LAWS OF MOTION

INTRODUCTION
In kinematics, we were concerned with the relationships between the position, velocity and
acceleration of a particle or a body under study. We were not concerned with the origin of
acceleration or force. The study of forces and how they are produced is known as dynamics.
Dynamics is the study of motion and the cause of motion. In dynamics we specially consider
what causes the objects to move. We study the role of forces in causing motion. In carrying
through the study of dynamics, we shall state and discuss Newton‟s three laws of motion.
These laws are of primary importance in Physics.
An object at rest does not start moving of its own accord. Some push or pull is required to put
the object in motion. This push or pull is called force. The inherent property of bodies to
remain at rest unless acted upon by a force is called inertia of rest.
Motion is the commonest and most important phenomenon in nature. In the case of
macroscopic bodies, it is easily observable. But if we go down to atomic or even nuclear
level, motion is not observable but motion is very much there. Motion may be as simple as
throwing a ball high up into air. On the other hand, motion may be as complicated as the
launching of a communication satellite into its orbit. Whatever may be the type of motion,
we have to study the forces which generate motion. And this is precisely what we are up to
in this unit.

NEWTON‟S FIRST LAW OF MOTION

The year (1642) Galileo died in Italy, the great Physicist and Mathematician Isaac Newton
was born in England. Newton built on the foundations so well laid by Galileo. His further
studies led to the formulation of three fundamental laws known after his name as Newton‟s
laws of motion. The first law, known as Newton‟s first law of motion,
may be stated as follows:
Every body continues in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
compelled by an external force to change that state.
(or)
Every body persists in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it
is compelled to change that state by force impressed on it.
When a body is in a state of rest or in uniform motion along a straight line, it implies that
body has zero acceleration. So, according to the first law, if the force F is zero, then the
acceleration a is also zero.
The statement of Newton‟s first law of motion may be divided into two parts.
(i) Everybody continues in its state of rest unless some external force compels it to change
its state of rest.
This part of the law is self-evident. We come across many illustrations of this part in our
daily life. A book lying on a table continues to be there unless somebody lifts it.
(ii) Everybody continues in its state of uniform motion in a straight line unless external
force compels it to change that state.
This part of the law implies that a body set in motion along a straight line shall continue
to be in this state unless some external force acts. But this does not seem to be true in
everyday life. Bodies set in motion come to rest after some time even when apparently
no external force acts on them. As an example, a ball set rolling on the ground comes to
rest after covering some distance. It appears to violate the first law of motion. But this is
not the case. The ball comes to rest because of the two external forces-force of friction
and air resistance. If we can eliminate these forces completely, then the ball will
continue to be in uniform motion along a straight line for ever.
LAW OF INERTIA
Newton's first law of motion reveals the following fundamental property of matter:
A material body, by itself, is unable to change its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line.
This property is called inertia. It is for this reason that Newton's first law of motion may be
described as the 'law of inertia'.
DEFINITION OF FORCE
It follows from Newton's first law of motion that an external force must act on a body to
bring about a change in the state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line. This leads us
to the following definition of force.
"Force is that push or pull which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line".
Force possesses both magnitude and direction. So, it is a vector quantity.
INERTIA
Inertia may show itself in any of the following three forms:
 (i) Inertia of rest (ii)Inertia of motion (iii)Inertia of direction

INERTIA OF REST
It is that property by virtue of which a body at rest tends to remain at rest. Following examples
illustrate the propertyof 'inertia of rest'.
(i) Passengers standing or sitting loosely in a bus experience jerk in the backward direction
when the bus suddenly starts moving. This is due to the fact that when the bus suddenly
starts its motion, the lower parts of the human body shares the motion but the upper part
tends to remain at rest due to inertia of rest.
(ii) When a blanket is given a sudden jerk, the dust particles fall off. It is due to the reason
that the blanket is suddenly set in motion but the dust particles tend to remain at rest due
to inertia of rest.
(iii) Suppose a cardboard is placed on a tumbler. Let a small coin be placed on the
cardboard. If the cardboard is given a quick jerk, the cardboard will fly away but the
coin will fall in the tumbler. This is because the coin will tend to remain at rest due to
inertia of rest.
(iv) When a bullet is fired into a tightly-fitted glass pane from a reasonably close range, it
makes a clear circular hole in the glass pane. This is due to the fact that particles of
glass around the hole tend to remain at rest due to inertia of rest. So they are unable to
share the fast motion of the bullet.
INERTIA OF MOTION
It is that property by virtue of which a body in a state of uniform motion tends to maintain its
uniform motion. Following examples illustrate the property of 'inertia of motion.
(i) A passenger standing in a moving bus falls forward when the bus stops suddenly. This is
due to the fact that the lower part of the body comes to rest dong with the bus but the
upper part of the body remains in a state of motion on account of "inertia of motion".
The same argument can be applied to the case of a person jumping out of a moving
train,
(ii) An athlete runs for some distance before taking a long jump. In this way, the athlete
gains momentum and due to inertia of motion, he takes a longer jump.
(iii) A body thrown upwards in a moving train continues to move with the train. This is due
to inertia of motion.
INERTIAL OF DIRECTION
It is that property by virtue of which a body tends to maintain its direction. Following
examples illustrate the property of inertia of direction.
(i) When the wheel rotates at a high speed, the mud sticking to the wheel flies off
tangentially. This is due to inertia of direction.
(ii) When a running car suddenly takes a turn, the passengers experience a jerk in the
outward direction. This is because the passengers tend to maintain their original
direction of motion due to inertia of direction.
(iii) Suppose a stone tied to one end of a string is being whirled in a horizontal circle. When
the string breaks, the stone tends to fly off tangentially along a straight line. This is due
to directional inertia. The same argument is valid in the case of sparks coming out
tangentially from the grind stone.
LINEAR MOMENTUM
Newton introduced the concept of momentum to measure the quantitative effect of force.
The total quantity of motion possessed by a moving body is known as the momentum of the

body. It is the product of the mass and velocity of a body. It is denoted by p .
 
p m v
 
Since mass m is always positive therefore, the direction of p is the same as that of v .
 
In magnitude, p  m v or p = mv

Since velocity is a vector and mass is a scalar therefore momentum is a vector. Again p has

same direction as that of v because m is always positive.
The cgs and SI units of momentum are g cms1 and kg ms1 respectively.
The dimensional formula of momentum is [MLT 1].
NEWTON‟S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
The statement can be divided into the following two parts:
(i) The time rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the impressed force.
A force action on a body produces a certain change in the momentum of the body.
When the given force is doubled, the change in momentum of the body is also double.
So, as the applied force is increased, the rate of change of momentum of the body is
also increased.
(ii) The change of momentum takes place in the direction of the force.
 Consider a body to be at rest. When a force is applied on this body, the body will begin
to move in the direction of the force. If a force is applied on a moving body in the
direction of motion of the body, then there is an increase in the momentum of the body.
However, if the force is applied on a moving body in a direction opposite to the
direction of motion of the body, then there is a decrease in the momentum of the body.

