Toolbox for Textual / Literary Analysis:

Fiction: Short stories, novels, plays, poetry, film

&
Writer’s Guide:
How to write the five-paragraph essay;

cohesion/coherence; how to write a summary

 Toolbox for Textual / Literary Analysis:
Fiction: Short stories, novels, plays, poetry, film

Contents: Page
Snippets … 1
Literary Analysis
Overall introduction to textual analysis 2-3
CAIP: Comprehension-Analysis-Interpretation-Perspective
A model for textual analysis – including taxonomic levels 4
Detailed model: How to analyze a novel / short story 5-10
Detailed model: How to read a poem 10-13
Detailed model: How to read a play 13-14
Literary Terms 15-18
Vocabulary: Words to describe a person’s character, etc. 19-20
Vocabulary: Words to describe a text 21
Visual Analysis
Detailed model: How to describe a picture 22-23
Detailed model: How to ‘read’ a film 23-25
Writer’s Guide
How to write the five-paragraph essay 25-27
Coherence and Cohesion (tekstsammenhæng – ‘den røde tråd’) 28-31
How to write a summary 32-34
 Mood
MOOD is the atmosphere or tone of a story or a poem. The
mood is created by the plot, words and phrases, descriptions
and other elements. It is an overall feeling you can have when
reading the story or poem, and it doesn’t come from any one
thing. Here are some words you can use to describe the mood:
o Dark or light
o Pessimistic or cheerful
o Bitter or sweet
o Depressing or uplifting
o Sad or joyful
o Harsh or tender
o Serious or playful
o Disturbing or peaceful


 Point of view:
A writer chooses a person who
Plot interprets the events of the story and
The plot is the order of events in a gives this interpretation to the
story. The following scheme may reader. Such a person is called the
help you to analyze the plot: narrator, and the story is told from
WHAT is the situation? (Has anything his/her point of view. It is often
happened before the story begins?) interesting, when reading fiction, to
WHAT happens next? (What starts the ask the question “Who is telling me
events of the story moving?) this?”
WHAT happens as a result of that? The narrator can be a person who
WHAT happens finally? What is the takes part in the story, or the
resolution? narrator can be a “voice” that looks
 on and describes what the characters
are thinking and doing. In the first
case we say that the story is told
from a first-person point of view
(the narrator speaks as “I”). In the
second case the story is told from a
Time third-person point of view (the
We expect a story to proceed in time from a starting narrator refers to the persons in the
point to an end. Very often a writer may break this time story as “he”, “she”, “they”.
line by using flashbacks – scenes or stories which
represent events that took place before the action in

the story.
By juggling with time the writer can create an illusion of
depth. The past comes to us with a voice –over that
says, “This is how I became what I am now.”
By confusing our normal sense of time the writer also
makes us ask what is actually going on.

1
 G e n r e
TEXTUAL
. j . A l l the stories i n the second part
r\.i\x\JLY I J J L J of this book are 'short stories'.
Various k i n d s of short stories
exist, b u t the w o r k s of prose fic-
t i o n w e call a 'short story' are
usually similar i n the f o l l o w i n g ways: they are f a i r l y short - this
means that the story begins close to the climax ( i n medias res = i n
the m i d d l e of i t all) a n d that there is no space f o r m a n y details of
w h a t has happened before. The short story w r i t e r introduces a v e r y
l i m i t e d n u m b e r of characters a n d he cannot a f f o r d space f o r the de-
scription of a v e r y detailed social m i l i e u or v e r y t h o r o u g h character
sketches. U s u a l l y there is o n l y one m a i n plot, and the details i n the
short story are designed to carry as m u c h significance as possible.

Why Textual Analysis?

I n order to benefit as m u c h as possible f r o m a text readers m u s t
analyse and interpret i t . To analyse a text is to examine its various
components. To interpret is to use the results f r o m the analysis to
decide w h a t the story is about and w h a t the a i m of i t is. W r i t e r s
usually w a n t people to be affected b y w h a t they read - to w o n d e r , to
discuss and to learn f r o m i t .

Components of the Short Story

Composition
I n a story the w r i t e r arranges happenings according to a plan. O n l y
w h e n the reader is able to see this pattern or p l a n can he begin to
understand w h a t the w r i t e r wants to do w i t h his story. The best t h i n g
to do f o r the reader is to d i v i d e the text into sections and give the
various sections a headline. This m a y help the reader to see h o w the

Prose fiction prosa skønlitteratur component del

fairly temmelig aim mål
space plads affect påvirke
cannot afford (her) har ikke plads wonder undre sig over
thorough grundig compo'sition opbygning
character sketch karakteristik happening hændelse
main plot hovedhandling a'ccording to i overensstemmelse med
carry significance være betydnings- pattern mønster
bærende 'section afsnit
'benefit få gavn af headline overskrift 2
in'terpret fortolke
story develops, h o w the t r a i n of events w o r k together and b u i l d u p Theme
towards the climax of the plot.
There is always a theme - or a n u m b e r of themes - i n a story.
The theme is not the same as the plot. A theme could be a concept,
Background and Setting an aspect, a subject such as restlessness, poverty, old age, guilt, loneliness
I n order to f u l l y understand w h a t the characters do, w h y they do i t etc. A theme m a y or m a y not be i m p o r t a n t to the complete story, b u t
and h o w i t affects other characters i n the text i t is i m p o r t a n t to usually i t serves as one of the hints that help the reader to understand
understand their b a c k g r o u n d and the setting of the story. The key- the message of the text.
w o r d s are time (when), place, the various characters a n d social back-
ground. The p e r i o d people live i n , the m i l i e u they have been b r o u g h t Message
u p i n and the m i l i e u they live i n a l l serve to f o r m their character a n d
The message is the purpose, the idea, the a i m of the text. I t is not
to explain w h y they aet, t h i n k and speak the w a y they do. always v e r y easy to express w h a t the message is i n a v e r y clear and
Sometimes, there is o n l y little emphasis on b a c k g r o u n d and set- concise w a y . If i t h a d been, the w r i t e r m i g h t not have w a n t e d to w r i t e
t i n g , sometimes there is more. This - of course - depends o n the his story, b u t there is an idea b e h i n d any story, and this idea usually
writer's intentions. deserves the reader's attention.

Character Sketch
'concept idé message budskab
A s is the case w i t h the short stories i n this book, o f t e n o n l y one or t w o 'aspect side purpose formål
restlessness rastløshed con'cice præcis
characters take u p m u c h of the reader's attention. A l l other characters
'poverty fattigdom de'serve fortjene
are i m p o r t a n t o n l y so far as they have an effect o n the actions, guilt skyld
thoughts a n d feelings of the m a i n character or characters. I t is i m p o r -
tant that the reader is aware of the various ways i n w h i c h a character
is created b y the w r i t e r . H o w m u c h is the reader actually told b y the
narrator? H o w m u c h does the reader learn f r o m w h a t the character
says and does? H o w m u c h does the reader learn f r o m the character's
thoughts? W h a t does the reader learn f r o m w h a t is being said b y other
characters i n the text? H o w m u c h does the reader have to conclude
f r o m various other hints i n the text?

Point of View
W h e n w e talk about ' p o i n t of v i e w ' w e m e a n ' t h r o u g h whose eyes do
w e see w h a t is g o i n g o n i n the text'. Sometimes w e see i t t h r o u g h the
narrator's eyes, sometimes w e see it t h r o u g h the eyes of one or several
of the characters. I t is v e r y i m p o r t a n t that the reader can i d e n t i f y the
p o i n t of v i e w . The w a y the story is t o l d is affected b y the temperament
of the person t h r o u g h whose eyes i t is seen. O n l y w i t h this k n o w l e d g e
i n m i n d can the reader decide w h a t to t h i n k of the story.

train of events hændelsesrække narrator fortæller

setting scene in'tention hensigt
keyword nøgleord hint antydning

3
serve to tjene til point of view synsvinkel (gennem
form danne hvis øjne ses . . . )
'emphasis vægt in mind i tankerne
 Only what seems relevant should be answered in detail. If, for instance, the setting is
merely a backdrop, do not spend ages looking for a deeper meaning there.

