
erosion. Movement of labour in the farms is also easy.
B. Human and Economic factors
4. Transport: The plantation is situated along the Tiko –Douala highway hence banana is
easily transported by road to the Douala seaport for export. An added advantage is that
the seaport is only about 30km from the plantation.
5. Market: The CDC-Delmonte banana has a large market in Europe especially in Britain,
France, Italy and Germany.
6. Labour: Abundant and cheap labour is provided by the dense population of the nearny
urban centres of Limbe, Mutengene, Douala and Tiko.
7. Land: Abundant and cheap land was provided by the Bakweri even before Cameroon’s
independence to the colonial masters for the growth of plantation crops.
8. Capital: capital is provided mainly by Delmonte and CDC.
9. Disease control: Constant disease control involving the use of pesticides and
insecticides is carried out by experts. This ensures high quality output.

Importance of the activity to the economy

 The plantation employs about 3500 workers.

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 It is a source of government revenue. It pays over 1.9 billion francs annually to the
government as taxes.
 It brings in foreign revenue following the export of banana abroad.
 It contributes to the Gross National Product (GNP) of the country. It produces over
1500 tons of banana annually.
 It has raised the living standards of people especially the plantation workers.
Problems Faced
 The market for banana in Europe is several thousands of kilometers away. This has led
to a high cost of transport to the market.
 Tropical storms common in this area in June and July blow down and destroy many
banana plants.
 The practice of monoculture where only banana is cultivated leads to rapid exhaustion
of the soil and soil erosion. This necessitates the use of fertilizer which adds to
production cost.
 Like other agricultural products in world trade, banana is subject to price fluctuation.
This makes profits earned uncertain.
 In some years when the dry season is too long, soil moisture becomes inadequate
hence plants wither. Irrigation with the use of sprinklers is often applied.
 Cameroon banana faces competition in the world market with banana produced in
other countries as Malaysia, Thailand etc.
II. Subsistence farming (Food crop farming sytems)
1. Shifting Cultivation: This is a farming system in which a farmer cultivates a piece of
land for two or three harvests and when the output drops, he abandons the site and his
house and move to the a new site together with his belongings. Shifting cultivation is
not very common in Cameroon sue to population growth and reduction in arable land. It
is however practiced in parts of the south Cameroon plateau especially by the pygmies
cultivating mainly tuber crops.
2. Rotational bush fallowing: In this farming system, the farmer moves to a new site
when the soil looses fertility and allows it regain its fertility but the homes are fixed. It
is practiced in most parts of Cameroon with varied crops cultivated in the Southern
crop belt of the humid tropical rainforest. The major food crops are tubers like cassava,
yams and cocoyam. Other crops include plantains, maize, groundnuts, beans and
vegetables.

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In the transitional zone between the southern and northern parts of the western highlands
and the Adamawa plateau, maize is the major food crop. Other food crops are essentially
tubers like cocoyam, yams, cassava, Irish potatoes and sweet potatoes. Millet and
groundnut are grown in the Adamawa plateau, rice cultivation on the alluvial plains of
Ndop, Mbo and Mbaw plains.
3. Market gardening: This is the intensive cultivation of vegetables, fruits and flowers for
commercial purpose. It is practiced in the humid valleys of the western highlands
especially in Santa, Foumbot and Galim. The main crops cultivated are tomatoes,
cabbage, carrots, lettuce, onions and spices.
4. Irrigation farming: This is practiced along the logone river valley and the shore of lake
Lagdo where the main crop is rice. It is also practice on the plains of Ndop, Mbo and
Mbaw.
5. Intensive cereal cultivation: This occurs in the densely populated plains like the
Diamare plain in the Far north region where millet, Sorghum and guinea corn are
cultivated.
The map below shows the distribution of food crop farming in Cameroon.

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Food crop production in Cameroon

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Lesson 41: Pastoral Agriculture in Cameroon
Pastoral agriculture in Cameroon can be seen under intensive livestock rearing and
extensive livestock rearing systems.
I. Intensive Pastoral Agricultural Systems
1. Cattle ranching: This is a modern system of cattle rearing which involves the
cultivation of pasture and cross breeding to develop disease resistant and high yielding
cattle varieties. There are four major ranches in Cameroon each with a capacity of over
8000 herds of cattle. They include the Dumbo ranch in Nkambe of the North West
region. Wakwa and Faro ranches in the Adamawa region and Koundem ranch in the
West region. These ranches are mainly for beef production.
2. Dairy farming: small dairy projects are scattered throughout the cattle rearing zones
but the major ones are found in Ngaoundere. The Americans initiated HEIFER project
international located on the western highlands encourages the local dairy farmers
especially in Fontah in Mezam division in the northwest region. The tadu dairy farm in
Bui division produces milk used in manufacturing yoghurt.
3. Pig farming: Pig farming has been growing in importance since the 1980s. The
demand for pork has significantly increased especially in the urban centres of Yaounde,
Douala, Bafoussam etc. whose urban populations have witnessed a rapid growth over
the years. Pigs are reared mainly in the western, northwest, littoral, centre and Eastern
regions with the western region dominating; Nkoun khi, Upper Plateau and Mifi
divisions are leading rearers.
The traditionally raised pigs are more numerous in the country than those raised under
modern methods. In the western part of the country, hybrids of the local and imported
varieties raised under modern techniques at Kounden, is more widespread.
4. Poultry Farming: Poultry are kept in all the regions of the country but the west, centre
and south regions are the leading producers. Poultry farms were created in Mvog-Betsi;
Douala-Bassa, Koudem and Muyuka by the government.
II. Extensive pastoral Agricultural Systems
1. Pastoral Nomadism and Transhumance
Pastoral Nomadism is a system of cattle rearing where the herder move with his cattle
from place to place in search for pasture. In Cameroon, it is a seasonal movement of
herdsmen and their cattle towards greener pastures and drinking water sources. It is
practiced mainly in the Adamawa region, north region, extreme north regions and the
western highlands.
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Methods of pastoral Nomadism in Cameroon
During the dry season, the rearers move into the valleys and south wards because of the
absence of pasture and water up the highlands and towards the north. During this period,
the grazing fields on the hills which have been scorched by heat are burnt to enable fresh
shoots to come up with the early rains. During the rainy season, they move up the
highlands and northward to escape from the effects of the tse tse fly and other biting
insects. This is called transhumance.
Grazers on the Adamawa plateau move their cattle either southwards or northwards into
the Benue depression. Those on mount Mandara move down into the Diamare plains or
Chad lowlands. In the western highlands, grazers move from hill tops to plains like Ndop,
Mbaw and Mbo which have humid river valleys with much pasture.