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION FOR FORCE

   
Let a constant external force F acting on a body change its momentum from p to p  dp in

dp
time interval dt. Then, the time rate of change of linear momentum is .
dt
According to Newton‟s second law of motion.
  
dp   dp  dp
F (or) F  (or) F  k
dt dt dt
Here k is a constant of proportionality. The value of k depends upon the units selected for the
measurement of force. In both SI and cgs system, the unit of force is so chosen that k = 1

 dp
 F
dt
  
If m be the mass of a body and v its velocity, then p  m v .
 d  
 F m v 
dt  

In Newtonian mechanics, mass of a body is taken as a constant.

 d 
 F m v
dt  

d  
But v a , the acceleration of the body.
dt  

 
 F m a

CONSEQUENCES OF SECOND LAW

Newton‟s second law of motion leads us to the concept of inertia.
It is a matter of common observation that „harder a ball is hit, greater is the acceleration
produced in the ball. The quantitative fact that, for a given body, the acceleration is
proportional to force, is expressed as
Force, F  acceleration, a or F = ma
where m is a constant of proportional which is equal to the mass of the body.
It directly follows from here that the force required to accelerate a heavy body is larger than
the force required imparting the same acceleration to a light body. To put it differently, let the
same force F be applied on two bodies of masses m1 and m2 (< m1) respectively.
Let a1 and a2 be the accelerations produced in the bodies of masses m 1 and m2 respectively.
a1 m2
Then F = m1a2 = m2a2 or   m2< m1  a1< a2
a2 m1

So, the heavier body has less acceleration than the light body. Thus, the mass of body may be
regarded as a measure of the opposition to the production of the acceleration in the body. This
gives us the concept of inertial mass.
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS OF FORCE
(i) Absolute units of force
The absolute unit of force in cgs system is dyne. Its symbol is dyne.
One dyne of fore is that much force which produces an acceleration of 1 cm s 2 in a
body of mass 1 gram.
1 dyne = 1 gram × 1 cm s2 = 1 g cm s2 [ F = ma]
In SI, the absolute unit of force is newton. Its symbol is N.
One newton of force is that much force which produces an acceleration of 1m s 2 in a
body of mass 1 kilogram.
1 newton = 1 kilogram × 1m s2 = 1kg ms2
Relation between newton and dyne
1 N = 1 kg × 1 ms2 = 103 g × 102 cm s2
= 105 g cm s2 or 105dyne

1N  10 5 dyne (or) 1 dyne = 105 N

(ii) Gravitational units of force

A gravitational unit of force is that force with which the Earth attracts a body of unit
mass towards the centre.
A gravitational unit of force may also be defined as that much force which produced an
acceleration equal to g(acceleration due to gravity) in a body of unit mass.
It may also be defined as the weight of a body of unit mass.
In cgs system. The gravitational unit of force is gram weight or gram force. It may be
defined in any of the following two ways.
One gram weight of force is the force with which a body of mass 1 g is attracted
towards the centre of the earth.
 One gram weight of force is that much force which produces an acceleration of 981 cm
s2 in a body of mass 1 gram.
 1 g wt = 1 gram × 981 cm s2
or 1 g wt = 981 g cm s2
In general, x g wt  x  g dyne

where g is the value of acceleration due to gravity in cgs units.

In SI, the gravitational unit of force is kilogram weight or kilogram force.
It may also be defined in any of the following two ways.
One kilogram weight of force is the force with which a body of mass 1 kg is attracted
towards the centre of the Earth.
One kilogram weight of force is that much force which produces an acceleration of 9.8
ms2 in a body of mass 1 kilogram.
1 kg wt = 1kg × 9.8 ms2 = 9.8 kg ms2 = 9.8N
In general, x kg wt  x  g newton

where g is the value of acceleration due to gravity in SI units.

(iii) Difference between absolute units and gravitational units of force
The absolute units of force remain the same throughout the universe. On the
gravitational units of force are not constant. This is because the gravitational units of
force depend upon the value of g which is different at different places.
(iv) Dimensional formula of force
[Force] = [Mass] [Acceleration] = [MLT 2]
IMPULSE
The effectiveness of a force in producing motion depends not only upon the magnitude of the
force but also on the timer for which the force acts. When a large force acts for an extremely
short duration, neither the magnitude of the force nor the time for which it acts is important.
In such a case, the total effect of force is measured. The total effect of force is called impulse.
It may also be defined as a measure of the action of force. It is a vector quantity and is

denoted by J . It is the product of force and the time for which the force acts.
  
Suppose a force F acts for a short time dt. The impulse of this force is given by d J  F dt
 t2  
If we consider a finite interval of time from t1 to t2, then the impulse is given by J   F dt
t1

The right hand side of the above equation represents the impulse of varying force.
   t2  
If the force is constant both in magnitude and direction, then J  F  dt  F  t tt  F  t2  t1 
2

t1 1

 
or J  F t where t = t2 – t1

So, the impulse of a constant force F is equal to the product of the force and time interval t
for which the force acts.
 
The direction of J is the same as the direction of F .
UNITS AND DIMENSIONS OF IMPULSE
In cgs system, the unit of impulse is dyne second or g cm s1
In SI, it is measured in newton second or kg m s1
The dimensional formula of impulse is [MLT 1].
NEWTON‟S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
Forces acting on a body originate in other bodies that make up its environment. This property
of forces was first stated by Newton‟s in his third law of motion:
„To every action, there is always an equal (in magnitude) and opposite (in direction)
reaction.
This law may also be stated as under:
“Action and reaction are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction and act on different
bodies”
Consider interaction (action and reaction) between
two bodies A and B.
 
 A B 
Let FBA be the force exerted by A and B and FAB the
FAB
F
BA

force exerted by B on A (see figure 6.1).

Then, according to Newton‟s third law of motion.
Figure 6.1: Newton‟s third law of
 
FBA   FAB motion
It is clear from this equation that the two forces are equal in magnitude but opposite in
direction. These forces of action and reaction act along the line joining the centres of two
bodies.
One of the two forces involved in the interaction between two bodies may be called „action‟
force. The other force will be called the „reaction‟ force. The forces of action and reaction
constitute a mutual simultaneous interaction. It cannot be said that action is the cause of
reaction or reaction is the effect of action.
Newton‟s third law of motion leads us to a very interesting fact about forces. It is that the
forces always exist in pairs. They never exist singly. A single isolated force is impossibility.
Since the forces of action and reaction always act on different bodies therefore they cannot
balance each other. [Two forces, equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, acting on the
same body balance each other]
Newton‟s third law of motion is valid when bodies are at rest or in motion or in contact or at a
distance from each other.
FREE BODY DIAGRAMS
OBJECTS SUSPENDED BY STRINGS
(a) Single Object Suspended by a String
Suppose an object of mass M is suspended by a string from
T
the ceiling as shown in the figure. The string is in a state of A
T
tension. The molecules of the string near the lower end exert
T
force on the molecules of the object. The resultant of these
M
electromagnetic forces is the force exerted by the string on
the object which is called tension denoted by T. This supports Mg
the object and prevents it from falling. It is directed away Figure 6.7
from the object. If the string is weightless then the tension in
the string is the same at each and every point of the string.
If we consider a point A of the string the tension in the part below A and above A are
each equal to T and directed away from A. Similarly, the tension at the upper end pulls
the ceiling down and the ceiling pulls the string upward. Here also the tension in the
string is directed away from the ceiling.
(i) To find the tension at the lower end, the free body diagram for the
T'
object is shown in Fig. The forces on it are (a) pull of the string, T,
A
upward, (b) gravitational force of the earth on the object, Mg, mg
downward. Mg
As the acceleration of the object is zero, the resultant force is zero Figure 6.8
by Newton‟s second law.
T – Mg = 0; T = Mg.