Text:
Author:
Trémstillingsform: Panoramic: actions and conversation=presented in summary rather than i detail. Scenic: Actions and conv. = presented in detail, as they occur.
Genre:

Comprehension Analysis Interpretation Perspectives

Narration + point of view Who is telling the story? Is it a first-person or a What is the narrator's atti- Put the text and your inter-
From whose point of view third-person narrator? tude to the events and to pretation into a larger per-
are the events seen? Who is the narrator: age, the characters? spective:
Indre synsvinkel: Intrusive (ca.) relation to characters and What do the other char-
Ydre synsvinkel: Unintrusive / Impersonal / Objective (ca.) events? acters think: are we told Themes
Alvidende fortæller: Omniscien: narrator. Omniscient/unintrusive/ about that, or must we Author's work
Personalfortæller / personbunden fortæller = limited point restricted? guess? Setting:
of view / point of view is restricted to a single character, Narrative modes: dialogue, Is the narrator reliable or Time
Bevidsthedsstrøm: stream - of- consciousness. description, report unreliable? [(U-)pålidelig?] Social environment
What if the story had had Place
another narrator? Genre
Setting When and where does the Does the text describe or Is the setting a neutral Politicai, historical events,
story take place? Real or indicate a specific social backdrop or is it significant facts, issues
imaginary? One or more environment? for our understanding of Etc.
piaces? characters/plot?
Is the setting symbolic of
the characters/plot?
Characters Who? Main characters: Round/dynamic/develop- With whom does the sym-
protagonist, antagonist; ing - flat/static? pathy lie - and why?

i_ i
i - - - - - \
minor characters. How are the characters What causes/motivates the
What are we told: age, described: directly by the main character's actions/
appearances, background, narrator or indirectly by development/change?
relationships, etc. what they say and do? What do the characters
How would you describe a represent (e.g. values,
person with these charac- social groups, norms)
teristics?
Composition Introduction or in medias Organization of events: Why is the story organ-
resi Initial situation - develop- ized like that? What is the
Chronologically organized ment - final situation? effect?
or with flash backs/flash Hints at events that happen
forwards or imchronologi- later on in the story? (pre-
cal in other ways? monitions)
How does the story end? Open or closed ending? Is
Lineær komposition med flash it predictable or unpredict-
To have a linear structure with able?
back og evt. flash forward (bag-
or without flashbacks / flash for- Will there be any future
udgreb og forudgreb).
wards (analepsis / prolepsis) development?
Language and Style Is the language easy or dif- Simple or complex, formal/ How does language and
ficult to read? informal/colloquial lan- style contribute to our
guage? experience and under-
Standard English or dia- standing of the characters
lect/sociolect? and events?
Is figurative language
used? (metaphors, symbols,
etc.)
Theme(s) and Message What is the title? Does it What subject(s) does the What values and ideas are
indicate anything about the text fundamentally deal reflected in the text? How
theme(s)? with? and why?
What is the link between Does the title suggest an
the title, the characters and interpretation?
the events? Is there a moral, a lesson
What is (are) the theme(s)? to be learned, or a message
that the author wants the

4
reader to get?
 319

How to read a novel and a short story

W h e n starting to read a fictional text, y o u m a y find it h e l p f u l to start by

asking yourself the f o l l o w i n g wh-questions:
Where does the story take place?
When does the story take place?
Who appears i n the text? Who are the characters?
What happens? What is the plot?
Why does this happen?

A s y o u read, find keywords and phrases to help y o u understand what

the text is all about and to help y o u f o r m a general impression o f it. To
make a detailed analysis of the text it w i l l be useful to consider the points
below. W h e n y o u i d e n t i f y characteristic features i n y o u r analysis, make
sure that y o u explain their effect i n your interpretation.

language

setting

title characters

theme/ narration/
message point of
view

Setting
time place

cultural
atmosphere
environment

social historical
environment environment

1 W h e r e and w h e n does the text take place? Is it i n the real or i n an

imaginary world?
2 Does the place o f action remain the same or is there more than one
physical setting?
3 W h a t time o f year or o f day is it?
4 W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n is given about the historical p e r i o d and context?
5 Is there any indication i n the text of the social and cultural environ-
ment? 5
W i d e r Contexts

6 Is the setting described i n detail or hinted at? Is it conveyed through

direct description or indirectly by what the characters say or do?
7 Does the setting create a particular atmosphere?
8 Does the setting reflect a characters m o o d or underline emotions?
9 Does the setting comrnent o n the character i n an indirect way?
10 Has the setting shaped the character and his/her values?
11 Does the setting have symbolic significance i n the text?

Narration/point of view
narrative modes
(description, direct/indirect
speech, dialogue)

first person third person

(reliable/unreliable) (omniscient/limited)

third person omniscient

(intrusive/objective)

1 Is it a first person or a t h i r d person narrative?

2 I f it is a first person narrative, is the narrator reliable or unreliable?
3 I f it is a t h i r d person narrator, is the point o f view omniscient or
limited? W h o s e thoughts and feelings do we have access to?
4 If it is an omniscient narrator, is the narrator intrusive and comments
o n characters and actions, or objective?
5 A r e the characters described directly by the author or indirectly by
what they say or do?
6 Does the author represent the thoughts o f a character as a stream o f
consciousness? (See Toolbox \mm)
7 W h i c h narrative modes are used: description, direct/indirect speech,
dialogue, report (i.e. an account o f what has happened)?
8 Does the narrative voice reflect the narrator's personality?

Characters
flat/round
simple/complex

appearance I characters I social background

language development

6
main character/
minor character
 321

1 W h o are the characters, and what do we learn about them? (Age,

appearance, f a m i l y situation, background, education, job, language,
thoughts, opinions)
2 A r e all characters introduced at once, or do they appear gradually?
3 W h o is the m a i n character? W h y do y o u consider h i m / h e r the m a i n
character?
4 D o the characters' personalities r e m a i n the same throughout the
story or do they develop?
5 W h a t causes this development or change?
6 A r e the characters flat or r o u n d , simple or complex characters?
7 D o the characters' names tell us something about their personalities?
8 D o the characters' appearances and language tell us something about
their personalities or status?

Structure/composition
opening
(introduction/in medias res)

climax ending (open/closed)

s t r u c t u r e
suspense ( / \ foreshadowing
\ composition i

fragmented j flashbacks/flashforwards

chronological

Opening
1 Does the story have an introduction or does it start i n medias res?
2 H o w does the writer capture the reader's interest?
3 A r e important situations presented?
4 A r e important characters introduced?
5 A r e central themes introduced?

Ending
1 Does the e n d i n g provide some k i n d o f resolution?
2 Is it an open and ambiguous ending?
3 Is the e n d i n g predictable/unpredictable, expected/unexpected?
4 W h a t is the effect of the ending on the reader: surprise, relief, aston-
ishment, fulfilment?

Composition
1 A r e the events presented i n chronological order? If not, w h y not?
2 A r e there flashbacks or flashforwards?
3 Foreshadowing: are there hints at events likely to happen?
4 Is it a fragmented narrative? 7
322 W i d e r Contexts

5 W h a t is the initial situation, the development, and the final situation?

W i l l there be any future development?
6 Is there a conflict i n the story? If yes, does it come f r o m outside or
inside?
7 W h a t is the relationship between characters and events? Is the pro-
tagonist eontrolled by events or does the protagonist shape events?
8 Does the author create a feeling o f suspense? If yes, how?
9 Is there a climax?
10 C a n one o f the following graphs be used to illustrate the structure
of the text?

1. P Y R A M I D PLOT S T R U C T U R E

Climax

Beginning End

2 . T H E HOLLYWOOD MODEL
Intensity
and tension

Beginning 8
 323

Language/style/tone
sentence structure

grammar vocabulary

punctuation
word order

dialect/ imagery/figures
sociolect ofspeech

1 Is the sentence structure long or short, simple or complex, paratactic

or hypotactic? A r e the sentences incomplete?
2 Is the vocabulary concrete or abstract, colloquial, formal or neutral? Is
a particular word class c o m m o n i n the text? Is there a use of or a lack
of adjectives and adverbs? A r e speciflc words or phrases repeated?
3 Is there anything characteristic about the punctuation or the w o r d
order?
4 Does the language belong to a certain dialect or sociolect?
5 A r e there connotations? Positive or negative?
6 S o u n d effects: are there examples o f alliteration or assonance?
7 A r e there examples of the use o f imagery, symbolism, metaphors,
simile or personification? (See Toolbox E E E 1 )
8 W h a t is characteristic o f the general tone? Is it positive, negative,
neutral, happy, depressed, optimistic, ironic . . . ?

TITLE

1 W h a t is the l i n k between the title, the characters and the course of

events?
2 Does the title create expectations about the text? A r o u s e curiosity?
Suggest an interpretation?

THEME

1 W h a t subject(s) does the text fundamentally deal with, or what is

the m a i n idea of the text?
2 Is there more than one theme? If so, what are they?
3 W h i c h elements i n the story support the theme? A r e there elements
w h i c h oppose the theme?
4 Is it an overt or an i m p l i e d theme?

MESSAGE

1 W h a t has the writer tried to tell the reader through the text?
2 Does the writer intend to entertain, educate or influence the reader?