Characteristics of Pastoral Nomadism

 The rearers are mainly the peul bororos. The fulbes, Massa and Toupouri alsp practice
pastoral Nomadism.
 The cattle reared are maily the Zebu cow which represents about 95% of cows.
 The cows depend solely on natural pasture, the savanna vegetation.
 The reares generally have low standards of living and are contented to live as their
forefathers have done for generations.
 The cows are reared to be sold in the urban markets of Douala, Yaounde, Bafoussam,
Limbe etc.
Factors Favouring the Activity
A. Physical factors
1. Climate: The dry tropical climate of north Cameroon characterized by high
temperatures of about 28o C, abundant sunshine and rainfall amounts of about of
about 1000mm a year limits the spread of tsetse fly which gives the cattle sleeping
sickness.
2. Pasture land: Abundant pastureland exists in the grassland regions of Cameroon
which covers at least 105,000 kilometres square. The grassland extends from the
western highlands through Adamawa, north and extreme north regions.
B. Human and Economic factors
3. Skillful rearers: The Fulani rearers have a lot of experience in cattle rearing. They are

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 adapted to long distance movement and are capable of rearing a large number of cattle.
4. Available market: The dense population of the urban centres of Cameroon such as;
Yaounde, Douala, Bertoua, Garoua, Ngaoundere, Maroua, Bamenda, Bafoussam, Limbe
etc provide a readymade market for beef.
5. Transport: The extension of the trans -Cameroon railway from Yaounde to Ngaoundere
has made it easy for cattle to reach the southern markets in good quality.
6. Associated industries: Local industries making shoes, bags, caps, belts etc have
emerged in Cameroon especially in Northern Cameroon and use hide and skin as their
raw materials.
7. Government assistance: The government carries out campaigns for the eradication of
cattle diseases. By 1990, over 250 million hectares of grazing land in Adamawa was
liberated from cattle diseases.
The map below shows the distribution of pastoral agriculture in Cameroon

105
106
 Livestock Farming in Cameroon

Lesson 42: Impacts of Agriculture on the Economy of Cameroon

1. Employment: Agriculture employs about 70% of the country’s active population. Many
people are involved in various sectors of agriculture such as farming, transportation,
sales persons etc.
2. Raw materials to the industries: Agriculture provides many industries in Cameroon
with raw materials for their manufacturing. For instance, the CHOCOCAM industry in
Douala use as their raw material, cocoa from the South west region.
3. Source of government revenue: Agricultural produce sold in the market are taxed
before it reaches the final consumer. For example, cattle rearers pay the Jangali tax per
head of cattle. Also, consumers pay taxes as part of the cost of palm oil bought from
the CDC.
4. It contributes to the country’s GDP: Agricultural produce contribute significantly to the
country’s GDP. In 2012, agriculture accounted for 20.7% of the country’s GDP.
5. A source of foreign exchange earning: Cameroon exports cash crops such as coffee,
cocoa, banana, rubber etc. to countries such as China, Netherlands, France, Spain etc.
These products bring in foreign revenue into the country.
6. Infrastructural development: Infrastructural development has taken place in the
country to improve on agriculture. Roads have been constructed leading to agricultural
basins which facilitate the evacuation of agricultural produce to the market. The road
from Bafoussam to Foumbot has been constructed to ease the movement of market
gardening products to the urban centres.
7. Increased living standards: The living standards of Cameroonians have increased
because of the income earned from the practice of agricultural activity. The GNP per
capita among farmers has increased in recent years as a result of increased output
from the agricultural sector.

Lesson 43: Forest Resources and Management

A. Meaning
A forest is an area where different species of trees are growing. The forest is having
resources which are exploited and used by man. These resources include fuel wood,
medicinal plants fruits, timber etc
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B. Global stock and distribution

The various types of forest and how they are distributed in the world include;
a. The tropical rainforest: it is located between latitudes 0o to 5o north and south of
the equator. It is found in the Amazon Basin in Brazil (Latin America), Congo Basin
in Central Africa and South East Asia.
 This region experiences high rainfall of 2500 mm and high temperatures of 28oC.
It contains hardwood species of trees such as mahogany, Iroko, Sapele, Obeche
and Iron wood.
 These tropical hardwood species of trees are found in Africa (Congo Basin, South
East forested zones of Cameroon and Coastal plains of tropical east Africa), Latin
America (The Amazon basin of Brazil, Central America from Panama to Mexico
and Pacific Coast of Columbia), South East Asia (Malaysia, Indonesia, Papua New

108
 Guinea, India, Burma and Thailand) and Northern Australia.
o o
b. Temperate coniferous forest: It is located between latitude 45 to 65 north of the
equator. They contain mainly soft wood species growing on podzolic soil such as
pines, spruce and larch. They have needle shaped leaves.
c. Temperate deciduous hardwood forest: This forest is located between latitudes
30o and 40o north and south of the equator. Tree species are oak, ash, beech and
poplar. They are found in Eastern South America, Central Europe and Northern
China.
C. Method of forest exploitation
Timber exploitation is carried out in various stages as seen below;
i. Preparation and surveying:
This involves surveying the area to be exploited and constructing temporal
settlements for workers.
ii. Felling with powered engine saws: felling is then carried out with engine saws,
though some remote rural areas use hand saws. After felling, the trees are
stripped off its branches and cut into the required logs.
iii. Extraction and transportation: The logs are loaded on heavy trucks or trailers,
which are transported through an access road to the processing centres or the
export port. Some of the logs are equally transported through rivers with
navigable courses.
iv. Replanting: This is the process of replanting tree species that are being fell
down so as to provide for future sustainability. Therefore, companies involved in
exploitation are required to replant or replace the species of logs exploited.
D. Factors influencing exploitation
 Extensive forest: Large extensive forests exist with numerous tree species that
have influenced its exploitation. E.g. the tropical rainforest has a variety of tree
species such as mahogany, ebony, and sapele while the coniferous forest has
birch, pine and spruce etc.
 Transportation: the availability of navigable rivers for the floating of logs, good
tarred roads and railways have encouraged lumbering activities which ease the
transportation t to the processing centres.
 Market or demand: the high demand of timber by industries and house furniture
has encouraged forest exploitation. Industries that use timber resources such

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 as plywood furniture, news print and safety matches greatly influence forest
exploitation.
E. Economic importance of forest
 Forest is a source of a variety of food and forest products such as timber,
medicinal plants and fruits.
 It is also a source of direct and indirect employment.
 The forest contributes to the Gross National Product from the wood exported.
 It helps in the development of road infrastructure used for forest exploitation.
 The forest is a source of raw materials for some industries such as paper and
pulp.
 The forest supply fuel wood which is a source of energy.
F. Environmental impact of forest
 Forest helps to prevent soil erosion because the roots of the trees bind soil
particles together.
 It helps in the conservation of water resources.
 Forest also influence local climatic conditions through transpiration
 It also acts as habitat for animals.
 It promotes ecotourism.
G. Current problems of the exploitation of the resource
 Over exploitation due to high demand for timber. Exploitation is higher than the
way the trees can replace themselves. Some exploiters destroy and even exploit
young trees.
 Bush fires especially in temperate and tropical forests. This has led to loss of
several thousands of hectares of forest each year.
 Diseases and pests destroy many of the tree species by feeding on the leaves
and trunks. E.g. the spruce budworm causes a lot damages to the coniferous
forest.
 Difficulty and high cost of exploitation. This is common in the tropical rainforest
where species of same trees hardly grow together but are scattered all over the
forest. This makes exploitation difficult.
H. Conservation methods
 Forest reserves have been created where exploitation of timber is prohibited or
regulated. These forest reserves are preserved for future use.
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  Licenses or authorization are granted by the state to persons or companies
willing to exploit the forest. This is to check the number of exploiters per forest
so as not to over exploit.
 The state has spelled out the number of trees and the species to be exploited so
as to avoid over exploitation. She also makes sure that trees are replaced after
exploitation.
 Fire tracts and traces are cleared and established round the forest to control
bush fires.
 Afforestation and reafforestation is equally being carried out by the state to
ensure that exploitation do not exceed regeneration. New or virgin areas are
planted with trees (Afforestation) while areas where trees have been felled are
replaced immediately with new ones (reafforestation)
Lesson 44: Fish Resources and Management
A. Meaning
Fishing is the exploitation of aquatic life and it is one of the main economic activities in
most developing and developed countries. Fish resources are of immense importance
to the population because it serves as food and as an industrial raw material for
chemical industries especially the manufacturing of fertilizers.
B. Global stock and Distribution of fishing grounds
The major fishing grounds of the world are those areas whose waters have much fish.
These major fishing grounds are found mostly in the temperate waters especially in the
Northern hemisphere between latitude 30o and 60o. These areas are;
 North east of North America extending from Florida to Newfoundland
 North west of North America extending from California to Alaska
 North East Asia including the sea around Japan, Korea and China.
 North west Europe
 Peru
The major fishing grounds are shown on the map below;

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C. Major producers of fish resources in the world
The statistics below shows the world’s leading fishing nations in 2018, based on
capture production.