If the string is very light so that we can neglect its mass compared with the mass of the
object suspended, then the tension in the string is the same everywhere.
 (ii) If the string is of mass m below A, the
free body diagram at A is shown in the T

figure. The tension in the string T | is

a
such that
mg
Mg
T| – Mg – mg = 0;T| = (M + m) g.

T  (M  m)(g  a). Figure 6.9

(b) Single object suspended by a string and accelerated

A bucket of mass M pulled upward with an acceleration „a‟ from a well using a rope of
mass m, the tension in the string at the upper end can be found by taking the resultant
force equal to the product of the mass of the system and its acceleration.
T – (M + m) g = (M + m) a
This tension is equal to the force on our hands through which we pull the bucket up.
APPARENT WEIGHT OF A PERSON IN AN ELEVATOR/LIFT
Consider a person of mass m standing on a weighing machine
in a an elevator. Let G represent the centre of gravity of the 
R
person. The true/actual weight of the person in mg. It acts
G At rest
vertically downward through the centre of gravity of the

person. It acts on the weighing machine which offers a mg

reaction R. Elevator at rest

R is the reading of the weighing machine. R is the weight Figure 6.10

experienced by the person. R is the apparent weight of the

person. R
Let us discuss the relation between R and mg in the following 
G V
different situations. 
mg
Case I. When elevator is at rest
Elevator moving up with
In this case, the acceleration of the person is zero. So, the net uniform velocity

force on the person is also zero. Figure 6.11

 R  mg

So, the apparent weight of the person is equal to the true

weight of the person.
Again, mg‟ = mg or g '  g 
R
So, the effective value of acceleration due to gravity is equal

to g. G V
Case II. When the elevator is moving vertically upward 
mg

with a uniform velocity V .
Elevator moving down with
This case is similar to case I. uniform velocity

Case III. When the elevator is moving vertically Figure 6.12


downward with uniform velocity V . 
R
This case is also similar to case I.

G a
Case IV. When the elevator is moving vertically upward

mg

with uniform acceleration a . Elevator moving up with
uniform acceleration
In this case, the resultant force F act in the upward direction.
Figure 6.13
F = R  mg
But F = ma 
R
 ma = R  mg

or R  mg  ma G a

Since the reaction has increased therefore the passenger shall mg
feel that his weight has increased. So, the apparent weight of
Elevator moving down with
the person becomes more than the actual weight of the uniform acceleration

person. Figure 6.14

Again mg‟ = mg + ma or g '  g  a

So, the effective value of acceleration due to gravity is more

than g.
Case V. When the elevator is moving vertically downward 

G g
with uniform acceleration a .
mg
In this case, the resultant force F acts in the downward
direction and is given by
Elevator falling freely
F = mg – R
Figure 6.15
But F = ma  ma = mg  R
or R  mg  ma
In this case, the reaction is decreased. So, the passenger shall
feel that his weight has decreased. Thus, the apparent weight
of the person becomes more than the actual weight of the
person.
Again, mg‟ = mg  ma

or mg‟ = m(g  a) or g '  g  a

So, the effective value of acceleration due to gravity is less

than g.
Case VI. Freely falling elevator
Suppose the cable supporting the elevator breaks. Now, the
elevator shell begins to fall freely. Its acceleration will be
equal to g. In this case,
R = m(g  g) or R = 0.
The floor will not exert any reaction. The apparent weight of the person will be zero. The
passenger will be in a state of weightlessness.
Case VII. Elevator moving downward with acceleration greater than g.
If the elevator is made to move down vertically with an acceleration „a‟ which is greater than
g, then the person would experience negative reaction. This would be a case of negative
apparent weight.
CONNECTED MOTION
1. BLOCK ON A SMOOTH HORIZONTAL SURFACE
(i) Let the block of mass m be pulled by a horizontal force F.
R
a

m F
/////////////////////////////
mg

Figure 6.16

Then F = ma
F
or a
m
Also, normal reaction
R = mg
 Let the block be pulled by applying a force F at an angle  with the horizontal.
R
F sin F
a
 F cos 
m
/////////////////////////////

mg

Figure 6.17
Now, F cos  = ma
F cos 
or a
m

Also, R + F sin  = mg
or R = mg – F sin
Note that the normal reaction is less than the weight of the block.
(ii) Let the block be pushed by applying a force F at an angle  with the horizontal.
Now F = cos  = ma
Fcos 
Or a 
m

R
a
F cos
F sin 
/////////////////////////////

mg

Figure 6.18
Also, R = mg + F sin 
Note that the normal reaction is more than the weight of the block.
2. TWO MASSES TIED TO A STRING GOING OVER A FRICTIONLESS PULLEY
 Consider two masses m1 and m2 (< m1) connected to the two ends ///////////////

of an inextensible string passing over a smooth frictionless pulley.

Let a be the acceleration produced in the masses. While the
heavier mass m1 moves down with acceleration a, the lighter mass
m2 moves up with acceleration a. Let T be the tension in the string. T
a
Resultant downward force on mass m1 = m1g  T T
m2

Using Newton‟s second law of motion m1a = m1g  T _________ (i) m2g
m1
Resultant upward force on mass m2 = T – m2g
or m2a = T  m2g __________ (ii)
m1g
Adding (i) and (ii), we get m1a + m2a = m1g – m2g
Figure 6.19
Ora(m1 + m2) = (m1 – m2)g
m1  m 2
or a g
m1  m 2

m1 a m1 g  T
Dividing (i) by (ii), we get 
m2 a T  m2 g

m1 m1 g  T
Or  or m1(T – m2g) = m2(m1g – T)
m2 T  m2 g

Orm1T + m2T = 2m1m2g or T(m1 + m2) = 2m1m2g or

2m 1m 2
T g
m1  m 2

DETERMINATION OF „g‟
The time of fall of “m1” through a distance „s‟ is measured. Using the acceleration from
equation (3) the kinematic equation of motion
1 1  m1  m2  2
s=0+ at2 s = gt
2 2  m1  m2 
“g” is calculated knowing „s‟ and „t‟.
3. TWO BODIES IN CONTACT
(i)Consider two bodies of masses m1, and m2 placed in contact with each other on a frictionless
horizontal surface. Let a force F be applied on block of mass m 1 as shown in figure 21(a).
F
Acceleration of both the blocks, a 
m1  m 2
 m1 m2 m1
F F f
f f
/////////////////////////////

Figure 6.21 (a) Figure 6.21(b)

Let f, be the force of contact. Considering the free body diagram of mass m 1.
F – f = m1aorf = F – m1a
 F   m1  m 2F _________________
Or f  F  m1   or f  F 1   or f  (i)
 m1  m 2   m1  m 2  m1  m 2

(ii)Same system as described above but force F is applied on block of mass m 2.(figure 6.22(a))
F
Common acceleration, a  . Considering the free body diagram of mass
m1  m 2

m2.F – f‟ =m2a
m1 m2 m2
F f’ F
f f
/////////////////////////////

Figure 6.22 (a)Figure 6.22(b)

 F 
or f‟ = F – m2a or f '  F  m2  
 m1  m 2 

 m2  m1F ____________
or f '  1   F or f '  (ii)
 m1  m 2  m1  m 2

Careful examination of equations (i) and (ii) reveals an interesting general formula. This
formula shall help you to save considerable time.
Force of contact (between two bodies in contact)
Mass on which force is not directly applied × Applied force

Total mass of system

CAUTION: Do not use for more than two bodies.