9
324 W i d e r Contexts

WlDER CONTEXTS

1 Relate the text to other texts o n the same or a similar theme. W h a t

are the similarities and differences? W h i c h do y o u prefer and why?
W h a t is conveyed or achieved by the comparison?
2 In what way does the text reflect the p e r i o d i n w h i c h it was written?
3 For further contexts, see W i d e r contexts chart, p. 10.

How to read a poem

It m a y be h e l p f u l to read the p o e m several times:
First, read the p o e m straight through to get a sense of h o w it sounds
and what it m a y be about. Read it aloud i f possible. W h a t is your first
impression?
Secondly, read the p o e m sentence by sentence. Distinguish between
the parts y o u understand and the parts y o u need to investigate further.
Thirdly, read the p o e m stanza by stanza. W h a t is the general content
of each stanza? W h a t emotions are contained i n the stanza? H o w does
it fit i n w i t h the rest?
Finally, read the whole p o e m i n one go again. T h i n k about the tone,
m o o d and pace o f the p o e m .

To make a detailed analysis of the text it w i l l be useful to consider the

points below. W h e n y o u identify characteristic features i n your analysis,
make sure that y o u explain their effect i n y o u r interpretation.

setting
poetic
title language

theme/ f o r m and
message structure

narration wider contexts

TITLE

Does the title create expectations about the poem? A r o u s e curiosity?

Suggest an interpretation?

10
 325

SETTING time place

cultural
atmosphere
environment

social historical
environment environment

1 W h e r e and w h e n does the p o e m take place? Is it i n the real or i n an

imaginary world?
2 Is there more than one physical setting?
3 W h a t time of year or o f day is it?
4 W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n is given about the historical p e r i o d and context?
5 Is there any indication i n the p o e m of the social and cultural envi-
ronment?
6 Is the setting described i n detail or hinted at?
7 Does the setting create a particular atmosphere?
8 Does the setting have a symbolic significance i n the poem?

NARRATION e ai«w
n o

tone of voice background

persona

1 W h o is the speaker of the poem? (Is it a first person or a third person

narrator?)
2 A r e we told anything about the speakers background?
3 Has the poet created a persona w h o is clearly different f r o m the poet?
If so, what view is the reader supposed to have o f this character (e.g.
sympathetic, disapproving...)?
4 W h a t has the speaker got to say about the topic of the poem?
5 W h a t situation or feeling has prompted the speaker to communicate?
6 In what tone of voice is the speaker communicating?

11
326 W i d e r Contexts

FORM A N D STRUCTURE

shape stanzas

rhyme lines

rhythm development

1 H o w is the p o e m organised?
2 Has the p o e m got any particular shape or form?
3 H o w m a n y stanzas are there?
4 H o w m a n y lines are there i n each stanza?
5 H o w are the stanzas linked? (enjambement, w o r d repetition etc.)
6 W h a t rhyme scheme, i f any, is used?
7 Is the r h y t h m i n any way specific? Is the p o e m metrical? Is the
r h y t h m fast or slow? A r e there changes i n the rhythm? To what ex-
tent does the r h y t h m reflect the meaning?
8 Does the p o e m c o n f o r m to a w e l l - k n o w n poetic f o r m (e.g. ballad,
sonnet...)?
9 H o w does the p o e m begin, develop, end?
10 Is the time sequence chronological?

POETIC L A N G U A G E

word order
formal/informal

simple/complex

imagery •

connotations
personification

1 In what k i n d of language is the p o e m written? Is it f o r m a l or i n f o r -

mal? Is it simple or complex?
2 Is there anything specific about the w o r d order? A r e any words
placed at the beginning to emphasise them?
3 Is there anything characteristic or unusual about the choice o f v o -
cabulary? W h y do y o u t h i n k the poet has chosen those particular
words?
4 Is the grammar correct? Is the syntax correct? Is there something
unusual about the punctuation or capitalisation?

12
 327

5 Does the p o e m have any questions, commands or exclamations?

6 A r e sound devices such as alhteration, assonance or repetition used?
7 D o the words and phrases have connotations?
8 Is imagery used? W h i c h senses does it appeal to?
9 A r e there examples o f simile or metaphor? W h a t are the two things
that are compared? H o w are they similar? W h a t is achieved by the
comparison?
10 A r e there examples o f personifikation?
11 W h i c h aspects o f style are especially effective?

T H E M E/M E S S A G E
1 W h a t subject(s) does the p o e m fundamentally deal with, or what is
the m a i n idea o f the poem?
2 Is it an overt or an i m p l i e d theme?
3 W h a t is the poets attitude to the theme?
4 W h i c h elements i n the p o e m support the theme? A r e there elements
w h i c h oppose the theme? H o w is the theme developed?
5 Is there more than one theme? If so, what are they?
6 W h a t has the writer tried to tell the reader through the poem?

WIDER CONTEXTS
1 Relate the p o e m to other texts o n the same or a similar theme. W h a t
are the similarities and differences? W h i c h do y o u prefer and why?
W h a t is conveyed or achieved by the comparison?
2 In what way does the p o e m reflect the period i n w h i c h it was written?
3 F o r further contexts, see W i d e r contexts chart, p. 10.

How to read a play

Plays can be read m u c h like novels and short stories as regards setting,
characters, structure, language/style/tone, title, theme and message (see
the previous pages) and y o u can start by asking the same questions, but
plays were written to be performed and must also be analysed by look-
ing into the visual and aural tools used. It may be h e l p f u l to read aloud
and to p e r f o r m parts o f the play. W h e n watching a play, remember that
different directors and actors provide different interpretations.
A s y o u read, find keywords and phrases to help y o u understand what
the play is all about and to help y o u f o r m a general impression o f it.
To make a detailed analysis o f the play it w i l l be useful to consider the
questions o n p. 319 as well as the questions below. W h e n y o u identify
characteristic features i n your analysis, make sure that y o u explain their
effect i n y o u r interpretation.

13
328 Wider Contexts

setting
genre
visual tools

costumes aural tools

dialogue
props

lighting sounds
wider contexts

V I S U A L A N D A U R A L TOOLS

1 W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n are we given about the set?

2 Is that particular set important for our interpretation of the play?
3 W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n do the costumes give us about the characters?
4 W h a t i n f o r m a t i o n do the stage directions give us about actions,
movements and positioning? H o w detailed are they?
5 W h a t do the directions add to your understanding of what the play
is about?
6 A r e props used? To what effect?
7 H o w is lighting used? Does it have a symbolic effect?
8 Is the action physical or psychological?
9 W h a t use is made o f aural tools/dialogue
10 Is the dialogue realistic?
11 W h a t is the f u n c t i o n o f the dialogue? (To reveal character, to add
i n f o r m a t i o n about the plot or about the relationship between char-
acters, to develop theme(s), to create a certain atmosphere, to create
a reaction f r o m the audience ...)
12 Is there anything characteristic about the pace or r h y t h m of the dia-
logue?
13 H o w do the characters speak their lines (confidently, quietly, slowly
...)? W h a t does this reveal about the characters?
14 A r e there examples o f soliloquies, asides or monologues? W h a t is
their purpose?
15 H o w do the characters interact?
16 Is there music or sound effects i n the play? H o w do they contribute
to the atmosphere?

WIDER CONTEXTS

1 Does the play belong to a specific genre (comedy, tragedy, romance,

m o d e r n drama ...)?
2 Does the play belong to a specific dramatic tradition or historical
context? H o w is this important f o r the understanding of the play?
3 Relate the play to other texts on the same or a similar theme. W h a t
are the similarities and differences? W h i c h do y o u prefer and why?
W h a t is conveyed or achieved by the comparison?
4 F o r further contexts, see W i d e r context chart, p. 10.
14
 45

Literary terms
lAHegory: a story which has several - at Broadsheet: the traditional and largest for-
least two - levels of meaning with things mat for newspapers.
or human characters representing ideas.
Allegories are often intended to teach a 'Carpe 'diem: is Latin for 'seize the day',
moral lesson. make the most of your youth as life is brief
and death inevitable.
AUite'ration: the repetition of a consonant
sound in a sequence of words which are "Character: a person in a story or a play.
close together, either at the beginning of A distinction is usually made between
the words or in a stressed syllable. flat characters, who are types who do not
change during the story or play, and round
Ambi'guity: the use of a word or phrase characters, who portray several personal-
with more than one possible meaning; the ity traits. They are more complex and the
adjective is ambiguous. readers follow their development through
the text Sometimes the terms static and
Antagonist: the adversary of the protago- dynamic characters respectively are used
nist in a play or a novel/short story. to convey a similar idea.