Top 10 fishing nations worldwide in 2018 (in million metric tons)

Country Capture in million metric tons
China 14.65

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 Indonesia 7.22
Peru 7.17
India 5.32
Russia 5.11
United states 4.74
Vietnam 3.35
Japan 3.13
Norway 2.49
Chile 2.12
Source: Statista, 2021
D. Factors influencing fish exploitation
1. Fish food availability: In oceans where fish food called plankton is readily available,
such water bodies will contain much fish for exploitation.
2. Indented coastline: some coastlines provide natural harbours through which fishing
ports could easily be developed.
3. Continental shelf coastlines: shallow water bodies with sand and silt deposits
facilitate the penetration of sunlight which favours the growth of fish food called
plankton.
4. Available market: The rapid growing world population has led to an increase in the
demand for fish resources hence increasing exploitation.
5. Technology: The implementation of modern methods of fishing (fish equipments) such
as large ships equipped with big fishing vessels with refrigerators and radar facilities
has greatly influenced fishing activity.
6. Fishing is becoming an increasing economic activity due to infertility of soils of coastal
areas which are always marshy and swampy. Hence cannot support farming. Therefore,
the inhabitants divert to fishing as an economic activity to sustain their livelihood.
E. Importance of fishing to the economy
1. It is a source of employment. Many people in the developing countries, newly
industrialised countries and advanced countries are involved in fishing. In Norway for
example, about 40000 people are employed in the fishing sector and about 35000 in
South America.
2. Industrial development: Fish products are a source of raw materials to many
manufacturing industries, especially those that manufacture animal feed, fertilizers,

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 glue and cod liver oil. Other industrial related jobs to fishing include; the manufacture
of nets, boats and storage containers.
3. Foreign exchange earnings: fishing brings in revenue to fishing countries. This raises
the countries GNP (Gross National Product). E.g. the export of fish accounts for 10%
foreign exchange earnings in Norway.
4. Source of protein: fish consumed in all its form like salted, fresh, dried and canned is a
source of protein food to the world thereby reducing protein deficiency.
F. Problems of fish exploitation
1. Overfishing: fishing companies use sophisticated equipment such as Eco sounders
which catch a lot of fish more than the rate at which fisheries regulate and reproduce.
This has led to overfishing e.g. in Norway, Eco sounders and floating factories are used.
2. Indiscriminate fishing: The fish companies exploit and catch fisheries including the
young ones. This could lead to exhaustion and depletion of fish stock. e.g. in
Cameroon, fishermen use nets with small holes that gather all the small fishes called
“nganga” or “die no cover eye”
3. Pollution: Manufacturing companies have greatly affected fish stock as they dump
toxic substances into major seas, rivers, oceans etc. In Europe, great industrial
countries like Germany, and Britain dump waste into the North Sea which reduces fish
stock.
4. Competition: Many fishing grounds of the world face competition with other countries
carrying out the same activities. They over exploit the fisheries to meet up demand.
This affects regeneration as exploitation far exceeds reproduction. E.g Norway faces
competition with Britain, Germany, Russia and Spain while South Africa faces
competition with Morocco.
5. Illegal and unregulated fishing: There exist a lot of illegal fishing especially small boats
which are unregistered with the fishery department. They don’t respect fishing laws
hence they destroy immature fish, overfish, and poach (steal).

G. Methods of conservation of fish resources

1. Stock preservation and conservation fishing departments have regulated the type and
amount of fish to be exploited. This is to avoid exhaustion and depletion of some fish
species. The exploitation of Herring had been suspended in most European Union
member countries between 1978 and 1981.
2. Restriction of overfishing: many unregistered small boats operating at the sea were
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 closed down and withdrawn. This was to reduce indiscriminate and overfishing. Some
fishing grounds were closed down to allow regeneration and reproduction of the fish
stock. in 2006, many commissions including the International Whaling Commission
banned the killing of whales.
3. Border disputes and territorial limits resolution: Border disputes between fishing
zones have equally been resolved so as to encourage fishing activity. E.g. the “cold war”
between Britain and Iceland was resolved in 1974, EEC territorial waters due to
peaceful negotiations have been extended to 19km off their shores and member
countries can now fish here.
4. Legal action: Faced with a lot of problems of over fishing, pollution and foreign
competition and domination, many governments have enforced measures to resolve
such predicaments. There is the creation of fisheries projection zone, inspection of
fishing equipment such as nets with small meshes, no use of sophisticated fishing
equipment that catch even the young and immature species. All boats are supposed to
register and each country is obliged to make sure such measures are applied and
enforced.
5. Pollution control measures: many industries have been warned against dumping toxic
substances inside maritime waters. To this effect, they have been advised to treat
industrial waste before dumping them inside fishing waters. Tankers are regularly
controlled to limit risk of oil spillage inside the sea.

Lesson 45: Mineral resources and management

A. Definition
Minerals are inorganic substances which have definite chemical composition. Minerals
are of three types;
i. Minerals which can be used to provide power e.g. coal and petroleum
ii. Metallic minerals which are divided into 2 groups;
 Non ferrous mineral; that is minerals containing metal e.g. aluminium, tin,
copper etc.
 Ferrous minerals; i.e. minerals containing iron e.g. iron ore.
iii. Non-metallic minerals include asbestos, sulphur and salt.