4. THREE BODIES IN CONTACT

(i)Consider three blocks of masses m1, m2 and m3 placed in contact on a smooth surface. Let a
force F be applied on block of mass m 1. Let f be the contact force between m 1 and m2. Let f be
the contact force between m2 and m3.
F __________________
Common acceleration, a  (i)
m1  m 2  m 3
 m3
f’

m1 m2 m3 m2
F f’
f f f’ f’
///////////////////////////////////// f
m1
F
f

Figure 6.23
Considering the free-body diagram of mass m3,
f‟ = m3a ___________ (ii)
Considering the free-body diagram of mass m2,
f – f‟ = m2a ___________ (iii)
Considering the free-body diagram of mass m1,
F – f = m1a ___________ (iv)
m3F
From (ii) and (i), f ' 
m1  m 2  m 3

From equation (iv), F – f = m1a or f = F – m1a

F  m2  m 3  F
or f = F – m1 =
m1  m 2  m 3 m1  m2  m3

(ii) Same system as described above but force is applied on mass m 3.

F _______________
Common acceleration, a  (i)
m1  m 2  m 3
m1

f 1’
m1 m2 m3 m2
F
f 1’ f 1’
f1 f1
///////////////////////////////////// f 1’ f1
m3
F
f 1’

Figure 6.24
Considering free body diagram of mass m1,
_______________
f1'  m1a (ii)
Considering free body diagram of mass m2,
_______________
f1  f1'  m2a (iii)
Considering free body diagram of mass m3,
F – f1 = m3a _______________ (iv)
 m 1F
From (ii) and (i), 
m1  m 2  m 3

From equations (iv) and (i)

 F   m1  m 2  F
f1  F  m3  
 m1  m 2  m 3  m 1  m 2  m 3

5. TENSION IN THE STRING CONNECTING TWO BODIES

(i) Considering two bodies of masses m1 and m2 connected by a string and placed over a
smooth horizontal surface.
Considering free body diagram of mass m2,
T = m2a _____________ (i)
Now, consider free body diagram of mass m1,
F – T = m1a _____________ (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii), F = (m1 + m2)a
F
or a
m1  m 2

F T T
m1 m2
/////////////////////////////////////

T
m2

F T
m1

Figure 6.25
m 2F _________
From equation (i) T  (iii)
m1  m 2

(ii) Same system as described above but force F applied on mass m 2.

T T F
m1 m2
/////////////////////////////////////

m1 T

T
m2 F

Figure 6.26
Considering the free body diagram of mass m1,
T = m1a _______________(iv)
Considering the free body diagram of mass m2,
F = T = m2a _______________(v)
F
Adding (iv) and (v), F = (m1 + m2) a or a 
m1  m 2

m 1F
From equation (iv) T  _______________(vi)
F1  F2

Comparison of equations (iii) and (vi) gives us the following time-saving relation.
Tensionin the string connecting two bodies
Mass on which force is not directly applied × Applied force

Total mass of the system

6. THREE BODIES CONNECTED BY TWO STRINGS

F _______________
Common acceleration, a  (i)
m1  m 2  m 3

Considering force body diagram of mass m1,

T2 = m1a _______________(ii)
Considering free body diagram of mass m2,
T1 – T2 = m2a _______________(iii)
Considering free body diagram of mass m3,
F – T1 = m3a _______________(iv)

T2
m1

T2 T2 T1 T1 F T2 T1
m1 m2 m3 m2
/////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////

T1
m3 F

Figure 6.27
m1F
From equation (ii) and (i), T2 
m1  m 2  m 3

From equations (iv) and (v), T1 = F – m3a

 m3F  m1  m2  F
or T1  F  
m1  m2  m3 m1  m2  m3

7. TWO MASSES CONNECTED BY A STRING AND SUSPENDED FROM A

SUPPORT
Two masses connected by a string and suspended from support Two blocks of masses m1 and
m2areconnected by two strings and suspended from support as shown in figure (a). Mass m2 is
pulled down by a force F. The tension T is the string between m1 m2 and tension T in the
string between m1 and the support can be found from the free-body diagrams as shown in
figures (b) and (c).

___________
T‟= T + m1g (i)
___________
T= F + m2g (ii)
Using (ii) and (i), we get
T‟ = F + (m1 + m2)g

Figure 6.28
8. TWO BODIES CONNECTED ON A RIGHT ANGLED SMOOTH INCLINED
PLANE
Two blocks connected by a string passing over a frictionless pulley fixed at the edge of a
horizontal table Consider a block of mass „m1‟, lying on a frictionless table connected through
a pulley to another block of mass „m2‟ hanging vertically as shown in the figure. When the
system is released, let the acceleration of the blocks be „a‟.
Figure 6.29
From free body diagrams, the equations of motion of m 1 and m2 are
T= m1a __________(i)
__________
m2g - T = m2a (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii), we get
m2 g m1m 2 g
a= also, T = m1a =
 m1 + m 2   m1 + m 2 
LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM
STATEMENT
If the vector sum of the external forces acting on a system is zero, then the total
momentum of the system, is conserved i.e., remains constant.
The concept of conservations of momentum is particularly important in situations in which we
have two or more interacting bodies. The law of conservation of momentum is a direct
consequence of Newton‟s third law. This law does not depend on the detailed nature of the
internal forces that act between the members of the system. This means that we can apply
conservation of momentum even if (as is often the case) we know very little about the internal
forces. The internal forces can change the momenta of individual particles in the system but
not the total momentum of the system.

For a closed, isolated system, p = constant____________ (i)
 
 pi  p f ____________ (ii)
The total linear momentum at some initial time ti = total linear momentum at some later time t f.
The equations (1) and (2) are vector equations. Each is equivalent to three equations
corresponding to the conservations of linear momentum in three mutually perpendicular
directions. Depending on the forces acting on a system, linear momentum might be conserved
in one or two direction but not in all directions. If the component of the net external force on a
closed system is zero along an axis, then the component of the linear momentum of the system
along that axis cannot change. As an example, if you toss up a coin and neglect air resistance,
only the vertical momentum of the coin shall change due to gravitational force. The horizontal
momentum shall not change.
DERIVATION FROM NEWTON‟S SECOND LAW OF MOTION
According to Newton‟s second law of motion, the time rate of change of momentum is equal
to the applied force.