Assonance: the repetition of identical or Climax: the majorterningpoint or highest

similar vowel sounds in a sequence of point of tension in a story or play.
words which are close together, especially
in stressed syllables. Comedy: often used about plays, but can
also be used about poetry and prose to
Ballad: a form of poem which tells a story. describe a work designed to amuse and
In its original form it was intended to be entertain its audience and in which the
sung and it was an important part of early action usually turns out happily for the
English literature. Typically a ballad would main characters.
deal with dramatic or romantic topics. The
most common stanza form is a quatrain, Comedy of mamaers: can refer to a drama,
four lines in which the second and fourth but some novels, e.g. Jane Austen's, are
lines rhyme. There will usually be a refrain. also called comedies of manners as they
There are various types of ballads, e.g. the describe people's behaviour and attitudes,
folk ballad or traditional ballad, the broad- which usually reflect the social hierarchies
side ballad and the lyrical ballad. of the novel, with a humorous or ironic
twist.
Blank verse: lines of iambic pentameter
which are unrhymed. It is very close to Con'ceit: see sonnet.
the natural rhythm of English speech.
Shakespeare's dialogues and monologues
are good examples.
15
46 47

Connotation: what a word suggests beyond Euphemism ['jmfsmizm]: the rephrasing of Flashback: a literary device used to supply Iambic metre: a mefre in which the major-
its basic definition or denotation. The word an unpleasant or impolite term in a nice or information about events which occurred ity of feet are iambs, the most common
home, for instance, by denotation means polite way, like pass away' instead of'die'. earlier than the main story. English metre.
only a place where one lives, but by con-
notation it suggests security, comfort and Expo'sition: the introduction of background Flash-forward: a literary device used to Iambic pentameter: line of poetry consist-
family. information in a literary work to secure the supply information about events which ing offiveiambic feet Iambic pentameter
audience's understanding of the text occur later than the main story. can be found in sonnets and Shakespear-
'Couplet a pair of lines in a poem or drama. ean drama.
Fable: a fictional story in which the charac- Foot: a number of stressed and unstressed
Denotation: the basic meaning/s of a word ters are animals, piants, mythical creatures syllables forming a unit within the metre Iambic tetrameter: a line of verse consist-
that you will find in a dictionary. See con- or forces of nature which are given human of a poem. ing of four iambic feet, an example can
notation. traits. They often teach a moral lesson, be seen in Andrew Marvell "To His Coy
which is sometimes stated explicitly at the Foreshadowing: the use of an element early Mistress".
Dystopia: the opposite of Utopia; an imagi- end of the story. in a text that gives a hint about or antici-
nary state or place in which everything is pates a later part of the text. Imagery: descriptive language that pro-
extremely bad, unpleasant or imperfect Fairy tale: usually a children's story in which duces mental pictures and sensory expe-
magicai things happen. Often starts with Free verse: verse that does not rhyme and riences in the minds of people reading or
En5amb(e)ment (run-on lines): is the op- the words "Once upon a time'' and has a uses no particular rhythm. listening. The images may appeal to sight
posite of an end-stopped line. In a run-on happy ending. The characters face a num- (visual imagery), sound, feeling, smell,
line the sense of one line continues into ber of trials. Genre: a particular type or style of litera- taste and movement
the next where the punctuation mark may ture. The most common fictional genres
then appear. This is a common feature in Fantasy: a genre that blends aspects from are the novel, the short story, poetry and In medias res: Latin for 'in the middle of
much of Shakespeares writing as well as in the real world with something that is un- drama Some common non-fictional genres things'. Used when a narrative starts in the
much modem poetry. reai Primary elements of the plots are are the essay, the article, the speech and the middle of the action rather than from the
magic and other supernatural elements. biography. very beginning.
Epilogue: the end of a play, book or film
that comments on or acts as a conclusion Feature article: gives readers an in-depth Gotbic novel: a novel which emphasizes Intertextuality: references in a text to oth-
to what has happened analysis of a certain topic. Such articles the grotesque, mysterious and desolate. It er texts or elements in other texts both in
are also intended to entertain and there- often has a medieval setting with castles the form of direct quotations or as indi-
Epiphany: the moment in a story when the fore writers use a style which has elements and secret chambers, there may be super- rect hints. You may even see characters or
main character achieves a sudden insight from fiction, e.g. figurative and poetical natural elements, and there is an atmos- events from one text appearing in another.
language. phere of terror and gloom. More modem
Essay: a short piece of prose on a specific versions have contemporary settings but Irony: saying the opposite of what is meant,
topic that sets out to discuss a point, ex- Figurative language: language which uses maintain the uncanny events and the giving a statement where the speakers in-
press an opinion or to persuade the reader figures of speech such as metaphors, similes brooding atmosphere. tended meaning is different from what he
to accept a thesis. and symbols. exphcitly says. A special kind of irony is
Hy^erbole fhaip3:bsH]: a deliberate, extrav- dramatic irony where the audience knows
Ethos: a rhetorical term used to describe the Eigure of speech/trope: a word or phrase agant exaggeration of the truth. Not to be something which the characters do not
appeal form/mode of persuasion when the that is used in a way that is different from taken literally cf. Andrew Marvell "To His know.
speaker appeals to the audience's trust by its usual meaning in order to create a par- Coy Mistress".'
establishing his own authority or expertise ticular mental image or effect. Metaphors Logos: a rhetorical term used about the
concerning his subject. and similes are figures of speech/tropes. lamb [aiæmb]: a metrical foot composed appeal form/mode of persuasion when
of an unstressed syllable followed by a the speaker appeals to logic and focuses

16
stressed syllable, for example e'nough'. on facts and figures in his text in order to
persuade the audience.
48 og 49

Mash-up text: a text which mixes an exist- Parable: a short story designed to teach a view, where the narrator knows everything literation and rhyrning couplets are aspects
ing text, often a well-known novel or play, moral lesson by drawing a parallel between necessary about the characters and events, of rhyme. Also see sonnet.
with vampire or zombie narratives. the story and actual events. A parable is and the limited point of view, where the
often an allegory in which each charac- narrator is confined to what is experienced Rhyrning couplet two successive lines, usu-
Metaphor: is the use of a word or phrase ter represents an abstract concept such as and known by a single character. ally in the same metre, linked by rhyme. A
which literally denotes one kind of object innocence or honesty. closed rhyrning couplet is one that is gram-
or idea, but is applied to another to suggest Postcolonial literature: hterature from or matically and logically complete. A rhyrn-
a likeness or analogy between them, for ex- Parody: an artistic work which imitates an- about Britain's former colonies. ing couplet in iambic pentameter is called
ample she has a heart ofstone; the sweet other work on the same theme or of the a 'heroic couplet'.
wind didgently kiss the trees (Shakespeare: same gerne to ridicule or criticize i t Prologue: the opening speech of a play, or
Merchant ofVemce). Compare simile. the begirming of a book or film that is an Rhythm: see metre.
Pastoral poetry: poetry describing rural introduction to what is to follow.
Metre: the rhythrnical pattern of a poem or life, conventionally often including shep- Sestefc see sonnet.
speech in a play. The syllables of words are herds. Marlowe's "The Passionate Shep- Protagonist: the main character of a play or
stressed or unstressed so that the pronun- herd to His Love" is an example of this. piece of prose fiction. Setting: the time and place in which the
ciation creates a certain sound pattern. In events of the story, drama or film take
English, the two most common patterns Pathos: a rhetorical term used about the Quatrain: see sonnet. place, the social background of the char-
are: appeal form/mode of persuasion used acters
- Iamb [aiæmb] an unstressed syllable by the speaker to appeal to the audience's Rhetorical question: a question to which
followed by a stressed syllable "Shall 'I emotions in order to create support for his no answer is expected, posed by a speaker Simile: afigureof speech in which two un-
compare thee to a 'summers 'day". Shake- view. to involve the audience. like things are compared using 'like' or 'as',
speare for example "My love is like a red, red rose"
- Trochee [tre-uld:] a stressed syllable fol- Personification: a kind offigurativelan- Rhyme: the faet that two or more words (Robert Bums)
lowed by an unstressed syllable "'Tyger, guage where an manimate object or a con- sound similar. The phenomenon is par-
'Tyger" cept is spoken of as if it had human life, ticularly common in poetry and some Science fiction: stories, often set in the fu-
thoughts or feelings. drama, particularly the end rhyme when ture, which show what effect new discover-
Narrator: the person who tells the story. In a word at the end of a verse line rhymes ies and scientific developments will have
fiction a narrator is a fictitious character. Poem: an imaginative literary genre often with a word at the end of another verse on us in the future.
Also see. point ofview. used to describe feelings or thoughts. The line. A distinction is made between full/
gerne often applies figures of speech and true/perfect rhyme, where the sounds are Short story: a short piece offictionalprose
Novel: a fictional prose text or narrative of imagery as well as a certain metrical pat- identical, and half/partial/near/slant/im- which can usually be read in a couple of
some length which usually describes the tern and rhyme scheme. perfect rhyme, where most of the sounds hours. It mostly expands one central Idea
development of one or several characters are the same. A special kind of rhyme is the or episode, a "certain unique or single ef-
in a certain setting. The action of the novel Point ofview: indicates how a story is told. eye rhyme, where words lo ok the same but fect" (a term used by E.A. Poe (1809-49)).
is usually termed plot In English Hterature It is the perspective from which the author are not necessarily pronounced the same The setting is established quickly, introduc-
the gerne first appeared in the first half of has chosen to present the characters, set- way (anymore) like 'daughter and laugh- ing place, time and character. It has few
the 18th century. Sometimes a distinction ting and events. In a first person narrative ter'. Two rhyrning stressed syllables are characters and the time span is relatively
is made between the 'novel of incident', the personal pronouns I or we are used termed masculine rhyme 'billVbill', and short. The main character usually faces a
which focuses on the protagonist's doings and the point of view is limited to what the rhyrning words containing a stressed syl- problem or conflict that needs to be solved.
and the consequences of this, as opposed first person narrator knows, experiences or lable followed by an unstressed syllable are Some stories focus on the development of
to the 'novel of character, in which the finds out. Therefore the question will often termed feminine rhyme, e.g. 'ocean/mo- character, others on action or plot.
focus is on the protagonist's personal de- be if the narrator is reliable or unreliahle. In tion. When a poem is scarmed, each new
velopment. a third person narrative the pronouns he, end rhyme is usually given a letter, so that a
Soliloquy: a speech by a character in a play
she, it OT they are used, and there is a dis- stanza containing four lines could have the
given while the character is either alone
'Octave: see sonnet. tinction between the omniscient point of rhyme scheme abab or abba. Åssonance, al-
or the other characters are unaware of 17
50 51