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B. Major producers
MINERAL MAIN AREAS OF PRODUCTION
Copper Belgium, Germany, South Africa, Zaire, Zambia,
USA, Canada, Chile
Russia, Japan
Tin Australia, Russia Malaysia, South Bolivia, Ghana,
Africa, Thailand Zimbabwe,
Nigeria
Aluminium USA, Japan, Jamaica,
Canada, Russia, Surinam, Guyana
Germany, Norway,
France
Zinc Germany, Spain, Mexico Zaire, Peru
Canada, USA,
Russia, Australia,
Poland
Lead Australia, Russia, Mexico Peru
USA, Canada,
Britain, Germany
Gold Russia, Canada, South Africa, Ghana
USA, Australia Mexico,
Philippines
Silver USA, Canada Mexico Chile, Bolivia
Nickel Canada, Russia, Cuba
USA, Australia
Iron ore Russia, USA, Japan, China, Brazil, Liberia, Venezuela
Australia, Canada, India, South Africa
Sweden, France,
Germany, UK,
Poland
Manganese Russia India, South Africa Ghana, Zaire
Diamond South Africa, Ghana, Zaire,
Zaire, Brazil Angola, Namibia,

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 Sierra Leone,
Venezuela
Uranium USA, Canada, South Africa Gabon
Russia, France,
Australia

C. Methods of Mineral exploitation

There are two main methods used in mineral exploitation; the open cast or strip mining
and shaft or underground mining.
i. Open cast or strip mining: This method is used for extracting minerals which
are closer to the surface. This is done by using huge mechanical shovels to
extract the minerals. They are then loaded into trucks to be carried to the
processing centre.
ii. Shaft or underground mining: This is used to extract minerals which occur deep
underground. This involves the excavation of minerals by driving vertical shafts
down to the seams and removing the minerals through the tunnels.
When the mineral lies beneath the sea, marine methods are used. In this case,
submarine dredges are used to extract such minerals.
D. Factors influencing mineral exploitation
 Availability of mineral deposits: The availability of large deposits of minerals
underground in different parts of the world facilitates mineral exploitation. E.g. iron
ore deposits in China, Australia and Liberia.
 High demand of minerals: There are large internal and external markets for the
minerals. Industries using the various minerals as their raw materials provide a high
demand for these minerals. E.g. iron and steel industry using iron ore, the
aluminium industry using bauxite.
 Efficient means of transport: The efficient means of transport such as railways,
roads and water ways are used for the transportation of minerals from the mining
centres to the processing centres.
 Availability of capital: The extraction of minerals requires huge capital to purchase
the necessary equipment. This capital is provided by the mining companies and

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 financial institutions such as banks.
 Availability of labour: The labour needed for mineral extraction is either skilled or
unskilled labour. This is provided by the population around the mining areas.
 Nearness of the minerals to the surface: Minerals which are closer to the surface
are cheaper and easier to extract. This reduces the cost of production and
encourages investment in the mining sector.
 The role of governments: Governments play an important role in the extraction of
minerals in their various countries. They provide funds in the forms of subsidies or
grants to the companies or investors doing mineral extraction.
E. Importance of Mineral Exploitation to the Economy
 It provides raw materials for the development of industries. E.g. iron ore for the
manufacture of iron and steel.
 The exploitation of minerals has created direct and indirect employment. Direct
employment involve workers doing mining and indirect employment involves
workers in the processing centres.
 Mining has led to the development of infrastructure such as roads and railways
used for the transportation of minerals. Social facilities such as camps, schools
and hospitals are also constructed for the workers.
 It improves the standards of living of workers through the availability of the facilities
and the wages paid to the workers.
 Some minerals act as sources of energy for industrial and domestic uses. E.g. coal
is burnt to produce energy.
 Mining has also led to the development of settlement. Some of these settlements
have developed into large urban centres. E.g. Kimberley in South Africa.
F. Problems faced by mineral exploitation
 Mineral exploitation is destroying the natural vegetation. This tends to affect the
water supply sources, especially in areas where mining activities destroy the forest.
 The extraction and processing of minerals cause pollution. This also threatens the
earth’s natural ecosystems.
 Mining has caused derelict landscape due to pits and heaps of waste that are left
after mining. The land surface becomes ugly that cannot support any economic
activity.
 Some mining areas lead to erosion as the surface is exposed to some agents of

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 erosion.
 Some mining areas need a lot of skilled labour and equipment. This has increased
the cost of production.
 Sometimes, there is a social problem of strikes by mining workers for better
working conditions. This often affects output in the mining area.
G. Conservation methods
 Some countries conserve their minerals through the importation of minerals from
other countries. This is the case with some advanced industrialized countries (AICs)
such as the USA.
 In some mining centres, the quota system of exploitation is applied, that is, mining
companies are permitted to extract a certain quantity of minerals a year to avoid
over exploitation.
 Governments issue licenses to exploiting companies. This is to limit the number of
companies and reduce the quantity of minerals extracted at a certain period.
 In some cases, high taxes are levied on exploiting companies in order to discourage
new companies from investing in the mining sector.
Lesson 46: Management of Forest Resources in Cameroon
I. Distribution
Forest covers about 40% (20 million hectares) of Cameroon’s territory. Only 37%
(17.5 million hectares) are exploitable with the rest found in remote and
inaccessible areas. The forest resources can be divided into two;
 Timber resources: these are logs of wood extracted from the trunks of various timber
species such s mahogany, ebony, sapeele, iroko, ironwood etc. the logs are sawn into
planks, plywood and construction material.
 The non-timber products which include leaves, roots, fruits and barks of trees
obtained from medicinal plants, wild fruits, vegetables etc.
The map shows the distribution of Cameroon’s forest resources

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II. Methods of exploitation
There are two methods of forest exploitation in Cameroon which are the traditional
and modern methods.
1. Traditional methods: It is a small scale exploitation of timber with the use of crude
tools such as axes and machetes. The exploitation is essentially to satisfy local
needs.
2. Modern Lumbering: it is the large scale exploitation of timber. This method of timber

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 exploitation is carried out by companies most of them owned by foreigners especially
Europeans and Asians. This method is highly mechanized, with the use of engine
saws, caterpillars, bulldozers and trailers/trucks to exploit the timber. About 100
licensed industrial forest companies exist in Cameroon. Some of which are:
COCAM mbalmayo producing plywood, SOFIBEL Belabo (Societe forestiere de Belabo),
SFID Doume (societe forestiere industrielle de la Doume), TIC Kumba(Cameroon Industrial
Forest)