If the system is isolated, then F  0
d 
In that case, p0
dt  

 p = constant [Differential coefficient of an isolated constant is zero]
This leads us to the following statement of the law of conservation of momentum.
“In the absence of external forces, the total momentum of the system is conserved”.
DERIVATION FROM NEWTON‟S THIRD LAW OF MOTION
Consider an isolated system consisting of two bodies A and B of masses m 1 and m2
respectively
(see figure 6.30). Let the bodies be moving along a straight line in the same direction. Let their
   
respective velocities be v 1i and v 2i such that v 1i is greater than v 2i . The two bodies will
 
collide after some time. Let v 1f and v 2 f be the velocities of A and B respectively after the
collision.
A A A
B B B

m1 
m1  
m1 m1 
m1 
m1 
 1i  2i FAB FBA 1f 2f

BEFORE COLLISION DURING COLLISION AFTER COLLISION

Figure 6.30
Before collision
 
Momentum of body A  m1 1i ; Momentum of body B  m2 2i
 
 Total momentum of system  m1 1i  m2 2i
After collision
 
Momentum of body A  m1 1f ; Momentum of body B  m2 2f
 
 Total momentum of system  m1 1f  m2 2f
 
Change in momentum of body A  m1 1f  m1 1i
  
Change in momentum of body B  m2 2f  m2 2i

During collision, the body A exerts an average force FBA on body B.

According to Newton‟s third law of motion, the body B will exert an average force FAB on
body A such that
 
FBA   FAB

Let t be the duration of collision,

 
Then, impulse acting on B  FBA t ; Impulse acting on A  FAB t
But impulse = change in momentum
     
 FBA t  m2 2f  m2 2i and FAB t  m1 1f  m1 1f
 
But FBA t   FAB t
   
 
 m2 2f  m2 2i    m1 1f  m1 1i 
 
   
or m2 2f  m1 1f  m1 1i  m2 2i

So, total momentum of system after collision is equal to the total momentum of system before
collision.
This leads to the following statement of the law of conservation of momentum.
“The total vector sum of the momenta of bodies, in an isolated system, along any straight line
remains conserved and is unchanged due to the mutual action and reaction between the bodies
in the system.”

UNDERSTANDING
This law is universal. It is true not only for collisions between astronomical bodies but also for
collisions between atomic particles.
In the above treatment, we have considered an isolated system consisting of only two bodies.
The law of conservation of momentum holds good even for isolated system consisting of more
than two bodies.
The internal forces of the system, i.e., the forces of action and reaction cannot change the total
momentum of the system. Since the internal forces are equal (in magnitude) and opposite
therefore they produce equal (in magnitude) and opposite changes in momenta. These changes
in momenta cancel each other. So, we conclude that the momenta of individual bodies may
change due to internal forces. But the total momentum of the system can be changed only by
the external forces.
CHANGE IN MOMENTUM OF A BODY IN DIFFERENT CASES
 
Consider a body of mass „m’ moving with velocity Vi and momentum Pi . Due to a collision (or)

due to the action of a force on it, assume its velocity changes to V f and momentum changes to

Pf in a small time interval  t .
  
Change in the momentum of body = P  Pf  Pi
 
 mVf  mVi
  
P  Pf  Pi  Pf2  P12  2Pf Pi cos 
 
where  = angle between Pf and Pi

Case-1Consider a body of mass „m’ moving with velocity Viˆ . If it hits a rigid surface (or) a
  
wall and comes to rest.Change in the momentum of the body = P  Pf  Pi  0   mv  iˆ    mv  iˆ

P  mv

Case-2
In the above case if the body rebounds with the same speed V then   1800
  
P  Pf  Pi     mv  iˆ   mv  iˆ    2mv  iˆ

  P  2mv

Case -3

If a body of mass m moving with velocity V1 iˆ hits a rigid wall and rebounds with speed V2
  
then   1800 , P  Pf  Pi

=    mv2  ˆi    mv1  iˆ P  m V2  V1 

Case -4
mv
A body of mass „m’ moving with speed „V’
P 
hits a rigid wall at an angle of incidence „‟ 

and rebounds with the same speed V P of mv
the body is along thenormal, away from the
wall.
 Figure 6.31
P  2mv cos 

Case-5
  
In the above case, if  is the angle made by Vi with wall then  P  2mv sin

Case-6
Projectile motion:
a) In the case of projectile motion, the change in momentum of a body between the highest
point and point of projection is
  
Pi =  mu cos  iˆ   mu sin   ˆj Pf =  mu cos  ˆi  0 , P = -  mu sin  ˆj

b) Thechangein momentum of the projectile between the striking point and point of
projection is

Pi   mu cos   iˆ   mu sin   ˆj

PF   mu cos   iˆ   mu sin   ˆj

P = -  2mu sin   ˆj

APPLICATIONS OF LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM

(i) Recoil of a Gun. Let the gun and the bullet in its barrel constitute one isolated system.
To begin with, both the gun and the bullet are at rest. So, the momentum of the system, before
firing, is zero.
Bullet

v 
v
M

Figure 6.32: Recoil of gun

When the bullet is fired, it moves in the forward direction and the gun kicks backward.
 
Let, m = mass of bullet; M = mass of gun; v = velocity of bullet; V = velocity of gun.
 
Total momentum of system after firing = M V  m v
No external forces have acted on the system. So, law of conservation of momentum can be
applied.
   
 M V  m v  0 or M V  m v
 m
or V v
M

The negative sign shows that the velocity of recoil V is opposite to the velocity of thebullet,
i.e., if the bullet moves in the forward direction, the gun moves in the backward direction.
The mass M of the gun is very large as compared to the mass m of the bullet. So, the velocity
of recoil is very small as compared to the velocity of the bullet.
(ii) Machine Gun firing Bullets. Suppose a machine gun mounted on a car is firing n bullets

in time t. Let m and v be the mass and velocity respectively of each bullet. (see figure 6.33)

m m
v v

Figure 6.33

Total momentum in the forward direction  n  m v
The reaction of this momentum will be in the backward direction. This reaction will set the car
in motion to the right. In order to hold the car in position, the accelerator of the car shall have

to be suitably pressed. The applied force F should be such that
 
F t  nm v [Impulse = change of momentum]
(iii) Explosion of a Bomb.
Suppose a bomb is at rest as shown in figure 6.34. Its
momentum will be zero. Let the bomb explode into five
fragments of masses m1, m2, m3, m4 and m5.
    