the speech. It is used to give the audience ing the thoughts of the main characters Theme: the main idea or concept in a piece which leads to his death at the end of the
information, often about the characters are sometimes rendered in a stream of of hterature, the idea around which the play.
thoughts and feelings. consciousness-like way, also in quite short plot evolves. A tragedy usually follows a three part
passages, e.g. in Pride and Prejudice. structure: 1) The opening or exposition,
Sonnet: a sonnet is a poem of 14 lines, Tone: the writer's or speakers attitude to- 2) the middle of the play where a com-
each consisting of five stressed and five Style: the way in which a text is written, the wards his subject, audience or himself. plication may arise, and 3) the end of the
unstressed syllables (iambic pentameter). linguistic devices applied by the writer to Almost all the elements of a text combine play, the resolution or denouement where
Broadly speaking, there are two main types achieve a certain effect. A distinction is to indicate its tone: connotation, imagery, some sort of order is established. In Shake-
of sonnet, the Italian or Petrarchan sonnet usually made between high or foimal style metaphor, irony, sentence structure and speares Romeo and Juliet the two families
and the English or Shakespearean sonnet. and low or mformal style. Quite often writ- formal pattern. in conflict are reunited after Romeo and
The Italian sonnet was intro duced by the ten language is more formal fhan spoken Juliet have died.
poet Petrarch (1304-74). This is usually language, but even in written language Tragedy: a tragedy deals with serious and Until the 20th century many tragic plays
composed of an octave or two quatrains, there are different degrees of formality and important events which turn out disas- followed this structure, but modem drama
eight lines which form a specific rhyme linguistic complexity. trously for the protagonist. The protago- is often less predictable.
scheme, and a sestet or two tercets or tri- Paratactic style is when a text contains nist or tragic hero is a person whom the
plets which are also linked by rhyme: abba a high degree of comparatively short and audience can admire even i f he has a Trimeter: three feet in a verse line.
abba cdc cdc or cdecde. The Shakespearean simple main clauses, whereas hypotactic tragic flaw, an error in his character or
sonnet usually consists of three quatrains style is used to describe more complex lan- mental make-up which usually leads to Utopia: 'nowhere' from Greek, a term gen-
and one rhyrning couplet at the end: abab guage combining a number of main and his fall. In Shakespeare's Macbeth, Mac- erally used in Hterature to describe an ideal
cdcd efefgg. In Shakespeares sonnets, the subordinate clauses by means of hypotac- beth is said to be flawed by his ambition, State, a perfect place or country.
conceit, an extended metaphor consisting tic conjunctions such as 'when', 'as' or "be-
of a parallel often between two apparently cause'. Emest Hemingway is well known
dissimilar 1±ungs or situations, may ap- for his use of paratactic style, e.g. in "Indi-
pear early in the sonnet or in the rhyrn- an Camp". Raymond Carver in "What We
ing couplet. Many sonnets contain a rum, Talk About When We Talk About Love"
a change in conditions, attitude or mood also applies a paratactic style. Also to be
often indicated by a conjunction like 'but' considered in connection with style are el-
or 'if. In particular, the poets of the First ements such as figurative language, word
World War used the sonnet to a great ex- order, punctuation, grammar and the use
tent, and because of its apparently simple, of alliteration.
yet very complex structure, many British
poets are still attracted to the form. 'Symbol: something (object, person, situa-
tion, or action) that means more than what
Stream of consciousness: a narrative tech- it actually is.
nique where there is a continuous flow of
thoughts and feelings as they are experi- Tabloid: a newspaper in small format, usu-
enced by a character. This often continues ally illustrated and containing sensational
throughout a short story or novel (e.g. and popular news stories in a condensed
Virginia Woolfs, James Joyce's, Katherine form.
Mansfield's works). Sometimes it may ap-
pear unstructured and incoherent as con- Tercet: see sonnet.

18
ventional sentence structure andpunctua-
tion is abandoned. In Jane Austerfs writ- Tetrameter: four feet in a verse line.
316 W i d e r Contexts

Vocabulary
P E O P L E - character, mood and intelligence
B e l o w y o u w i l l find vocabulary that m a y be useful w h e n y o u want to
describe a persons character, m o o d and intelligence.

CHARACTER

0
1 l[' in!. v ftoV/ifåiiii [p.pfil»Io|

dependable calculating affectionate aggressive arrogant

frank cunning compassionate callous boastful
loyal deceitful considerate cruel conceited
reliabie false friendly cynical condescending
sincere hypocritical generous evil contemptuous
straightforward scheming gentle heartless scornful
trustworthy insincere helpful hostile supercilious
truthful treacherous loving malicious
two-faced overbearing mean
unreliable sensitive ruthless
wicked

iymijjjj.=jte3o|

biased unbiased assertive compliant audacious

intolerant fair confident dependent bold
subjective objective determined diffident brave
judgemental just domineering docile fearless
narrow-minded open-minded firm insecure heroic
one-sided tolerant headstrong irresolute valiant
partial impartial independent submissive
racist resolute unassertive
unfair obstinate
opinionated
stubborn

(sIHigjflilg

ext rovert discreet logicai foolish

lively introvert rational illogical
sociable quiet patient impatient
talkative reticent prudent imprudent
vivacious shy sensible irrational
timid insensible
withdrawn

19
 317

MOOD

(ES •-'
cheerful depressed annoyed anxious amazed
content devastated cross apprehensive astonished
delighted distressed enraged frightened astounded
elated gloomy furious nervous flabbergasted
exhilarated heartbroken infuriated scared gobsmacked
overjoyed miserable livid terrified startled
pleased s hatte red mad worried stunned

j
" •

bewildered agitated composed eager

baffled disturbed peaceful disillusioned enthusiastic
disconcerted perturbed placid dissatisfied thrilled
perplexed tense relaxed embittered inspired
puzzled troubled serene frustrated ecstatic
unsettled unaffected

INTELLIGENCE

able brainless
brainy daft
bright dumb
elever foolish
gifted half-witted
sharp retard ed
smart simple
talented stupid

20
318 W i d e r Contexts

TEXTS
Below y o u w i l l find vocabulary that may be useful w h e n y o u talk about the texts.

tone style
calm aggressive complicated
(highly) charged arrogant elegant
(un)friendly cheerful emotional
frightening comic factual
gloomy desperate (in)formal
hopeful humorous journalistic
hostile ironic literary
loving light objective
oppressive matter-of-fact simple
relaxed optimistic straightforward
stifling pessimistic subjective
strained sarcastic convoluted
tense serious
uneasy tragic

subject/topic theme story relationship

boring central amusing close
controversial common boring complicated
dull contemporary compelling friendly
fascinating controversial depressing (un)happy
important fascinating dramatic harmonious
(un)interesting historical exciting lasting
(un)pleasant important humorous loving
taboo interesting incredible professional
main intriguing strained
minor moving uneasy
original horrifying
popular thought-provoking
unputdownable
(un)realistic

21
 331

CIRCUMSTANCES
1 W h a t occasion has caused the writer to produce this text?
2 In what way(s) has this situation influenced the text?

