Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

Lecture # 1

Evolution and growth of Muslim society in the sub-continent

The last Prophet of Islam, Prophet Muhammad (SAW), completely changed the intellectual outlook of
Arabia. Within a span of 23 years he transformed the barbarous and impious Arabs into a civilized
and religious nation. During his life and also after his death, Muslims took the message of Islam to
every corner of the world and within a few years Muslims became the super power of the era.

Trade relations between Arabia and the Sub-continent dated back to ancient times. Long before
the advent of Islam in Arabia, the Arabs used to visit the coast of Southern India, which then provided
the link between the ports of South and South East Asia. After the Arab traders became Muslim, they
brought Islam to South Asia. A number of local Indians living in the coastal areas embraced Islam.
However, it was the Muslim conquests in Persia, including the provinces of Kirman and Makran,
which brought the Arabs face to face with the then ruler of Sindh, who had allied with the ruler of
Makran against the Muslims. But, it was not until the sea borne trade of the Arabs in the Indian Ocean
was jeopardized that serious attempts were made to subjugate Sindh.

Muhammad bin Qasim

During the reign of the great Umayyad Caliph Walid bin Abdul Malik, Hajjaj bin Yousaf was
appointed as the governor of the Eastern Provinces. At that time, Raja Dahir, a Brahman, ruled Sindh.
However, the majority of the people living in the region were Shudders or Buddhists. Dahir treated
members of these denominations inhumanly. They were not allowed to ride horses or to wear a turban
or shoes. Sindhi pirates, protected by Dahir, were active on the coastal areas and whenever they got a
chance, they plundered the ships passing by Daibul.

During those times, some Muslim traders living in Ceylon died and the ruler of Ceylon sent their
widows and orphans back to Baghdad. They made their journey by sea. The King of Ceylon also sent
many valuable presents for Walid and Hajjaj. As the eight-ship caravan passed by the seaport of
Daibul, Sindhi pirates looted it and took the women and children prisoner. When news of this attack
reached Hajjaj, he demanded that Dahir return the Muslim captives and the looted items. He also
demanded that the culprits be punished. Dahir replied that he had no control over the pirates and was,
therefore, powerless to rebuke them. On this Hajjaj decided to invade Sindh. Two small expeditions
sent by him failed to accomplish their goal. Thus, in order to free the prisoners and to punish the
guilty party, Hajjaj decided to undertake a huge offensive against Dahir, who was patronizing the
pirates.

In 712, Hajjaj sent 6,000 select Syrian and Iraqi soldiers, a camel corps of equal strength and a
baggage train of 3,000 camels to Sindh under the command of his nephew and son in-law, Imad-ud-
din Muhammad bin Qasim, a young boy of just seventeen years. He also had a 'manjaniq', or catapult,
which was operated by 500 men and could throw large stones a great distance. On his way the
governor of Makran, who provided him with additional forces, joined him. Also, a good number of
Jats and Meds, who had suffered at the hands of native rulers, joined the Arab forces.

Muhammad bin Qasim first captured Daibul. He then turned towards Nirun, near modern Hyderabad,
where he easily overwhelmed the inhabitants. Dahir decided to oppose the Arabs at Raor. After a
fierce struggle, Dahir was overpowered and killed. Raor fell into the hands of the Muslims. The Arab
forces then occupied Alor and proceeded towards Multan. Along the way, the Sikka (Uch) fortress,
situated on the bank of the Ravi, was also occupied. The Hindu ruler of Multan offered resistance for
Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

two months after which the Hindus were overpowered and defeated. Prior to this, Muhammad bin
Qasim had taken Brahmanabad and a few other important towns of Sindh. Muhammad bin Qasim was
planning to proceed forward when the new Caliph Suleman bin Abdul Malik recalled him. After the
departure of Muhammad bin Qasim, different Muslim generals declared their independence at
different areas.

The Muslim conquest of Sindh brought peace and prosperity to the region. Law and order was
restored. The sea pirates of Sindh, who were protected by Raja Dahir, were crushed. As a result of
this, sea trade flourished. The port of Daibul became a very busy and prosperous commercial center.