Bomb at rest
Let their respective velocities be v 1 , v 2 , v 3 , v 4 and v 5 . Then
Figure 6.34
their respective momenta will be given by
         
p1  m1 v 1 , p2  m2 v 2 , p 3  m3 v 3 , p 4  m 4 v 4 and p 5  m 5 v 5 
p2
No, external force has acted on the system. Therefore, the 

p3 p1
law of conservation of momentum can be applied.
Momentum after explosion= Momentum before

explosion 
p5
p4
     
 p1  p 2  p 3  p 4  p 5  0

The sum of the five momenta vectors is zero. So, they can Figure 6.35
berepresentedboth in magnitudeanddirection by the
five sides of a closed polygon, all taken in the same
 order. This is shown in figure 6.35
If the bomb explodes into two fragments of equal
masses, then the fragments will move with equal
speeds in opposite directions.
 
p4 p3
(iv) Suppose a magnet and a piece of iron is made to
float on the water surface near each other. It will be
 
p5 p2
observed that the iron piece moves towards the
magnet and the magnet moves towards the iron 
p1
piece. Suppose the magnet is heavier than the iron Explosion of a bomb

piece. Then the velocity of the magnet will be less Figure 6.36
than that of the iron piece. This is because the
momentum produced in the iron piece is equal in
magnitude to the momentum of the magnet.
However, their directions are opposite.
(v) The working of a rocket and a jet plane is based on the law of conservation of
momentum.
(vi) The cross-sectional area of the nozzle of a horizontal hose pipe is A. If water gushes out of
the pipe with speed V then, the necessary horizontal force on the pipe to prevent its recoil
is
dp  dm   dm 
 As dt  A  w V 
2
F= =  V = AV ρ water
dt  dt   
(vii) In the above case
i) If water strikes a wall normally with speed „V’ and drops dead, thenforce (F) on the
wall, F = AV2water

ii) If water strikes a wall normally with speed „V’ and rebounds with the same speed
then, force (F) the wall, F = 2AV2water
iii) If water strikes a wall normally with speed „V’ and rebounds with speed V1 then
force(F) on the wall, F = AVwater (V+V1)
iv) When the water hits the wall with speed „V’ making an angle „‟ with the wall and
deflects at the same anglethere is no change in momentum along the wall but there
is the change in momentum in a perpendicular direction to the wall.
 The force (F) on the wall is given by the following expression
F = 2AV2
EXAMPLES OF VARIABLE MASS SIUTATIONS
(i) Formulating a useful relation.
According to Newton‟s second law of motion
 d  d     

F  p   m v   p  m v 
dt   dt  

Treating both m and v as variables, we may write:
 d     dm d d d
F m  v  v  uv   u v  v u 
dt   dt dx dx dx

If v is regarded as constant, then
  dm  d  
Fv  dt  v   0 
dt    

This equation is extremely useful in the study of variable mass systems, if velocity is
kept constant.
(ii) Sand falling on a moving conveyor belt.
dm
Consider the case of sand which is allowed to fall vertically at a steady rate of on to a
dt
horizontal conveyor belt moving at a steady velocity of v.
Since the initial horizontal velocity of the sand is zero therefore the initial horizontal
momentum of the sand is also zero.
dm
Horizontal momentum change per second  v
dt
The system is gaining mass with time. So, the necessary external force must point in the
direction in which belt moves. [Note that the mass of the belt does not enter the problem
because the belt is supposed to move at constant velocity]
dm
Power supplied by the external force, P = Fv  v 2
dt
Since v is constant,

mv  d 1 2
d
 P 2
or P  2  mv 
dt dt  2 

dK
or P2
dt
 SAND

BELT

   
v

Figure 6.37
Clearly, the external power required to keep the belt moving is twice the rate at which the
kinetic energy of the system is increasing. We need not considering the kinetic energy of the
belt because its speed is constant and so, its kinetic energy does not change.
Only one-half of the work done by motor driving the belt appears as kinetic energy of the
moving sand. The other half ends up as internal energy of the sand and belt.
(iii) Rocket propulsion
A rocket is required for carrying an artificial satellite to a suitable height for placing it in an
orbit around the earth. The rocket consists of a combustion chamber in which liquid or solid
fuel is burnt. Due to the heat of combustion, the pressure inside the chamber becomes very
height. So, the rocket forces out a jet of hot gases from its tail. This is say an action force. The
jet of hot gases exerts a force on the rocket, propelling it upward; this is the reaction force.
These forces are internal forces of the system momentum in the downward direction and the
rocket acquires an equal amount of momentum in the upward direction. Thus, the motion of
the rocket is an interesting application of Newton‟s third law of motion and momentum
principle.
Instantaneous velocity of the rocket
Consider the flight of a rocket directed
vertically upwards from the surface of Earth.
Suppose at time t = 0, the (initial) mass of v + v
the rocket plus fuel is m0 and its (initial) v
velocity is v0. Figure 6.38(a) represents a
rocket at a time t after takeoff. Let the mass m v’
of rocket and unburnt fuel is m at time t. Let
vr
v be the upward velocity of the rocket at this
(a) (b)
time. Momentum at time t is mv.
Figure 6.38: Rocket propulsion
 Let a mass m of gas be ejected from the
rocket in a short time interval t.
The mass of the rocket and unburnt fuel will
decrease to (m m) at the end of the
interval t and let the velocity increase to v
+ v. Momentum of rocket and unburnt fuel
at time t + t = (m m) (v +
v)
Total momentum at time t + t = (m m) (v + v) + m (vg) where vg is the velocity of the
exhaust gases w.r.t Earth. It is taken as negative because the gases move in a direction opposite
to that of the rocket.
Let us assume that external forces such as gravitational forces and frictional forces of earth‟s
atmosphere are absent. This assumption is valid when the rocket is fired in outer space where
there is no gravitational force and no air resistance.
Our system consists of the rocket and the exhaust products released during time interval t.
This system is closed and isolated. Conserving the linear momentum of the system during the
time interval t, we get
mv = (m m) (v + v) + m (vg)
or mv = mv + m v – v m mv – vgm
or mv = m (v + vg) + m v
The term m v can be dropped. This is because it is a product of two small quantities and is
therefore much smaller than both the quantities.
 mv = m (v + vg) _____________ (1)

If v r is the velocity of gases relative to rocket, then
    
vr  v g  ( v)  v g  v

In magnitude, vr =  vg v = (vg + v) =  (v + vg)

The negative sign again shows that vr is in a downward direction whereas the motion of the
rocket is in the upward direction.
From equation (1), mv = vrm
m
or v   vr
m

If the time interval t is replaces by infinitesimally small time interval dt, then v will be
replaced by dv and m by dm.
dm
 dv   v r
m

Integrating within the limits from v0 to v and from m0 to m, we get

v m dm
 v0
dv   v r 
m0 m
v m
v v   v r log e m m
0 0

m
or v – v0 = vr [loge m – loge m0] = vr loge
m0

m
or v = v0 – vr log
m0

m0 ________________
or v  v 0  v r log e (2)
m

This gives the velocity of the rocket at any time t when the mass of the rocket plus
unburnt fuel is m.
If the initial velocity v0 of the rocket is zero, then
m0
v  v r log e
m