INTENTION
1 W h y has the writer written this text? (To describe, to i n f o r m , to
provoke, to persuade, to explain, to entertain, to manipulate or ...?)
2 Does the text succeed i n f u l f i l l i n g the writer's intentions?

WIDER CONTEXTS
1 Relate the text to other texts o n the same or a similar theme. W h a t
are the similarities and differences? W h i c h do y o u prefer and why?
W h a t is conveyed or achieved by the comparison?
2 For further contexts, see W i d e r context chart, p. 10.

How to describe a picture

1 DESCRIPTION
a W h a t k i n d of picture is it: painting/poster/photo/drawing, etc?
b W h o or what is i n the picture?
c W h e r e is it? W h a t is the setting?
d Is there any indication o f time? (historically and time of day)
e H o w do people/things i n the picture look?

2 ANALYSIS
a W h a t do y o u notice first?
b W h a t is the point of view: a bird's eye view or a worm's eye view?
c W h a t scale is it on?
d W h a t words best describe
• the shapes: triangular, circular, square
• the colours: transparent, light, dark
• the lines: diagonal, parallel, horizontal, vertical?
e In what way does the artist apply
• colour: to create a certain tone (predominantly w a r m or cold)
• light/darkness
• lines: to create a static or d y n a m i c atmosphere
• form
• perspective
• composition?
f A r e the colours natural?
g Have the colours been used to create a dramatic impact or are they
m a i n l y decorative?

22
332 W i d e r Contexts

h A r e the colours used symbolically?

i Does the viewers eye stay o n the surface or travel into an imagined
space?
j W h a t words best describe the m o o d or effect of the picture?
k W h a t imagery or symbols do y o u see i n the picture?
I W h a t story, m y t h , or allegory is told?
m Is there a theme? If so, what is it?

3 INTERPRETATION

a L o o k back on what you have already noted and try to reach a conclu-
sion. W h a t does the picture actually mean? W h a t is it communicat-
ing?
b In what way does the use o f colours, shapes and lines contribute to
this?
c W h a t is the effect of the materials, techniques and devices used?
d W h e n do y o u t h i n k the painting was done - and f o r whom?
e W h a t was the painter trying to say to the original viewers? W o u l d a
m o d e r n audience see things the same way?
f What idea is the painter conveying - or showing - by the story he has
chosen to paint? Is he t r y i n g to discuss, entertain, impress, i n f o r m ,
persuade, propagandize? Is there a direct message - a n d what is
that message? Y o u may include social, political, religious, financial,
philosophical ideas or traditions.
g In what way does the picture reflect the time i n w h i c h it was pro-
duced?

WIDER CONTEXTS

1 Relate the picture to other pictures or texts o n the same or a s i m i -

lar theme. W h a t are the similarities and differences? W h i c h do y o u
prefer and why? W h a t is conveyed or achieved by the comparison?
2 For further contexts, see W i d e r contexts chart, p. 10.

How to 'read' a film

You may want to make a general analysis by using the H o l l y w o o d m o d e l
on p. 322, or y o u may want to go into greater detail by f o l l o w i n g the
questions below. F i l m s can be read m u c h like novels and short stories
as regards setting, characters, structure, title, theme and message (see
p. 319), and y o u can start by asking the same questions, but films can
also be analysed by l o o k i n g into the visual a n d aural tools used. Y o u
may choose to w o r k w i t h specific scenes i n the film and analyse them
shot by shot or scene by scene, or y o u can w o r k w i t h the film as a whole.
The f o l l o w i n g questions may be useful. A s y o u answer the questions,
consider the effect being created.
23
 333

camera movement

camera angle mise en s c é n e / s e t t i n g

sound track framing/focus

wider contexts lighting and colour

editing

MISE EN S C É N E / S E T T I N G (also see p. 319 about setting)

1 D o e s the location serve a narrative and/or a thematic purpose or
does it give i n f o r m a t i o n about the characters?
2 W h a t is characteristic o f the costumes and props?

F R A M I N G A N D FOCUS

1 W h a t is i n the shot?
2 W h a t is i n focus? Is anything out o f focus?
3 W h a t foreground and background is created?
4 Is it a l o n g shot viewing the scene f r o m a distance and thereby setting
the scene?
5 Is it a close-up focusing o n detail, expression or reaction?
6 Is it a subjective shot, f r a m e d f r o m a specific characters point o f
view?

CAMERA MOVEMENT

1 Does the camera move f r o m side to side f r o m a stationary position

(panning)?
2 D o e s the camera m o v e up a n d d o w n f r o m a stationary p o s i t i o n
(tilting)?
3 Does the camera move to follow a moving object or person (tracking)?
4 Is the movement slow or fast?
5 Is the movement disorienting or steady?

CAMERA ANGLE

1 Is the camera looking upward (low angle camera), thereby increasing

the size and status of the subject?
2 Is the camera l o o k i n g d o w n w a r d (high angle camera), thereby de-
creasing the size and increasing the powerlessness of the subject?
3 Is the camera serving as the eyes of the character or of the audience?

LIGHTING A N D C O L O U R

1 W h a t is lit?
2 Is the lighting soft or harsh?
3 A r e there shadows?
4 W h a t colours are predominant?
5 H o w are colours or light/dark used to establish tone and mood?
24
 W i d e r Contexts
334

SOUND TRACK

1 W h a t k i n d o f music is used i n the film?

2 Does the music create or underline a specific atmosphere or emo-
tion?
3 Is any specific music linked to a character or to the setting?
4 W h a t s o u n d effects are used i n the f i l m apart f r o m music and dia-
logue?
5 A r e there examples o f voiceover (words spoken by somebody u n -
seen)?

EDITING

1 H o w are the scenes cut? A r e there any patterns i n the way the cuts
function?
2 Is the r h y t h m of cutting rapid, slow or specific i n any other way?
Does the r h y t h m increase or slow down?
3 H o w are the scenes connected?
4 Does the audience k n o w more about events than the characters?

WIDER CONTEXTS

1 O t h e r genres: i f you have read the novel, short story or play the film
is based on, discuss h o w well the film represents the original text.
H o w does it differ? W h y do y o u t h i n k this is the case?
2 W h a t genre does the film belong to? W h a t are the genre conventions?
Does the film live up to these conventions or are there discrepancies?
If y o u G o o g l e 'main film genres' y o u w i l l f i n d useful i n f o r m a t i o n
about genre conventions.
3 Relate the film to other films or texts o n the same or a similar theme.
W h a t are the similarities and differences? W h i c h do y o u prefer and
why? W h a t is conveyed or achieved by the comparison?
4 F o r f u r t h e r contexts, see W i d e r contexts chart, p. 10.

How to write the five-paragraph essay

The five paragraph essay is a format w h i c h can be used for any type o f
expository w r i t i n g , i.e. w r i t i n g where y o u need to show y o u r under-
standing o f a text or topic or discuss a specific theme. It can be used for
essays i n A-level exams i n the fiction as well as i n the n o n - f i c t i o n papers.
Before y o u begin to write, however, y o u need to make a proper analysis
and interpretation o f your text. Y o u w i l l find tools for w o r k i n g w i t h fic-
tion and n o n - f i c t i o n texts o n p. 319-334. Use these f o r y o u r analysis and
interpretation before y o u begin to write the essay.
25
 335

The five paragraph essay consists o f an i n t r o d u c t i o n , three key state-

ments i n the b o d y o f the essay and a conclusion. I n the i n t r o d u c t o r y
paragraph the most important sentence is the thesis statement, the m a i n
idea o f y o u r essay w h i c h y o u w i l l elaborate o n throughout the paper.
Use the thesis statement and y o u r first m a j o r piece of evidence as
the basis f o r your next paragraph, the first b o d y paragraph. M a k e your
argument stronger with supporting sentences, explanations or examples,
and end this paragraph w i t h a clincher sentence w h i c h sums up what
y o u have stated so far and leads o n to the next paragraph.
C o n t i n u e like this i n the next two paragraphs, and write the c o n -
c l u d i n g paragraph w h i c h is i n p r i n c i p l e the i n t r o d u c t o r y paragraph
w h i c h y o u have proven. Therefore it should include your thesis state-
ment (which may be rephrased), major pieces of evidence and a clincher
sentence w h i c h rounds the paper off.