III. Factors affecting forest exploitation in Cameroon

A. Physical Factors
1. The humid equatorial climate: The equatorial climate in the south of Cameroon
characterized by a high rainfall of over 2000mm and high and uniform temperatures
of about 260C has permitted the growth of luxuriant evergreen forest made up of
trees of various hardwood species such as iroko, mahogany etc which are of great
economic value. This has encouraged forest exploitation.
2. Location of the forest: The forest is located in close proximity to the major rivers
used for the transportation of timber like the sanaga nad Nyong as well as close to
the Douala port for export.
3. A favourable relief: The rain forest grows on low lying relief in the coastal plains and
South Cameroon plateau. This has made exploitation much easier as road
construction is possible as well as the movement of machines used in exoloitation.
B. Human factors
4. Transport: Timber exploitation zones are linked to the saw mills and the Douala
seaport by good roads and railway transport network. This makes transportation of
timber easy.
5. Market: Forest products have a high depend both at home and abroad. At home, the
main market is in the urban centres of Douala, Yaounde, Kumba and Bafoussam
where it is demanded in the numerous construction sites found in the ciites.
6. Equipment used: Timber exploitation companies use heavy machinery such as
powered saws, caterpillars, bulldozers and trailers. This has greatly facilitated
exploitation.
7. Forest replacement rate: The Cameroon legislation has obliged forest exploitation
companies to plant more valuable and fast growing trees in areas where trees have
been felled. This ensures sustainability.
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8. Availability of capital: Much capital is needed in timber exploitation for the purchase
of machines, for felling, bulldozers, for clearing of forests and trailers for exploitation.
This capital is provided by the companies involved in exploitation most of which are
foreign owned.
IV. Importance of forest exploitation to the Cameroon economy
1. It provides employment: Forest exploitation employs over 45000 peole in Cameroon
who do jobs that are either directly or indirectly related to the extraction of forest
resources. People are employed in the felling of timber, transportation and processing
in the saw mills.
2. Development of industries: Forest products are as source of raw materials to
industries in the country. For instance, the safety match industry (UNALOR) use as its
main raw material timber. Also, the plywood industries in Mbalmayo and Douala use
timber as raw material.
3. A source of foreign exchange earnings: In 2007, the country exploited about 3.9
million m3 of timber, out of which 2.6 million m3 was exported especially to Italy,
France, Spain, Netherlands and South East Asia. Timber exports ranked 3rd position in
Cameroon’s total export, bringing in over 51 billion FCFA in foreign revenue.
4. Infrastructural development: The development of transport infrastructure, especially
roads and railway lines is either directly or indirectly related to forest exploitation. In
order to facilitate timber extraction, the companies involved construct and and repair
feeder roads and bridges in their zones of exploitation.
5. S source of government revenue: The companies involved in timber exploitation pay
taxes into government treasury account.
6. It contributes to GDP: Cameroon output of timber in 2007 was 3.9 million m3. This
represented 21% of the country’s GDP.
V. Problems facing forest exploitation in Cameroon
1. Over exploitation: Over the past few decades, deforestation has increasingly
threatened Cameroon’s biodiversity. The country’s deforestation rate is 220000
hectares per year is the second highest in the Congo Basin. Some foreign companies
over exploit their forest concessions in order to make huge profits.
2. Foreign domination: The timber exploitation companies are mostly owned by
foreigners including the French, Spanish, Italians, South East Asians and Dutch. They
own over 65% of the companies hence much of the benefits from timber exploitation
are taken to other countries.
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3. Distant markets: The markets for timber products are found mostly in Europe and
South East Asia. The cost of transporting the products to the market is therefore too
high. This reduces the profit gotten from this activity significantly.
4. Illegal and indiscriminate exploitation: there are many cases of illegal forest
exploiters in the Cameroon rain forest region. Many small scale engine saw operators
do not often obtain exploitation licenses from the forestry department. Large forest
areas around Kumba, Limbe, Douala, Edea etc. are threatened by such illegal
exploiters. These illegal exploiters most often practice indiscrimate cutting.
5. Inadequate quantity of timber transformed before export: Legislation obliges all the
timber to be transformed as in timber saw mills in Cameroon before export.
Unfortunately, this law is hardly respected. Less than 50% of timber is transformed.
This deprives the government and the people of Cameroon from revenue and
employment.
6. Transport problems: The heavy weight of the timber and the impenetrability of the
forest make transportation very difficult. The roads easily get bad especially during
the rainy season when used by timber trucks. It is common to see trucks abandoned
with logs of wood for many months due to the roads which are impassable.
7. Environmental impact: The rate of forest exploitation in Cameroon is so high that the
country’s biodiversity is threatened. The natural vegetation is being replaced by an
artificial one with far reaching consequences on the ecosystem.
VI. Recent Efforts to conserve the forest resource in Cameroon
Since independence, the Cameroon government has undertaken several measures
to conserve and manage forest resources so as to ensure sustainability. These
measures include
1. The creation of forest reserves and national parks: At least 30% of the country’s
forest has been set aside for forest reserves and national parks. Examples of such
foresrt reserves include: kimbi reserve, Mbi crater reserve, Santchou reserve, Lake
Ossa reserve and national parks like Korup, Waza, Kalamaloues, Kalfou, Faro, Benue
and Bouba Ndjida.
2. Tree planting projects: The government has obliged timber exploitation companies to
replant young trees where timber has been felled. The government also created the
national agency for forest development (ANAFOR) to carryout forest regeneration all
over the country.
3. The granting of lumbering permits: The Cameroon Ministry of forestry and Wildlife
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 (MINEF) regulates the activities of timber exploiters by granting exploitation licenses
to them. For instance. Their zones of exploitation and minimum felling girth (the
timber log circumference). The major commercial timber species such as mahogany,
sapelle, iroko and Maobi have a diameter of 1m as the log circumference for
exploitation.
4. Education on environmental protection: Many non-governmental organizations such
as WWF have been authorized in the country to help educate the population on the
need to protect the environment especially the forest. They discourage indiscriminate
cutting down of our forest and hunting of wildlife. They do that through sensitization
and education in some pilot schools

Further Study 3: Deforestation in Cameroon and Consequences

Definition: Deforestation is the removal of forest cover of an area by man without proper
replacement. It can also be defined as the clearing of the earth’s forest on a massive scale
which often results in damage to the land.

A) Causes of deforestation.

1.Agriculture: More farms are needed to grow more food to feed the increasing
population of the world. This has led to the clearing of more forest.

2.Increase in population: To meet the demand of the ever increasing population, more
agricultural lands and settlement are created permanently by clearing forests.

3.Overgrazing: It occurs when plants are exposed to intensive grazing for extended
periods without sufficient recovery periods. This reduces the productivity and
biodiversity of the land.

4.Forest fires: They may be natural or man-made and causes huge forest loss.

5.Urbanization and industrialization: Large amounts of forest lands are cut in order to
promote urbanization and industrialization. This creates harmful effects on
environmental and ecological balance.

6.Construction of dams: For building big dams, large scale deforestation of forest takes
place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region.

7.Commercial logging: To harvest timber to create commercial items such as papers,

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 furniture and homes.

B) Manifestations

 Clear cutting i.e when large portions of land with trees are cut down all at once. This
act is described by the Natural Resources Defense as Ecological Trauma.

 Soil erosion and the presence of gullies on the landscape.

 Increased warmth of the environment

 Very large areas of land that once had trees lying without vegetation.

 The absence of big animals in the environment whose home is forest.

C) Consequences of deforestation.

1. Loss of biodiversity: Deforestation has led to the destruction and extinction of

many plant and animal species.

2. Exposing soil to heat and rain: Heavy rainfall and high sunlight quickly damage the
top soil in cleared portions of the tropical rain forest.

3. Flooding: Trees helps regulate water flow from rivers to streams but because of
deforestation, water results to flooding down stream.

4. Climate change: Deforestation has caused the climate to become extreme and
increase CO2 concentration in the atmosphere leading to global warming.

5. Displacement of indigenous communities: Deforestation has caused some

indigenous local people’s means of life and survival to be threatened due to the loss
of forests.

6. Soil erosion: Without trees, the soil is free to be washed by rain water or blown by
wind.

7. Disruption of the water cycle i.e the role of trees in the water cycle is that they
absorb rainfall and produce water vapour.

8. It results to increase greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.

D) Solutions

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- Reforestation: It is the process of replanting trees to solve the problem of
deforestation.

- The increased use of other sources of fuel e.g the use of bottled gas, kerosene, electric
cookers, etc.

- The creation of forest reserves to protect some valuable tree species.

- Afforestation schemes: This is the process of planting trees in areas where they have
never existed.