When Muhammad bin Qasim conquered Sindh, the local people, who had been living a life of misery,
breathed a sigh of relief. Qasim followed a lenient policy and treated the local population generously.
Everyone had full religious freedom and even the spiritual leaders of local religions were given
salaries from the government fund. No changes were made in the local administration and local
people were allowed to hold offices - particularly in the revenue department. All taxes were abolished
and Jazia was imposed. Everyone was treated equally. Poor people, especially Buddhists, were very
impressed by his policies and many of them embraced Islam. A number of Mosques and Madrasas
were constructed in important towns. In a short period of time Sindh became a center of Islamic
learning. A number of religious scholars, writers and poets were emerged and they spread their
knowledge. The Muslims learned Indian sciences like medicine, astronomy and mathematics. Sanskrit
books on various subjects were translated into Arabic. During the reign of Haroon al Rasheed, a
number of Hindu scholars were even invited to Baghdad.

The establishment of Muslim rule also paved way for future propagation of Islam in Sindh and the
adjoining regions. Later Sindh also attracted Ismaili missionaries who were so successful that Sindh
passed under Ismaili rule. With the conquest of Lahore by Mahmud of Ghazni, missionary activity
began again under the aegis of Sufis who were the main agents in the Islamization of the entire region.

Conquests of Mahmud Ghaznavi

The Arab conquest of Sind belongs to the first phase of Islamic expansion under the Umayyad
Caliphs. It was after nearly three centuries that the second phase of the conquest of the sub-continent
began under the Turks. The Turkish rulers of Ghazni and later those of Ghur carried Muslim arms
across Pakistan and into northern India.

Sultan Mahmud obtained formal recognition of his sovereignty from the Abbasid Khalifah, al-Qadir
Billah, who also conferred upon him the titles of Yamin-ud-Dawlah and Amin-ul-Millah. He
undertook an expedition every year to Hind and according to Sir Henry Elliot, led as many as
seventeen expeditions. The only permanent result of his expeditions was the conquest of the Punjab.
However, along with Muslim warriors came Muslim saints and Sufis, who promulgated Islam in
India.

Shaikh Ali Hujweri, popularly known as Data Ganj Baksh, renowned sufi who settled in Lahore,
wrote the first authentic book on sufism in Persian titled "Kashaful-Mehjub".

Conquests of Muhammad Ghuri

Muhammad Ghuri played a significant role in expanding Muslim rule in northern India. His vigorous
and systematic campaigns for the first time roused the Rajput confederacy into concerted action and a
real trial of strength ensued resulting in the triumph of Muslim arms.
Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

His important victories remain at the battles of Tarain (1191-92), in which he defeated Prithvi Raj
Chauhan, ruler of Delhi and Ajmer. After the second battle of Tarain, Muhammad Ghuri returned to
Ghazni and entrusted the charge of his conquered territories to his lieutenant, Qutbuddin Aibak. He
soon extended the conquests of his master and made Delhi the capital of the empire (1194).

Muhammad Ghuri was killed by an Ismaili fanatic, while he was on his way to Ghazni from Lahore.
He is remembered as an empire builder and is justly called the founder of the Muslim empire in Indo-
Pakistan.

On his death, Qutbuddin Aibak was elected Sultan by Turkish Amirs. He, thus became the first Sultan
of the newly established Sultanate of Delhi.

Muslim Dynasties of India. [iii] Since the twelfth century AD, several muslim dynasties ruled India.
Of these perhaps the Mughals were the most significant. The dynasties are listed below:-

Slave dynasty (1206-1290).

Khilji dynasty (1290-1320).

Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414).

Saiyyid dynasty (1414-1450).

Lodhi dynasty (1450-1526).

Mughal dynasty (1526-1857)

i.Babur 1526-30,

ii.Humayun 1530-40&1555-56

iii.Akbar 1556-1605

iv.Jahangir 1605-27

v.ShahJahan 1628-58

vi.Aurangzeb 1658-1707

Sufis and the Spread of Islam

The spread of Islam in the Sub-continent is the story of untiring efforts of numerous saints and Sufis
who dedicated their lives to the cause of service to humanity. By the time the Muslim Empire was
established at Delhi, Sufi fraternities had come into being and the Sufi influence was far more
powerful than it was in earlier days under the Arabs in Sindh. The two great fraternities that
established themselves very early in Muslim India were the Suhrawardiyah and the Chishtiyah.