The stages y o u go through w h e n w r i t i n g an essay:

1 Analyse and interpret y o u r text(s) as an example o f fiction/ n o n -
fiction using the relevant tools m e n t i o n e d above.
2 Pre-writing: Jot d o w n ideas about thesis statement and other impor-
tant points y o u want to make i n y o u r essay, special expressions y o u
want to use, important quotations f r o m the texts, etc. H e l p yourself
by t h i n k i n g : "This is what I want to make clear i n this essay", "I also
want to stress that...", etc. Y o u m a y include these statements i n your
draff, but should not necessarily keep them i n the essay.
3 Writing: Write a draff i n w h i c h y o u start w i t h five topic sentences
w h i c h make out the 5 paragraphs o f y o u r essay. Develop each topic
sentence i n each paragraph as y o u go along as described below.
4 Post-writing: Revise and proofread: have y o u said everything y o u
want to say? Is there a logicai development f r o m b e g i n n i n g to end?
D o y o u support all your statements w i t h textual evidence? R e m e m -
ber to write f r o m a N P O V (neutral point of view). C h e c k all green
and red lines o n the screen: have y o u spelled everything correctly,
a n d is y o u r g r a m m a r i n perfect order? M a k e a printout and go
t h r o u g h the paper line by line to make certain that everything that
l o o k e d O K o n the screen is O K o n paper. C o r r e c t as y o u see fit.

26
336 W i d e r Contexts

In the b o x are suggestions for m a i n areas to cover i n your writing:

Fiction essay

Genre Genre
Theme Topic
Setting All other relevant items from your (rhetori-
The main character and her/his develop- cal) analysis
ment (Use precise adjectives)

Composition/structure (include the ending) Composition/structure

Language (including imagery) Language (including typography and punc-
Point of view tuation)

Title Modes of appeal

The purpose o f t h e text: to entertain, in-
form or persuade
The writer's intention: what is it, and to
what extent has it been achieved?

This is a m o d e l for the structure of essays:

Introduction onclusion

general statement + A Topic sentence Development of main

theme i support character/theme
attrået the reader's 2 support Comrnent on the title
attention 3 support if this makes sense
(concluding sentence) and/or on the last
sentences if that
B Topic sentence
makes sense
i support
Link to introduction
2 support
3 support
Final comrnent - end
(concluding sentence)
with a bang, not with
C Topic sentence a whimper
i support
2 support
3 support
(concluding sentence)

27 i
 337

C O H E R E N C E A N D COHESION
The paper must f o r m a coherent whole, so y o u should be focused o n
your theme/topic all the way through your text and b u i l d up a logicai de-
velopment. A t the same time the paragraphs need to be l i n k e d together
i n such a way that they support the development of your line of thinking.
Cohesive ties between sentences and paragraphs are established through
the use o f pronouns and a number of conjunctions, adverbs and adver-
bial phrases k n o w n collectively as linkers and connectors.

Linkers/connectors
• Addition: or, moreover, i n addition, besides, also, furthermore
• Contrast/opposition: but, although, whereas, however, nevertheless,
unlike, yet, still, o n the other hand, by contrast, o n the contrary, even
though
• Reason/intention: because, since, as, so that
• Result/consequence: so, thus, therefore, consequently, accordingly, as
a result, because of this, yet
• Hedging (forbehold): almost, allegedly, admittedly, probably, maybe
• Examples: f o r example, for instance, similar to, specifically
• Continuation: next, again, furthermore, i n addition, likewise, moreover
• Emphasis: above all, a central issue, a key feature, especially relevant,
it all boils d o w n to
• Time: while, as, until, before, d u r i n g , after, w h e n , since
• Condition: if, if not, provided, i n case, unless, whether, even if, whilst
• Alternative: or, alternatively, otherwise, instead
• Restating: i n other words, or rather, at least, that is to say
• Summing up: i n any case, the thing is, f o r example, i n short
• Order/sequence: firstly, at first, then, next, finally, at last, eventually
• Neutral statement: actually, as a matter of faet, i n faet, indeed
• Admittance: although, though, i n spite of, despite, even though, even if
• Relative pronouns: who, w h o m , whose, w h i c h and that

28
52 W R I T E AWAY

That's why, rather than, from ... to ... and, so og what's more er med t i l at
skabe sammenhæng både i den enkelte sætning og mellem sætningerne.
Den slags ord og udtryk fungerer som en slags vejskilte eller signposts, der
hjælper læseren med at orientere sig i teksten. Ord og udtryk, der fortæl-
ler læseren, hvordan tekstens sætninger hænger sammen, og hvordan det,
der følger, skal forstås i forhold t i l det foregående, kaldes forbinderord. På
engelsk kalder v i dem finkers.

Kohæsion og kohærens
Forbinderord er med t i l at skabe sproglig sammenhæng i en tekst. Man kan
kalde det for sprogUgt k i t - et bindemiddel, der får sproget i teksten t i l
at hænge sammen. Ud over forbinderord er der en række andre sproglige
elementer, der hjælper med at kitte tekster sammen, f x konsekvent brug
af verbernes tider, gentagelse af vigtige ord og brug af synonymer. Du kan
læse mere om brug af verbernes tider i kapitel 7 Tid i tekster (s. 103) og om
brug af gentagelse og synonymer i kapitel 8 Beskrivelsesord: adjektiver og
adverbier (s. 118).
Den slags sammenhæng, der skabes af det sproglige k i t , kaldes for ko-
h æ s i o n . Kohæsion betyder sammenhæng i sproget. Det engelske ord for
kohæsion er cohesion.
Kohæsion er vigtig, for at en tekst skal kunne forstås, men kohæsion
alene gør det ikke. Hvis teksten ikke er klart t æ n k t og logisk bygget op,
men i stedet springer rundt i emnet på må og få, hjælper det ikke læseren,
at den er f u l d af forbinderord og andre udtryk, der skaber kohæsion. Den
indre, logiske sammenhæng i en tekst, "den røde tråd", er lige så vigtig som
den ydre, sproglige sammenhæng. Den indre sammenhæng kaldes k o h æ -
rens. Det engelske ord for kohærens er coherence.
Hvis en tekst er kohærent, afspejler det sig både i de enkelte afsnit og i
tekstens overordnede opbygning. Et kohærent afsnit er en meningshelhed,
hvor afsnittets emne slås an i en af de første sætninger, og resten af af-
snittet uddyber eller eksempUficerer, hvad der blev sagt i begyndelsen. På
samme måde har en kohærent tekst en overordnet struktur, hvor tekstens
tema præsenteres i begyndelsen, evt. som en tese eller en problemformu-
lering, som derefter udbygges og efterprøves i en række afsnit, hvorefter
trådene t i l sidst samles i en konklusion.
29
4. Tekstsammenhæng - forbinderord 63

Describe how the essay "The Comer Shop" (p. 193) is built up. What is
the main point of the essay? How do the different parts of the essay
contribute to developing that point? What is the "red thread" running
through the essay?

Du kan læse mere om afsnitsopbygning i kapitel 5 Afsnit og periode (s. 69)

og om opbygning af længere redegørende og argumenterende tekster i ka-
pitel 3 Redegørelse og argumentation (s. 36).
Kohærens, den røde t r å d i teksten, er altså mindst lige så vigtig som
kohæsion. På den anden side v i l en tekst, der er klart t æ n k t og altså grund-
læggende er kohærent, ikke have gode chancer for at blive forstået, hvis
den mangler det sproghge k i t , kohæsionen, der skal vise læseren, hvordan
den hænger sammen. Gode tekster har altså både kohærens (sammenhæng
i tanken) og k o h æ s i o n (sammenhæng i sproget).

Forbinderord
Forbinderord er ikke en ordklasse som f x verber eller substantiver. Beteg-
nelsen forbinderord kan bruges om ord f r a forskelUge ordklasser eller om
sammensætninger af flere ord, der skaber sammenhæng mellem det, der
gik forud, og det, der følger efter. I uddraget fra annoncen i begyndelsen
af dette kapitel er der eksempler p å konjunktioner (bindeord): and, so;
adverbier (Mord): rather than; præpositioner (forholdsord): from, to; og
sætninger: that's why, what's more.
Forbinderord bruges t i l at vise forskelUge typer sammenhæng i en tekst,
f x rækkefølge af argumenter, uddybning, eksempUficering, logisk følge,
modargument, foregribelse af modargumenter og konklusion. Listen over
forskelUge typer sammenhæng er ikke endeUg, og mange af udtrykkene
kan beskrive mere end en type sammenhæng.

o Rækkefølge
first, in the first place, second, third, finally, lastly,for one thing, for another

o Udbygning af argumentation
moreover, in addition, furthermore, what's more, on top of that, besides,
similarly, equally

30
 W R I T E AWAY

o Eksemplificering og forklaring
for example, for instance, e.g., in other words

o Logisk konsekvens
so, therefore, consequently, as a result, because, thus

o Modargument og modsigelse
but, on the contrary, however, nevertheless, still, in spite of thi:
one hand ... on the other

° Foregribelse af modargumenter
of course, sure, to be sure, undoubtedly, no doubt

" Konklusion
to sum up, in conclusion, in short. 31
TASK 2

Which type of h-nkers would you expect to find in a book review that
begins: "I have mixed feelings about this book ..."?