Lesson 47: Management of Fish Resources in Cameroon

I. Distribution
Cameroon has an important stock of fish resources. Fishing is done both in the sea
and inland.
a. Maritime fishing
The fishing ground is the coastal waters of the Atlantic Ocean. It extends from the mouth
or river Akpa YAfe in the Bakassi Peninsular (Rio de Rey Basin) at the border with Nigeria
to the mouth of river Campo (Kribi Bain) in the south (about 420km). From the coastal
fringes, these fishing grounds extend into the Atlantic Ocean. It contains many fish
species such as shrimps, sharks, mackerel, herrings etc.
b. Inland fishing
Inland fishing is practiced in rivers and lakes of Cameroon. Inland fishing is more
important in the northern region of the country where the lakes and rivers contain
enormous fish resource.
In the extreme north region, inland fishing is carried out in river Logone, Lake Chad and
Lake Guere. Over 5000 fishermen are involved in this activity. Output is estimated at 2300
tons annually.
In the northern region, inland fishing is carried in the rivers Mayo Kebi, Faro and the Benue.
Ladgo also contains much fish. Annual output is about 13000 tons. In the Adamawa
region, fishing is carried out in the Mape Dam and Mbakao dam. Output of fish is 6000
tons annually.
Away from the northern regions, fishing is carried out in the following rivers; wouri, sanaga
amd Nyong rivers. It is also carried out in the lakes Barombi Mbo and Bamandjim.

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Inland fishing involves mainly peasant fishermen who use small canoes and nets to catch
fish. The species caught include viper fish, Tilapia, African cat fish and Machoiron . The
map below shows the distribution of Cameroon’s fish resources

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 Fishing in Cameroon

II. Methods of exploitation

The methods of fish exploitation include artisanal or traditional fishing and industrial
fishing.
a. Artisanal or traditional fishing: This is carried out by local peasant fishermen who use
dugout canoes which move either by hand paddle or an engine attached to it. The
fishermen do not go far into the sea. It is practiced at a distance of at most 3km from
the shore. They operate in the immediate margins of the coast, especially around the
creeks/mangrove swamps of the Ndian and Douala banks. These fishermen use hooks,
lines, to catch mainly cat fish and thread fins; set gillnets to catch croakers and thread
fins; conical shrimp nets locally called ngoto to catch white shrimps.
Over 2500 people are involved in this activity and output is about 48000 tons which
accounts for 50% of the total fish catch from maritime waters.
b. Industrial fishing: it is a highly mechanical type of fishing practiced in the Atlantic
Ocean by large mostly foreign owned companies. Examples in include COTTONNEC,
CRECAM, PECITCAM and COPEMER.
Industrial fishing is practiced in the maritime waters stretching from the mouth of river
Lokoundje near Kribi right up to the Cameroon-Nigeria border. The major fishing
grounds are Rio del Rey, Bibundi, South Limbe, Bimbia and Wouri.
The fishing companies use trawlers (large fishing vessels provided with trawls, pulled
across the sea to catch fish). Other boats use lines attached to the boat fitted with
baited hooks that catch fish. The big trawls have refrigerators which permit the ships
to stay long at sea. There are two main varieties of resources exploited; fish caught at
depth range between 8-25m and shrimps caught between 20-50m deep. Output from
industrial fishing is over 40,000 tons.
III. Factors affecting fishing in Cameroon
1. Shortage of land for agriculture: The high concentration of agro-industrial plantations
on the coastal plains has reduced the land available for agriculture. The alternative for
those who cannot afford land is to to the sea for livelihood. Furthermore, the creeks
and mangrove swamps of Kribi, Douala bain, Idenau and Bakassi Islands have infertile
soils hence cannot be used for agriculture.
2. Water bodies: The presence of water bodies in Cameroon such as the Atlantic Ocean,
lakes such as Lake chad, Lagdo, Mbakao lake and rivers like Sanaga, Mayo Kebi, Faro
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 and Benue have an important quantity of fish that is caught every year by fishermen.
3. The nature of Cameroon’s coast: The long coastal line of Cameroon characterized by
estuaries and creeks favour fishing activities as they harbor particular species of fish.
The extended continental shelf of 30km provides a favourable natural environment for
fish to live.
4. High demand for fish: The demand for fish is growing due to the rapid growth of the
country’s population. The population of Cameroon of about 27 million is a huge
potential market for fish. Some of the fish is also exported to Nigeria.
5. The creation of fishery schools: The government of Cameroon created a fishery school
in 2005 in Debunscha-west coast to trai local fishermen in the use of modern
techniques. The graduates from the school are supplied with improved nets, boats and
fishing equipment. This has encouraged many people to develop interest in fishing.
6. Availability of labour: There is the availability of labour force made up of Cameroonians,
Malians and Nigerian.
7. Government assistance: The Cameroon government encourages fishing through the
ministry of livestock and fisheries which provide fishermen with equipment like boats,
nets and hooks. This encourages fishermen to get involved in this activity.
IV. The importance of fishing to the economy of Cameroon
1. Employment: About 240,000 people are employed in the fishing sector of Cameroon.
The people are either fishermen or carryout jobs related to fishing like storage,
processing, transportation and marketing of fish resources.
2. Raw material for industries: Fishing provides raw materials for industries. For instance,
fish waste, bones and crayfish dust are used by the poultry feed industry to produce
poultry feed. Also, the Cameroon fertilizer company (SOCAME) in Bonaberi -Douala
produces chemical fertilizer out of fish waste.
3. Foreign exchange earnings: Fish caught in Cameroon is smoked and exported to
Nigeria and Chad. This helps to bring in foreign earnings from these countries. About
10,000 tons of fish is exported to Nigeria yearly.
4. A source of protein: Fish constitute a major protein source to Cameroonians. The
annual demand for fish is about 240,000 tons. This helps in improving the living
conditions of Cameroonians.
5. A source of government revenue: Fishing companies pay taxes to the government of
Cameroon. This brings in revenue into the government treasury. Also, the owners of
fish cold stores pay taxes to the government.
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6. It contributes to the country’s GDP: Output from fishing contributes in raising the
country’s GDP. Output of fish in Cameroon from both inland and maritime fishing is
estimated at 160,000 tons annually.