Chishtiyah: Hazrat Khawaja Muin-ud-din introduced the Chishtiyah Silsilah in the Sub-continent. He
settled in Ajmer. Because he established the first Sufi Silsilah in the Indian sub-continent, he is often
referred to as Hind-al-Wali. Khawaja Muin-ud-din Ajmeri's chief disciple, Khawaja Qutb-ud-din
Bakhtiyar Kaki, who lived at Delhi, was held in high esteem by Iltutmush. Baba Farid who was the
disciple of Khawaja Qutb-ud-din Bakhtiyar Kaki, decided to settle in Punjab. The Chishtiyah order
Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

remained the most popular order during the Sultanate period. This order has extensive influence,
particulary in Northren India, Deccan and Bengal.

Suhrawardiyah: The Suhrawardiyah order was founded by Sheikh Ab-al-Najib Suhrawardi (1097 -
1162) and was introduced into Muslim India by Sheikh Baha-ud-din Zakariya (1182 - 1268) of
Multan. With Multan as its center the Silsilah became dominant in the areas that now constitute
Pakistan.

Silsila Qadiriya: Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jelani (1077-1166) of Baghdad is the founder of this
sect. In Indo-Pak this sect was introduced by Shah Nematullah Makhdoom Muhammad Jelani
in the mid of Fifteenth Centurey. This order has extensive influence in Northren India particulary,
in Punjab and Sindh . Allama Iqbal belonged to this sect of Sufism.

Silsila Naqashbandiya: Khwaja Bahauddin Muhammad Naqashband (1317-1389) is the

founder of this sect. khwaja Muhammad Baqibillah had introduced this sect in Indo-Pak.
Shah Waliullah and Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi popularly known as Mujadid Alf Thani belonged
to this sect of Sufism.

Silsila Qalandariya: This sect was started by the Sufi Sheikh Baba Sultan of Kashmir. A sufi
that wanders here and there called Qalandar. Therefore, this sect is named as Qalandariya.

Lecture #2

Indus valley civilization

Civilization

Civilization means the quality of excellence in thought and manners and taste. It is a social process
whereby societies achieve an advanced stage of development and organization. It is the culmination of
culture particularly in its material side.

River Indus: It originates from Tibet Plateau near Monsarwar Lake. It is the largest river of Pakistan.
It enters the Gilgit-Baltistan, flows southwards through the entire length of Pakistan and joins the
Arabian Sea.

Indus Valley Civilization

The Indus Valley Civilization was an ancient civilization that flourished in the region drained by the
Indus and its tributaries. This includes the region of the present day Pakistan.

The Indus Valley Civilization is traced to some five thousand years back. It lasted from 3300 BC to
1500BC. Its mature period was from 2500 BC to 1900 BC. It is also called Harrapan Culture.

Discoveries and Sites

The sites of civilization were first identified in1921 at Harappa in the Punjab region and then in 1922
at Mohenjo-daro (Mohenjodaro), near the Indus River in the Sindh (Sind) region. Excavation
Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

campaign was undertaken by the Indian Archaeological Survey headed by Sir John Hubert Marshall.
The most important sites discovered so far are Mohenjo-Daro on the banks of the Indus, Harappa on
the banks of Ravi and Lothal on the Kathiawar coast. In the absence of written records it would be
premature to draw a concrete conclusion. Even then the noted archaeologists and historians have been
giving accounts of the culture of the people. So far more than one thousand sites have been identified.

Harappa

Harappa was a fortified city in modern-day Pakistan that is believed to have been home to as many as
23,500 residents living in sculpted houses with flat roofs made of red sand and clay. The city spread
over 150 hectares (370 acres) and had fortified administrative and religious centers of the same type
used in Mohenjo-daro. In 1912, John Faithfull Fleet, an English civil servant working with the Indian
Civil Services, discovered several Harappan seals. Except the seals nothing is available in good
conditions.

A few scholars believe that Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were once the twin capitals of the Indus
civilization. These two cities located 400 miles from each other, show similar features. While
Mohenjo-Daro appears to be well preserved, Harappa is in a state of utter ruin, and sometimes the
features are beyond recognition. The site of Harappa is bigger than MohenjoDaro.