Conclusion
The instantaneous velocity of the rocket is proportional to the exhaust speed of the gases and
to the natural logarithm of the ratio of the initial mass of the rocket to its mass at the given
instant.
dm
Acceleration of the rocket. We know that dv   v r
m
 vr dv v r dm
or dv  dm or 
m dt m dt
v r dm
 Instantaneous acceleration, a  
m dt

dm dv
Note that is negative and is positive.
dt dt
dm 1
If and vr are taken as constants, then a  . Since m goes on decreasing continuously
dt m
therefore a goes on increasing continuously till the whole of the fuel is burnt up.
Thrust on the rocket. It is the reaction force exerted on the rocket by the escaping burnt
gases.
 v r dm
Instantaneous acceleration of the rocket, a  
m dt
Instantaneous force on the rocket, F = ma
dm
or F   vr
dt
The thrust on the rocket at any instant is equal to the product of the exhaust velocity of the
burnt gases, relative to rocket and the rate of combustion of fuel at that instant.
Burn-out Speed of the Rocket. The speed acquired by the rocket when the whole of the fuel
gets burnt is called the burn out speed of the rocket. It is the maximum speed acquired by the
rocket. When the rocket acquires burn-out speed vb, then the mass of the rocket becomes equal
to the mass of the empty container, say m c. When the rocket acquires burn-out speed, it moves
in outer space where the external forces can be neglected.
m0
From equation (2), v b  v 0  v r log
mc

EQULIBRIUM OF CONCURRENT FORCES

Concurrent forces are those forces whose lines of action intersect at a common point.
  
Figure 6.39 shows three concurrent forces F1 , F2 and F3 whose
 
lines of action intersect at O. F1 F2

When there is no change in the state of rest or of uniform O


motion of a body on which the forces act, the body is said to be F3

in equilibrium.
A body in equilibrium may be at rest. But the body does not Equilibrium of
concurrent forces
necessarily have to be at rest. It may be moving with uniform
Figure 6.39
speed in a straight line. An example of this situation occurs
when a rain drop or parachute falls with constant velocity
called terminal velocity.
The condition necessary for equilibrium of a body under the action of concurrent forces is that
the vector sum of all the forces acting shall be equal to zero. This condition is necessary even
for the equilibrium of non-concurrent forces. This condition may also be expressed by the
statement that the sum of the component in any three perpendicular directions shall be zero

So, F 0

and  Fx  0,  Fy  0 and  Fz  0
 As an illustration, consider three concurrent 
F1
  
forces F1 , F2 and F3 acting on a rigid body as
  
shown in the adjacent figure 6.40. If the rigid F1  F2 F3

body is in equilibrium then the resultant of F1

and F2 should be equal in magnitude to the 
F2

magnitude of F3 and opposite in direction.
Figure 6.40
  
So, F3 =  ( F1 + F2 )
 
The resultant of F1 and F2 can be found by
applying parallelogram law of vectors.
  
In this illustration, F1  F2  F3  0
   
If instead of three forces, a number of forces F1 ,F2 ,F3 ,F4 .......... act on the rigid body and the
body is in equilibrium, then
   
F1  F2  F3  F4 ..........  0

LAMI‟S THEOREM
If three concurrent forces acting on a body keep it in equilibrium then each force is
proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two forces.
  
Let F1 ,F2 and F3 be three concurrent forces in equilibrium.
B A
F1 F2 F3
Then, according to Lami‟s theorem,  
sin  sin  sin    
F2 F1
 
Here  is the angle between F2 and F3 ,  is the angle

 
between F1 and F3 . 
F3
 
 is the angle between F1 and F2 . C
If three concurrent forces acting on a body are in Figure 6.41
equilibrium, they must be coplanar.

INERTIAL AND NON-INERTIAL FRAMES OF REFERENCE

[ELEMENTARY IDEA]
The idea of the „frame of reference‟ may be had from an illustration. Suppose we have an
event like „a book falling down from a desk‟. This is just a qualitative observation made by an
observer. If we are interested in knowing the exact details of an event, we shall have to make
some exact quantities observations. Thus, the observer needs a system by using which he
makes exact quantities measurements. He needs a correct coordinate system or a frame of
reference for this purpose.
Thus, a frame of reference is any system relative to which the motion of a body or an
event in space or the position of a particle is described. The frame of reference is generally
a system of coordinate. The description of an event depends very much upon the reference
frame from where the event is observed. The same event observed from different frames of
reference will be described differently by the observers in those frames of reference. Consider
a ball thrown vertically upwards by a person standing on the ground. This person will observe
that the ball begins to fall down vertically after some time. But, to an observer sitting in a
moving car, the same ball will appear to be following a parabolic path. So, the same event is
described differently by two observers in two different frames of reference. It is clear from this
example that it is very important to specify the frame of reference with reference to which an
event is to be observed. The frame of reference could be the road, the Moon's surface, the Sun
or even the centre of our galaxy. But whatever it is, it must be clearly specified in the first
instance. The observer is located in the frame of reference itself.
That frame of reference in which Newton's law of inertia holds good is called the inertial
frame of reference. In such a frame of reference, if no net external force acts upon a body,
the body will move with zero acceleration i.e., constant velocity. A spaceship drifting with
constant velocity and having no spin motion is an inertial frame of reference. An observer in
an inertial frame of reference is called an inertial observer. Any reference frame moving with a
uniform velocity is an inertial reference frame. It follows from here that all frames of reference
which are moving relative to one another with constant velocities are inertial frames of
reference. These are also known as Newtonian or Galilean or unaccelerated frames of
reference. In such frames, Newton's law of motion and other laws of Newtonian or classical
mechanics hold good.
Is Earth an inertial frame of reference? Strictly speaking, Earth is not an inertial frame of
reference. The Earth is rotating not only about its own axis but also orbiting around the Sun. In
both these motions, centripetal accelerations are present. So, any frame of reference set up on
Earth or Earth itself, as is where is, cannot be considered as an inertial frame of reference. But,
in the present study, we are considering speeds of the order of 3 lakh km per second. And
Earth is moving at a speed of only 30 km s1. So, the effects of rotation and revolution of Earth
may be ignored. Thus, for all practical purposes, Earth or any frame of reference set up on
Earth is regarded as an inertial frame of reference.
For the sake of convenience, we generally use a Cartesian Y

system of coordinates as our frame of reference. Ordinarily,

we shall take the origin O but it is not necessary. However, P
(x,y,z)

y
it is necessary that the frame of reference be at rest with
X
O z
respect to the observer. The co-ordinates (x, y, z) of a point x

P in space are shown in the figure 6.42. For the proper Z

Cartesian system of co-ordinates

description of event, we consider fourth co-ordinate V. A

Figure 6.42
reference frame with four co-ordinates x, y, z and t is called
space-time frame.
Importance of the Concept of Inertial Frame
(i) Fundamental laws of Physics have been formulated with respect to an inertial frame.
These laws can be expressed mathematically in such a way that they have the same form in all
inertial frames.
(ii) An inertial frame of reference is isotropic with respect to optical and mathematical
experiments. An experiment performed in different directions in an inertial frame will yield the
same result.
A frame of reference having an acceleration with respect to an inertial frame of reference
is called non-inertial frame of reference. In such a reference frame, Newton's law of inertia
does not hold good.