V. Problems faced in the exploitation of the fish resource in Cameroon

1. Depletion of fish stock: Over fishing practiced by industrial fishermen like the Chinese
along the Atlantic coast of Limbe and the poor fishing methods used by some
fishermen is serious threat to the survival of the fish resource.
2. Maritime insecurity: There is a high level of insecurity in the entire gulf of guinea.
Pirates attack vessels in the sea and even structures on the land like the attack of
banks in Limbe in 2010.
3. Foreign domination: The fishing industry in Cameroon is dominated by foreigners.
Traditional fishing is dominated by Nigerians, Ghanaians and Malians while industrial
fishing is dominated by Chinese, French and Spanish. As a result, huge profits from this
activity go to other countries.
4. Pollution of waters: The maritime fishing ground is close ot the coastal industrial
region where industries like the national oil refinery (SONARA, the cement industry
(CEMENCAM) produce large amounts of waste that pollute maritime waters. This
tends to kill fish in the waters.
5. Inadequate storage facilities: The traditional fishermen do not have adequate storage
facilities for their fish. Most of them preserve fish by smoking but this is still
inadequate. Sometimes, some of the fish get bad before it reaches distant markets.
6. High population growth rate: The annual growth rate is about 3.2%. The population
doubles every 25 years. The population of Cameroon in 2022 is estimated at 27 million.
With this growth rate, the demand for fish is continuously on the increase. This has out
a lot of pressure on the resource.
7. Poor transport facilities: The transport network in the country is quite poor. Most rural
areas are not accessible due to poor transport network. As a result, these areas remain
without fish. At times, when the fish arrive, it is not good in condition.
VI. Recent efforts to conserve the fish resource in Cameroon
1. Guarantee security in the sea: The government has embarked on the protection of
fishermen from pirates by putting well trained military men at strategic points in the
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 sea.
2. Fight against pollution: The Cameroon government has been fighting against pollution
by banning the throwing of household and industrial waste in the sea, rivers and lakes
in Cameroon.
3. Training of fishermen: The government has created a maritime fishing school in Limbe
and Douala to train fishermen on modern fishing methods.
4. Control of over fishing and indiscriminate fishing: The government of Cameroon has
been putting strict control especially on industrial fishermen by instructing them not to
catch small fishes. The sizes of the meshes used should be big enough to spare small
fishes.
5. Assistance to fishermen: The government has been providing fishermen with
assistance by buying fishing boats and nets for them. Those who benefit from the
assistance are given enough time to pay back to the government the cost of these
items.
Lesson 48: Management of Mineral Resources in Cameroon
I. Types and Distribution
The mineral resources of Cameroon include gold, bauxite, iron ore, diamond and
limestone.
1. Gold: Important quantity of gold deposits is found in Cameroon. These deposits are
found in Betare, Oya and Batouri in the Eastern region. The ministry of mines and
energy has sponsored research projects in the region to improve on the mining
technique as the scale of production is small with mostly traditional methods
employed in mining. In 2006, a South Korean company was permitted by the
government on the possibility of industrial exploitation of gold in the region. In 2004,
gold yielded an estimated 2000kg and was produced by small scale artisanal miners.
2. Bauxite: large deposits are found in Minim-Martap, Tibati and Ngaoundere on the
Adamawa plateau and Fongo Tongo near Dschang on the Western Highlands. The
estimated national deposits stands at about 1 billion tons, with 43% alumina content.
The mining and processing of bauxite is usually very complex and costly needing
foreign companies. Large quantities of alumina are imported from Guinea to supply
the aluminium industry in Edea.
3. Iron ore: Deposits are located in Kribi (Marmelles of kribi) and Dja in the South region
and Mbalam in the east region. these reserves are estimated at about 220 million
tons of ore, with an average iron content of 40%. Iron ore exploitation in mbalam was
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 expected to begin since 2012 by CAM-IRON company.
4. Limestone: limestone deposits are found in figuil in the North region. The reserves
are estimated at about 600,000 tons with an estimated calcium carbonate content of
90%. It is used in the manufacture of cement by CEMENCAM.
5. Diamond: Deposits have been discovered at Batouri in the East region, which is still to
be exploited. Deposits are also found ar Mobilong near Yokadouma (740 million
karites).
6. Tin ore (Cassiterite): Deposits of tin ore are found in Mayo Darle in the Adamawa
region.
The distribution of these mineral resources is shown on the map below.

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 Energy and Mineral Resources in Cameroon
II. Efforts to Develop Mineral Resources in Cameroon
1. Opening of higher technical institutions: The government has created Polytechnique
Institutions in State universities to train mining engineers who can develop the skill of
mineral and also be able to study where mineral deposits occur in Cameroon.
2. Employment of experts: The government has also employed experts such as the
Chinese to undertake a comprehensive study of the mineral deposits in Cameroon.
This is an effort to improve on mineral exploitation.
3. Provision of good transport infrastructure: The government is constructing good
roads linking the mineral deposits in order to accelerate exploitation.
4. Provision of capital: Institutions such as the World Bank and IMF provide loans to the
Cameroon government to invest in mineral exploitation so as to accelerate economic
development.
III. Economic Importance of Mineral exploitation to Cameroon
1. Source of Raw materials: Minerals act as raw material sources. For instance,
limestone is used in the manufacturing of cement, bauxite is used as a raw material in
the aluminum industry.
2. Employment opportunities: Mineral exploitation creates direct and indirect
employment to thousands of Cameroonians. Direct employment involves those who
are engaged in the extraction of minerals from the ground while indirect employment
involves those engaged in the transportation of minerals to the industries or
processing plants and supervisors.
3. Infrastructural development: The construction of roads to link areas that have mineral
deposits improves the transport infrastructure in the country.
4. It contributes to the GNP of the country: The minerals exploited contribute to the
gross national product of the country.
5. Improvement in living standards: The living standards of many Cameroonians have
been improved through income received from mineral extraction.
6. Foreign exchange earnings: Cameroon exports minerals to other countries. This brings
in foreign revenue into the country.
IV. Problems affecting mineral exploitation in Cameroon
1. Geological problems: Most mineral deposits in Cameroon are buried deeply in the
mineral bearing rocks. This is the case of oil, gold and bauxite where deep holes and
tunnels must be drilled into the rocks in order to extract the resources. This is both
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 expensive and risky.
2. Uneconomic reserves: Some mineral deposits are widely dispersed and their value is
low which makes exploitation uneconomical. E.g. the iron ore deposits in Kribi have a
low iron content of 40%. Gold in Batare Oya and Bauxite in Fongo are either widely
dispersed or occur in small quantities making exploitation uneconomical.
3. Foreign domination: Mineral exploitation requires huge capital and technology which
are inadequate in Cameroon. This has resulted to the Cameroon government turning to
foreign companies like Sunddowns for iron ore exploitation in the East. This reduces
the benefits the country gets from this activity.
4. Low industrial base: The absence of heavy manufacturing industries in Cameroon such
as the iron and steel, ship building, automobile industries tend to reduce the local
market size. A huge quantity of Cameroon’s minerals must therefore be exported.
5. Transportation: Most of the mineral deposits in Cameroon are located in inaccessible
areas hence they are still to be exploited. The absence of roads and railways linking the
iron ore deposits in the Dja and Gold in Batare Oya has made these minerals to remain
unexploited.
V. Efforts by the Government to conserve mineral resources.
1. Issuance of licenses: The Cameroon government issues exploitation licenses to
mineral exploitation companies. This is in order to prevent illegal mining and disorder
in the mining sector.
2. Quota restriction: The government has also restricted the quantity of a mineral that
can be exploited at any particular time. This prevents the overexploitation of these
minerals.

Guided or Directed Work 1: Non-Agricultural Resources of the Region of the School

 Inventory of the resources of vegetation, rivers and sub soil in their region
 Restitution in class
 Current efforts to conserve these resources in their locality.
Practical Work 13: Description of Vegetation on Maps
 Identification of types
 Description of spatial patterns
 Stating of simple reasons for the observed patterns