Mohenjo-Daro: Mohenjo-Daro means mound of dead. It is situated on the west bank of River Indus,
9 miles from Mohenjo-Daro Railway station and 20 miles from Larkna District. The site was for the
first time discovered by R.D Benergi in 1922 during the excavation of Buddhist Stupa.

Conspicuous Features of Mohenjo-Daro:

A) Town Planning: The town planning of Indus Civilization is considered to the world earliest town
planning. Mostly the cities were divided in two parts i.e. Citadel and Lower City. Citadel was always
to the west of the city and always fortified with bricks. It might have been used for religious and
administrative purpose. Lower city was actually residential area and were not fortified. The houses are
of varying sizes and built of burnt bricks. Stones have not been used for construction purpose. In each
house there were rooms, a kitchen and a bathroom. Most of the houses had an upper storey connected
by a narrow stair-case.

B) Drainage System: One of the unique features of Indus civilization is found in its elaborate
drainage system. Each street and by lane had well-paved drains on either side which collected waste
water from each house. The drains were laid well below the street level and the waste water of the big
city was flushed into the Indus.

C) The Great Bath: Towards the west of the city lay the citadel mound and a few public buildings.
One of the most prominent of these is the great bath which contains a swimming pool. The swimming
pool is surrounded by thick walls, wide verandas and small bathrooms. On all sides of the pool there
were steps. Provisions were made to drain all the dirty water from the pool regularly and fresh water
brought in.

D) Granary: The granary served as a warehouse for storing food grains. Originally the granary
consisted of 27 blocks with crisscross layout of air passage in between these blocks. E) College of
Priest: To the west of the stupa is situated the impressive building popularly known is college of the
priest. It was probably used as a meeting place of public officials.

Socio-Economic Life of Indus Civilization

Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

In many respect the people living in the cities must have enjoyed quite a luxurious life. Their daily
food consisted of beef, mutton, pork, fish, corn-products, vegetables, fruits and milk. They generally
wore stitched cotton garments. Men used a shawl or chadar and a dhoti to cover the lower part of the
body. They kept short beards and whiskers. They kept long hair and combed it backwards regularly.
Sometimes they coiled it into a knot on the top of the head. Women used to have enjoyed freedom
and status in the society. Many of them were found of fashions and luxuries. They kept themselves
beautiful by using wide variety of cosmetic articles. They were familiar with different hair style. The
women of Indus adorned themselves with a wide variety of ornaments. Women wore ornaments
consisted of necklaces, girdles, finger rings, nose studs, ear rings, bangles and anklets. Amusement/
Entertainment: A crude game of chess was probably the most popular of pastime. Other forms of
pastime of the elders were the bull-fighting and hunting of wild animals. Children toys were also
discovered at the sites.

Trade and Commerce: Many people in the cities were engaged in trade and commerce. They used
bullock-driven cart as a mean of transport to carry goods from one city to another. Besides, the Indus
traders had developed commerce with many countries of West-Asia, Crete and Egypt.

Religion: A large number of terracotta figurines of a female elaborately decorated with a crescent-
shaped head-dress have been found in many Indus cities. So, it is assumed that these figurines
represent the Mother Goddess. Numerous seals from Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro contain the
representation of the Male-God. Discovery of a large number of different stones shows that the people
worshiped lingam, the symbol of Lord Shiva. Besides they worshipped the trees and animals like bull,
buffalo, snake and tiger. They also worshiped the sun.

Funereal Customs: The disposal of their dead was done in three forms, namely complete burial,
fractional burial and post-cremation burial. The first involved the burial of the whole body with
different used articles. The second involved the burial of the bones and skulls. The third refers to the
collection of the ashes of the dead and placing it in an urn along with other articles and burying it
underneath the floor of a house.

Defence: It appears that the city was well fortified to prevent the invasions of foreigners. The
weapons include knives, daggers, axes, spear, stone-maces, slings and swords, but all were used for
daily life. In short they were peaceful people and were unwarlike in character.

Pottery: The vessels like jars, vases, dishes, bowls, cups and goblets were found. All these pottery
were used for drinking, eating, cooking and storage purposes.

Seals: The Indus seals were used for trade purpose is not yet known. The Indus seals are square in
shape and made of steatite. More than 200 seals have been found. Some seals contain secular scenes
such as a man attacking a buffalo.