TASK 3

The text below is an extract from a customer review of a book on com-

puter software. Which linkers does the review contain?

/J/^ As the title of this review suggests, I have mixed feelings about this
book ...

On the one hand, I appreciated learning numerous keyboard shortcuts

On the other, there were several that they left out. I t was nice that the
authors make sure to tell you what the shortcut is for, but they often left
out why you were doing a particular action. I did get some pretty cool re-
suhs from following the instructions in the book, but I was also frustrated
because sometimes, even following the instructions to the letter my results
were so different than theirs I had to improvise ... I n short, I'm somewhat
ambivalent about this book ... / y f '

www.amazon.com
A-opgaven - Summary Sprog og sammenbinding
Et summary er et resumé, dvs. en sammenhængende, neutral sammen- Gengiv præcist og nuanceret, loyalt og neutralt hovedpunkterne i for-
fatning af teksten på baggrund af en helhedsforståeise. Hvis resumeet lægget i en kort og sarnmenhængende fremstilling. Vis at du har forstået
ikke er styret af en helhedsforståelse, bliver det let til en usorteret blan- det centrale i teksten.
ding af væsentligt og uvæsentligt. Brug dine egne ord. Undgå så vidt muligt at „løfte" vendinger og
Et resumé skai være kortfattet og præcist. Overhold det fastsatte om- sætoinger fra teksten. Citater bør du som hovedregel undgå. Hvis du
fang (normalt 200 ord). En væsentlig overskridelse af dette er en tilside- beslutter at du er nødt til at bruge et citat, skal det sættes i anførselstegn.
sættelse af et formelt krav og viser at du ikke behersker genren. Men Tilstræb god sarnmenbmding. Da resumeet skal være forståeligt for
prøv heller ikke at gøre resumeet væsentlig kortere. en læser som ikke kender originalen, må du ikke tage noget for givet.
Skriv resumeet i 3. person, også selv om forlægget er fortalt i 1. Husk naturlige overgange mellem resumeets forskellige afsnit.
person. (Ellers lyder det som om du gengiver en anden persons oplevel- En tekst med meget direkte tale (dialog) kan være vanskelig at resu-
ser som dine egne.) mere. Brug hverken direkte eller mdirekte tale, men opsummér i stedet
Skriv ikke din egen personlige begyndelse og slutning på resumeet. hovedbudskabet i det pågældende udsagn.
Start og siut resumeet under hensyntagen til forlæggets begyndelse og Undgå umotiverede spring i tempus.
slutning. Et resumé af en novelle kan fx begynde med en præcisering af Seiv om du ikke er god til at stave, bør du i hvert fald sikre dig at du
hvad udgangspunktet i handlingen er: staver navne og ord fra forlægget korrekt.

H Claire, who comes from a fairly well-off family, has run away (...) Indhold
Sørg for god vægtxiing. Det betyder at du skal tildele det vigtigste mest
Eller begyndelsen kan præsentere hovedpersonerne: plads, ikke forkorte mekanisk og procentuelt.
Enhver resumering eller forkortelse af en tekst forudsætter jo en per-
SU The story is about a boy with a working-dass background and a girl sonlig vægtriing og udvælgelse af hvad der er væsentligt i teksten, og
from a well-off family who have just ieft high schooi. denne vægtning skal altså fremgå af dit resumé.
I et resumé skal du ikke skrive om dine egne meninger og føieiser, fx
Resumeet bør slutte på samme punkt som forlægget - fx sådan: udtrykke forargelse eller vrede. D u skal heller ikke fortolke. Derfor skal
du ikke besvare spørgsmålene „hvordan" og „hvorfor", da det vil lægge
H Claire returns with a letter from her uncle's solicitor, aimouncing that op til en fortollcning. En fortolloiing er en rydning der hævder at teksten
her uncle has died and ieft her most of his fortune to be held in trust till betyder noget andet end den umiddelbart siger. Dette skal du ikke
she is twenty-one. forsøge i et resumé.

Modtageren Opbygning
Skriv som om læseren af resumeet ikke har hest tekstforlægget. Dvs. Som regel er det klogest at følge originalens opbygning. Hvis du starter
præsentér personer, sted og situationer sådan at resumeet giver mening dit resumé et andet sted end forlægget, skal du passe på at du ikke
i sig seiv. D u kan passende indlede med at besvare spørgsmålene: hvem, gentager dig selv.
hvad, hvornår og hvor. De vigtigste måder at bygge et resumé op på er kronologisk og tema-
tisk.
Kronologisk opbygning er at du gennemgår de væsentlige begjvenhe-

32
der i teksten i den rækkefølge de har i teksten. Denne form er overskue-
lig at gå i gang med.
Det tematiske resume tager udgangspunkt i de vigtigste temaer i tek-
sten. Dette forekommer ofte mere relevant og spændende end en kro-
nologisk opremsning afhændelser; resumeet bør dog i alle tilfælde inde-
holde en forløbsbeskrivelse. Og pas på: D u skal fremhæve væsentlige
temaer i teksten, men ikke diskutere og fortolke dem.

Scene fra Sweet Sixteen

Du kan læse mere om genren anmeldelse i kapitel 7 Tid i tekster (s. 115).

Resumé
Filmanmeldelsen på den foregående side begynder med et kort resumé af
filmens handling. Et resumé er en kortfattet gengivelse af indholdet i en
eller flere tekster. Resuméet skal være loyalt over for den oprindelige tekst,
dvs. det må ikke afspejle sin forfatters holdiiing. Hvis man fx bliver bedt om
at resumere en tekst, der argumenterer for forbud mod online hasardspil,
skal man gengive de væsentligste argumenter, der fremføres, uanset hvad
man selv måtte mene om emnet. Resumé er med andre ord en redegørende
genre, ikke en argumenterende.
Samtidig skal gengivelsen af den oprindelige tekst (også kaldet kilde-
teksten, the source text) være væsentligt kortere end originalen - ellers
opfylder resuméet ikke sit hovedformål, som er at sammenfatte. Af samme
33
48 W E I I E AWAY

Hvis man skal resumere indholdet af to (eller flere) tekster, der handler
om det samme emne, begynder man med et kort afsnit, der præsenterer
About Summaries:
de tekster, der resumeres. Derefter følger et afsnit for hver tekst med en Please remember that a summary
kort gengivelse af indholdet Resuméet kan eventuelt afsluttes med et kort
afsnit, der opsummerer hovedpointen i hver af teksterne. Hvis resuméet er 1) must be as close to 150-200 words as possible, and
2) must be written in the present tense, and
kort, fx 150 ord, er der dog ikke plads til en afsluttende opsummering.
Den indledende præsentation af teksterne kan fx lyde sådan:
3) must sum up the plot only (where, when, who, what), (no
É£ This is a snromary of three texts about body culture. "Can You Be fat
and Healthy?" is a magazine article from 2005 that focuses on obesity and comments, details, explanations, quotes), and
4) must follow the chronology of the text.
health issues. "A weight on their shoulders", a newspaper article from 2003,
is about how men and women use gyms differently. "Beauty & the Breast"
is an editorial from 1996 from a women's magazine that argues against cos-
metic breast surgery. f ¥

Man kan også komme ud for at skulle skrive et resumé af en novelle eller
en anden litterær tekst. Også her gælder de regler, der blev nævnt tidligere
om at undgå citater, at holde resuméet i præsens og at indlede med en kort
præsentation af teksten. Ofte vil der være angivet et omfang for resuméet,
fx 150-200 ord, og det skal overholdes.
Resuméet henvender sig til læsere, der ikke har læst den tekst, der
resumeres. I et resumé af en novelle eller en roman bør de væsentligste
personer præsenteres og deres rolle i handlingen forklares, ligesom læseren
skal kunne forstå handlingens hovedtræk ud fra resuméet. Resuméet kan
afsluttes med en sarnmeruatning af novellens eller romanens hovedtema
og -budskab. Derimod skal man ikke fortælle, hvad man selv mener om
teksten. Vendinger som " I think t h a t " I n my opinion" osv. hører ikke
hjemme i et resumé.

mm
Write a summary in about 150 words of the short story "Tell the Women
We're Going" (p. 182).

TASK 16
Write a summary in about 150 words ofthe last short story you read in
English.

34