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Lesson 49: Energy and Power Resources
A. Meaning of energy
Energy is the ability or the capacity to do work.
B. Sources of energy
The general sources of energy are classified into traditional and modern.
i. Traditional sources: The traditional sources include firewood and charcoal.
ii. The modern sources of power are coal, natural gas, petroleum. Solar energy,
water fall (Hydro electric power, HEP), tides, winds, biogas and biotic waves.
C. Forms of energy resources
Energy can be classified into two forms namely; renewable and non-renewable energy
resources.
a. Non-renewable energy sources
This can be defined as finite resources as their exploitation can lead to exhaustion
of supply. The main examples of non-renewable energy resources are coal, natural
gas and petroleum and nuclear energy.
i. Coal: This is a very old source of energy that was used in the past, especially in the
most heavy industrial regions in the midlands in Great Britain, Rhur in Germany as
well as Pittsburgh in USA. Coal consists of Carbon formed from the accumulation
of organic compounds.
ii. Petroleum: It is formed from the decay of minute marine organisms within the
floors of seas. Petroleum is also called crude oil and is greatly available in the
Middle East, Venezuela and Russia.
iii. Natural gas: This is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons, with a greater percentage
of methane in it making up to 80-90%. Other gases include ethane, propane and
butane. Natural gas often occur together with petroleum at times or may occur
alone.
iv. Nuclear energy: This is energy that is gotten from the fusion of radioactive
elements like uranium which generate electricity.
b. Renewable energy sources
These resources are a “flow” of nature which can be used over and over again. The
main renewable energy resources include solar energy, hydro-electric power, tides
and wind energy, geothermal, biotic waves, biogas and forest (wood)
i. Hydro-Electric Power (H.E.P): this is the most available source of energy and the
cleanest as well and very flexible. It is derived from flowing rivers where dams are
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 constructed, storing water in large reservoirs to turn hydro-turbines. Hydro-power
plants convert the energy of flowing water into electricity.
Advantages of Hydro-electricity over other forms of energy
 It is a very clean source of energy.
 It can last for as long as the water is available to supply the energy.
 It is equally very flexible and easy to use.
 It is very easy and convenient to transport just with the use of wires.
 It is the cheapest source of energy as compared to other sources.
Disadvantages
 Dam construction is often very expensive.
 It involves displacement of people.
 Climatic changes may reduce the volume of water in the reservoirs especially
during the dry season.
ii. Wind energy: This is energy developed in areas where wind is blowing so as to
rotate the rotor blades thereby generating electricity. Wind farms are only located in
regions where fast, strong and steady winds are blowing.
iii. Solar energy: solar energy is generated by a panel containing light sensitivity cells
exposed to sunlight, which immediately converts it to electricity.
iv. Geothermal energy: this is energy generated far below the earth’s surface, as a
result of great heat and pressure. Such areas of high pressure and temperature are
often hot spots, geysers and tectonic zones.
v. Biomass: Biomass as a source of energy consists of organic matter such as
agricultural waste, wood and bark. Biomass can be burned directly in specially
designed power plants or used to replace up to 15% of coal as fuel in ordinary
power plants. Biomass burns cleaner than cold because it has less sulphur.
D. Problems associated with energy resources
 Air, and water pollution
 Damage to public health
 Wildlife and habitat loss
 Global warming emissions
E. Energy conservation methods
 Use public transport systems instead of individual vehicles.
 By switching off electricity when not in use.

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  By using power saving devices.
 By using non conventional sources of energy.
Lesson 50: Energy Resources of Cameroon
I. Sources and Distribution
The energy resources widely used in Cameroon include petroleum, natural gas,
hydroelectricity and thermal energy.
1. Petroleum: Cameroon is part of the gulf of Guinea which is rich in hydro-carbons,
especially offshore. The sedimentary basins of Cameroon coastal area contain huge
crude oil deposits. According to the oil and gas Journal (OGJ), Cameroon had proven
oil reserves of 400 million barrels as of January 2005. The majority of Cameroon’s oil
reserves are located offshore in the Rio del Rey basin of the Niger Delta.
2. Natural gas: Huge natural gas deposits have been discovered at Logbaba near Douala
(340 million cubic metres). Other reserves are found in Rio Del Rey, Doula and Campo
basins. The total estimated reserve of the country is estimated at 3.9 million cubic
feet as of January 2004.
3. Thermal electrical power: Thermal power plants in the country use diesel engines, to
supply energy to homes and industries in some remote areas.
4. Hydro-electric power: This is the most important energy source in Cameroon as it
supplies the greatest quantity of power to homes and industries in the country.
Cameroon ranks 2nd in HEP potentials in tropical Africa after DR congo, but only 4% of
these potentials are effectively harnessed. Annual production is about 1000 MWH.
HEP provides 95% of the country’s energy needs.
II. Efforts to develop energy resources in Cameroon
1. The creation of the National Oil Refinery: The National Oil Refinery (SONARA) located
at Cape Limbo near Limbe, was constructed in 1981. It has a production capacity of
over 2 million tons per year. Since 1978, oil production levels in Cameroon have
continued to increase. E.g. from 4,3 million tons in 1981 to 5.2 million tons in 1985.
2. The construction of natural gas plants: The production of natural gas started with the
construction of the natural gas plant in Logbaba-Douala. Also, a gas fired plabt has
been constructed in Kribi. This will supplement current energy supply. It will offer an
additional capacity of 216 megawatts to add to the current supply of 1015 megawatts.
3. The construction of Thermal power plants. New thermal plants have been
constructed in Limbe and Douala. This is order to reduce HEP deficits in these areas.

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 4. Dam construction: Dams have been constructed in the following rivers to exploit their
HEP potentials: river Sanaga (at Edea and Songloulou I and II) and river Benue at
Lagdo. Other HEP schemes under construction include the Menve’le HEP project
located on the river Ntem in the south region and the Lom Pangar HEP project on the
river Lom which will generate an additional 30MW of low-cost, hydro power for rural
electrification of the eastern region.
III. Importance of the energy sector to the Cameroon economy
1. It provides employment: The energy sector employs several thousands of
Cameroonians. In 2010, SONARA employed over 600 Cameroonians. The electricity
supply company (ENEO) also employs several thousands of Cameroonians.
2. Industrial development: The supply of energy is the key to industrial development.
Many industries have emerged in Cameroon thanks to the availability of energy. Nearly
60% of the power from Edea HEP production is consumed by the Aluminum industry in
Edea.
3. Foreign exchange earnings: Cameroon exports HEP to neigbouring countries like
Gabon and Equatorial Guinea. Petroleum products are also exported to other countries.
This brings in foreign revenue.
4. A source of government revenue: The electricity distribution company pays huge taxes
to the government. The national oil refinery also pays taxes to the government.
5. A boost to economic growth: Energy resources are required in all sectors of the
economy. The transport sector that uses petroleum affects the agricultural sector,
tourism sector, service sectors etc. The availability of petroleum and HEP contributes
significantly to economic growth.
IV. Problems faced in the energy sector in Cameroon
1. Exhaustion of reserves: The oil reserves of Cameroon are getting exhausted after
exploiting it for over 30 years. This is why output has been dropping over the past years.
If the reserves completely get exhausted in the near future, the country will have to rely
on foreign imports.
2. Fall in river volumes in the dry season: Rivers in Cameroon witness a sharp drop in
volumes during the dry season. When this happens, the amount of energy generated by
the Edea and songloulou dams drop significantly. This leads to power shortage and
consequently frequent power cuts experienced in the country during the dry season.
3. High cost of investment: A lot of capital is needed to construct dams and thermal
power plants. This pushes the country to request for foreign assistance through loans
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 from friendly countries and organizations. This often comes with high interest rates.
4. Inadequate supply: The rapid increase in Cameroon’s population as well as the
increasing demand from manufacturing and service industries has not been
complemented by the same increase in energy supply. There is therefore need to
increase investments in this sector to meet up with the demand.
5. Inadequate technology: Expertise technology is needed in construction HEP dams and
thermal power plants. Cameroon lacks these high skilled experts. As a result, the
projects are carried out by foreign companies that have experts. As a consequence,
much benefits go to these companies and their countries.
Effect on the environment: The Atlantic Ocean faces increasing pollution rates as a result
of oil leaks from the SONARA oil refinery. This has destroyed aquatic life, reducing fish
potential off-shore the Atlantic coast. Dam construction also destroys plants. This upsets
the entire ecosystem

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