Decline of Indus Civilization: Much speculation has been made on the decline and fall of this great
civilization. Of the many popular theories concerning this, one may accept that natural calamities such
as widespread floods, shifting of the monsoons and soil-erosions as contributing factors for its
decline.

By: Rashid Ahmad

Associate Professor of Pakistan Studies

Govt. AKL PGC Matta Swat

Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

Lecture #3

MUSLIM CULTURAL HERITAGE OF INDO-PAKISTAN

This Indian Subcontinent has an old history of some five millennium (5000) years and was spread
over the area of one and a half millions of square miles. The region is rich in natural as well as
physical beauty. It has mountains, plains, forests, deserts, lakes, hills, and rivers with different climate
and seasons throughout the year.

The land of Indian subcontinent has been an object of invasion either from the route of mountains or
the sea, bringing with it the new masses and ideas and assimilating and changing the culture of the
people. The invaders were the Aryans, the Dravidians, the Parthian, the Greeks, the Sakas, the
Kushans, the Huns, the Turks, the Afghans, and the Mongols, who all brought their unique cultures
with them and the amalgamation gave rise to a new Indian subcontinent civilization.

Culture: The term encompasses the social behavior and norms found in human societies, as well as
the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities and habits of the individuals in these groups.
Or “Culture may be defined as behavior peculiar to human beings, together with material objects
used. Culture consists language,ideas,beliefs,customs,codes,institution,tools,techniques,works of
arts, ceremonies and so on.”

Cultural heritage: It is the legacy of physical artifacts and intangible attributes of a group or society
that is inherited from past generations. Cultural heritage implies a shared bond, our belonging to a
community. It represents our history and our bond to the past, to present and future.

Cultural heritage includes

Architectural Cultural Heritage of Pakistan: Pakistan is endowed with a large number of ancient
sites and historic architecture. Architecture could be divided in to the following periods.

Ancient and Classical Period

Pakistan is home to Mehargarh, Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa and Gandharan civilization as the seat of
Buddhism. Persian and Greek influence led to the development of the Greco-Buddhist style, starting
from the 1st century. The high point of this era was the culmination of the Gandhara style. Important
remnants of Buddhist construction are

 Stupas.
 The Gandhara capital Taxila in the Punjab.
 Buddhist monastery of Takht-i-Bahi in KPK.

Indo-Islamic Architecture

The arrival of Islam in Sind during the 8th century is the starting point of this era. This era showcases
a wide variety of architecture, including Indo-Islamic, Persian, Hindu, Rajputi and Gujarati
influences.

 The earliest example of a mosque from the days of infancy of Islam in South Asia is the
Mihrablose mosque of Banbhore, from the year 727.
 The Makli Necropolis at Thatta.
 The Chaukhandi Tombs near Karachi.
Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

 The Rohtas Fort built by Sher Shah Suri in the 16th century.
 The Tombs of the Talpur Mirs.

Mughal Architecture

Mughal buildings reflects a heavy Persian influence including large bulbous domes, slender minarets,
massive halls, large vaulted gateways and delicate ornamentation, usually surrounded by gardens on
all four sides. The buildings are usually constructed out of red sandstone and white marble, and use of
decorative work such as pachin kari and jali-latticed screens. This era includes buildings from 16th to
18th century.

 The Fort of Bala Hasar (1526): This fort was built by Babur in Peshawar.
 Lahore Fort (1566): It is also known as Shahi Qila. It was built by Akbar. The main structure
inside the fort are the Moti Masjid, Diwan-e-Aam, Maktab Khana, the Shish Mahal and
Nawlakha. The Hathi and Alamgir gates are also remarkable constructions.
 Mahabat Khan Mosque (1630): This Mosque was built by a Government of Peshawar.
Mahabat Khan, during Shah Jahan's region. It has a fine massive structured with lofty
minarets.
 Masjid Wazir Khan (1634): It is situated in Kashmir Baazar inside the walls of the old city. It
was built by Nawab Wazir Khan who was a viceroy of Punjab under Shah Jahan.
 Jahangir Tomb (1637): This tomb was built by Shah Jahan. It is known as a fine building of
Lahore.
 Shalimar Garden (1641-42): It is situated on the Grand Trunk Road and is a magnificent
remnant of Mughal Grandeur. The garden constitutes of three terraces, one above the
other. Besides there is an elaborate and beautiful reservoir, water channels and fountains.
 Badshahi Mosque (1671-73): It was built by Aurangzeb. Its architecture is similar to the
Jamia Masjid Delhi.The mosque has been built with red stones while the domes are in
marble.
 Golden Mosque (1753): It is situated near the Masjid Wazir Khan. It was built during the rule
of Mohammad Shah and it is also a very beautiful piece of architecture.

HERITAGE IN FINE ARTS

Paintings: The art of painting has developed slowly in the Muslim of South Asia. In the beginning
decorative paintings and embroidery were made on the walls and ceilings of buildings. The Mughal
rulers were very fond of paintings. The traditional art of painting occupies a prominent place in the
people of Pakistan. Abdul Rehman Chughtai, Haji Mohammad Sharif, Jamil Nagshare are the most
distinguished painters.
Calligraphy: The Muslim took a keen interest in the promotion of calligraphy. Its main reason is their
deep love with Holy Quran. During this period many kinds of calligraphy progressed. The mosques
constructed during early and medieval periods of Islam were decorated with masterpieces of
calligraphy.
Music: The Mughal contributed a great deal to the promotion of music and Pakistan has inherited
musical traditions that go far back in history. Ameer Khusro and Tansain are famous musicians of the
historical era.
Architecture and Sculpture
The Muslim art of architecture was unique in every aspect. The architecture and all the small arts
Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

including carving, sculpture, mosaic works, tile works and paintings were called upon to build new
mosques and places.

Lecture# 4: Pakistatn’s ideology with special reference to Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, Allama Iqbal and
Quaid-i-Azam

Ideology

The term ideology has been derived from the French word idelogie. The term was first used by
Destul De Tracy during the French Revolution. According to him “ideology is the science of ideas.” In
short “ideology is the system of ideals that acts as a driving force to achieve certain objective of the
life of an individual, group or people.” “The social or political Programme of any movement that
becomes a collective objective of any nation is called Ideology.” OR “Ideology means such an aim
according to which human beings planned about their future.” Democracy, secularism, socialism and
communism are for example some ideologies. Islam is also an ideology, and indeed the most perfect
and complete ideology of life.

Pakistan’s Ideology

Pakistan’s ideology is actually the system of ideals that acted as a driving force towards the creation
of Pakistan. This system of ideals is composed of Islam, Two-Nation Theory, democracy and socio-
economic justices for Muslims of India.

Islam: Islam is the basic ideal and the foundation of Pakistan’s ideology. Thus Pakistan’s ideology
simply means the Islamic way of life. Islam guides the Muslims not only in personal life but in
collective life as well. The Muslims of India wanted a state where they may practice Islam not only in
private matters but also in collective matters such as politics, economy, laws, social structure etc.
This Ideology was actually a reaction to the hectic efforts to impose the Hindu culture on the
Muslims.

Two-Nation Theory: The ideal of Islam also led the Muslims towards Two-Nation Theory which says
that in India there were two nations: Muslims and Hindus. They differed in all walks of life. They had
different beliefs, culture and social, political and legal systems. Being a separate nation, the Muslims
had every right to have a separate state.

Democracy: Democracy is another important ideal/principal of Pakistan’s ideology. The struggle of

the Indian Muslims was for the creation of a state where not an individual but the people will rule
and where they would enjoy freedom and liberty according to the teachings of Islam. Again it was
through the use of the right of self-determination that the Muslims of India created Pakistan.

Socio-economic Justice: Socio-economic injustices created deprivations among the Muslims which
compelled them to struggle for a separate state. Quaid-e-Azam himself said, “The idea was that we
should have a state in which we would live and breathe as free men and which we would develop to
our own light and culture and where principles of Islamic social justice could find free play.”

Sir Syed and Two-Nation Theory

In the scenario after the War of Independence, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (17 Oct 1817- 27 March 1898)
was the first intellectual that called the Muslim a separate nation and as such is called the pioneer of
Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

Two-Nation Theory. In the beginning he believed Hindu-Muslim unity as he called India “a bird
whose two beautiful eyes were the Hindus and the Muslims.” However after the famous Hindi-Urdu
controversy and formation of All India National Congress in 1885, he reached at the conclusion that
the concept of united nationalism was a big fraud. He held that if Hindus and Muslims could not
agree on the choice of a national language, there was no possibility of a common nationhood in
India.

Iqbal and Pakistan’s Ideology

Ideology of Pakistan is based on the Islamic Ideology of Life and Iqbal (9 Nov 1877- 21 April 1938)
was its chief exponent. His Allahabad Address is particularly important in which he remarkably
interpreted the Islamic Ideology and smashed the West’s ideology of life.

Iqbal told that the Western Ideology of life was standing on the ideals of secularism, nationalism and
democracy. Giving the historical background of secularism and nationalism Iqbal told that in
Medieval Europe, the Christian Church dominated the life. The Church claimed Divine Right, decided
the destiny of people and curbed many natural liberties and aspirations of man. Intellectuals like
Martin Luther revolted against the hold of the Church, supported by people and rulers and which
ultimately led towards the expulsion of Church from state affairs. The revolt was right but it was
taken too ahead and along with the Church, religion was also excluded and it became just a personal
or private life having no role in state affairs or collective life. This bifurcation of state and religion
was the birth of secularism.

With the expulsion of religion from state affairs, the West however lost the platform of unity that
Christianity had provided and hence the Christian world divided over divided. For the sake of unity
and nationhood, intellectuals of the West sought secondary means like race, colour, language and
territory and lifted them to the level of good and evil. This was the birth of nationalism.

Further with the expulsion of Church, the Monarch became strong against which the French
Revolution took place which overthrew monarchy and laid the foundation of modern democracy.

Iqbal told that there was no room for secularism and nationalism in Islam. He said, “Islam do not
bifurcate the unity of man in to an irreconcilable duality of spirit and matter. In Islam, God and
Universe, spirit and matter and Church and State are organic to each other.” In other words Islam is
an organic unity.

Negating nationalism, Iqbal held, “It is not the unity of language or the identity of economic interests
that constitute the basic principles of our nationality. It is because that we all believe in certain view
of universe….that we are members of society founded by the Prophet of Islam.”

As far democracy was concerned Iqbal told that Islam was not opposed to it in spirit but in principles.

On the grounds of this particular stance of Islam, Iqbal proposed a separate Muslim state in the
majority areas of Muslims. It was because that united India could stand only on the principles of
secularism, nationalism and democracy of the West and as such the Muslims would be deprived
forever of the ideals of Islam in collective life. The homogeneity that the Muslims had, was still
lacking in Hindus.
Pakistan Studies compulsory Notes by Barkat Ali Elham

Similarly, Iqbal also expounded the Islamic Ideology and Two-Nation Theory in his poetry. His famous
verse in this regard is:

Apni millat par qias aqwaam e maghrib se na kar

Khas hy tarkib main qawm e Rasool e Hashmi

(Don’t think your nationhood stands on the ideals of the West; distinctive is the nation of the
Prophet in composition).

Pakistan’s Ideology and Quaid-i-Azam

Quaid-i-Azam (25 Dec 1876- 11 Sep 1948) is another chief exponent of Pakistan’s Ideology. His
address on the occasion of the passage of famous Lahore Resolution is particularly important in this
regard. He said, “The Hindus and Muslims belong to different religions, philosophies, social customs
and literatures. They neither intermarry nor intermingle together and indeed they belong to
different civilizations, which are based on conflicting ideas and conceptions. Hindus and Muslims
derive their inspirations from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes
and different episodes. Very often the hero of one nation is the foe of other and likewise their
victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one
numerically minority and other as majority must lead to the growing discontent and final destruction
of any fabric that may be so build up for the government of such a state….Mussalman are a nation
according to any definition of a nation and therefore they must have their homeland, their territory
and their state.”

Addressing the students of Islamia college, Quaid said, “Pakistan not only means freedom and
independence but the Muslim ideology which has to be preserved, which has come to us as a
precious gift and treasure and which we hope others will share with us.” Addressing the students of
the same college, he said, “We don’t demand Pakistan simply to have a piece of land but we want a
laboratory where we could experiment on Islamic Principles.