FRICTION

INTRODUCTION TO FRICTION
If you try to pull a table, you will experience some opposing, force. Also, when an object is
made to slide on a surface, after some time it comes to stop. In both cases, there should be
some force applied by the surface in contact. This force is called frictional force. So, frictional
force opposes relative motion & the tendency of relative motion. Frictional force opposes the
tendency of relative motion, even when there is no relative motion.
Friction is very important in our daily lives. In an automobile, about 20% of the engine power
is used to counter frictional force. Friction causes wear and tear. On the other hand, without
friction we could not walk; we could not hold an object; we could not write; etc…….
BASIC PROPERTIES OF FRICTIONAL FORCES
Imagine that you are trying to drag a heavy
box along a horizontal platform.
One of two things may happen. If you pull
hard enough, the box will start to move in
the direction you are pulling in. If you don't
Figure 6.43
pull so hard, the box will stay where it is.
But in either case, your pull will be opposed
by a frictional force.
These frictional forces act horizontally, in
the plane where the base of the box is in
contact with the platform, or in which it
would move if it could. Figure 6.44

fig. shows the four forces acting on the box,

whether or not it is moving.
If the box doesn't start to move, then the forces are in equilibrium. This means that the friction
exactly balances the pull. If you pull a bit harder, the friction will increase; if you don't pull so
hard, the friction will decrease. If you stop pulling, the friction will vanish. This type of
frictional force is called static frictional force. This acts till the time body is at rest with
respect to the surface.
If you pull hard enough for the box to move, the friction is smaller than the pull. There is a
limit to the amount of friction that the base of the box and the platform can produce. If you
pull with a force greater than this limit, the box will start to move. Now a frictional force
called kinetic frictional force acts.
When part of the surface of an object is in contact with a fixed surface, and forces are tending
to move the object across the surface, these forces will be opposed by a frictional force. Its
direction is opposite to the direction of motion of possible motion.
The frictional forces cannot exceed a certain magnitude, called the limiting friction. If the
object is at rest and equilibrium is possible with a frictional force less than this limiting
friction, the object will remain in equilibrium.
If the object is at rest and the forces are in equilibrium with the limiting friction, the object is
said to be 'on limiting equilibrium'.
LAWS OF FRICTION
"Frictional force opposes relative motion
between two surfaces at the point of contact,
Figure 6.45
and acts along the surface"
Consider a block kept on the rough
horizontal surface, and start applying
horizontal force on it.
We find that the block will not move even though we apply a small force. We say that the
applied force is balanced by an opposing frictional force, along the surface of contact. As we
increase the applied force, we find some definite force at which the block will "break away"
from the surface and begin to accelerate. By reducing the force, once motion has started, we
find that it is possible to keep the block in uniform motion without acceleration
At t = 0

Figure 6.46

(a) No motion, the block is at rest and

static frictional force fs acts.
At t = 2 s

Figure 6.47

(b) Magnitude of force is increased to F1,

but no motion and block are at rest.
Static frictional force fs' acts.
At t = 4 s
Figure 6.48
 (c) At a definite force F2 object suddenly
begins to move and kinetic frictional
force fk acts

Figure 6.49

The graph shows the result of the experiment to measure the frictional force. An increasing
force F is applied at the start at t = 0 sec, after which frictional force is increased with the
applied force and the object remains at rest. At t = 4 sec, the object suddenly begins to move
and frictional force becomes constant independent of applied force.
The frictional force acting between two surfaces, at rest with respect to each other is called
static frictional force.
In the above experiment, the block starts moving at t = 4 sec and the corresponding applied
force is equal to the maximum static frictional force. Once the motion starts, the frictional
force acting between the two surfaces is called kinetic frictional force.
LAWS OF STATIC FRICTION

(1) The maximum static frictional force (or) limiting frictional force is proportional to the
normal force.
(2) Frictional force is approximately independent of the area of contract over wide limits
The ratio of the magnitude of maximum static frictional force to the normal force is
called the coefficient of static friction.
 fs max
i.e. = s
N

  fs max  sN

Also, we can write

fs  sN .

fs = static frictional force

Where (fs) max = maximum static frictional force
N = Normal force (or) Normal reaction
s = coefficient of static friction
LAWS OF KINETIC FRICTION

(1) The kinetic frictional force is proportional to the normal force.

(2) Frictional force is approximately independent of the area of contract over wide limits.
The ratio of the magnitude of kinetic frictional force to the normal force is called the
coefficient of kinetic friction
fk
i.e. = µk
N

fk = µk N
Both µs and µk are dimensionless constants.
Usually for a pair of surfaces, µs> µk.
The actual values of µs and µk depend on the nature of the surfaces in contact. In most cases,
we can regard them as being constants (for a pair of surfaces) over the range of forces and
velocities.

PULLING A BLOCK OR ROLLER

a) If the pulling force is such that F N

cos<fs, (fs is limiting friction) the F sin  F

(pulling force)
block will be at rest and the force of f 
friction between the block and the F cos 

surface is mg
f = F cos Figure 6.50
b) The normal force is N = mg - F sin 
c) Force needed to just slide the body is
 smg mg sin 
F=  Where  is the angle of friction between the two surfaces.
cos    s sin cos(   )

d) If the applied force is greater than the above value, block slides with acceleration and
the force of friction between the block and the surface is f k.
e) The minimum possible force among all directions required to just move the body is mg
mg s
sin (or) where  is the angle of friction. The force must be applied at an angle
1   s2

 to the horizontal at an angle equal to the angle of friction .

PUSHING A BLOCK OR ROLLER

 a) If the pushing force is such that, Fcos< f s,the N
block will be rest and the force of friction between
the block and the surface is f = F cos . f
F cos 

b) The normal force is N = mg + F sin
mg
c) Force needed to just slide the body is F (pushing force)
F sin 
 smg  mg sin 
F=  s Figure 6.51
cos    s sin cos(   )

where  is the angle of friction.

d) Pulling is easier than pushing because lower frictional force, in the case of pulling need
to be overcome.
e) If the angle made by the pushing force with the vertical is lesser than or equal to the
angle of friction, the block cannot be moved, irrespective of the magnitude of the
applied force..

BLOCK ON A ROUGH FIXED HORIZONTAL SURFACE

a) If we continue to apply a force F = f s, the block slides with an acceleration given by
a = (s - k) g
b) Once the block slides, the force of friction on the block is kinetic frictional force (f k)
c) If the block slides with acceleration under the influence of an external force F, the
acceleration of the block is, a = F  fk
m

SLIDING BLOCK ON A HORIZONTAL SURFACE COMING TO REST

a) If a block having initial velocity u slides on a rough v=0

u
horizontal surface and comes it rest, the acceleration of the fx m
block is a = – kg
Figure 6.52
b) Distance travelled by the block before coming rest is S
u2
=
2 k g

u
c) Time taken by the block to come to rest is t =
k g
FRICTIONAL FORCE ON AN INCLINED PLANE

Consider a fixed inclined plane of inclination ''. Let µs and µk be

the coefficient of static friction and coefficient of kinetic friction
respectively.
Put a block of mass 'm' on the inclined plane. Three cases are
possible.
N = mg cos Figure 6.53
(fs) max = µs N
= µs mg cos
Case (i)
mg sin< (fs)max
Here, the frictional force is successful in stopping the block from
sliding.
 f = mg sin
Case (ii)
mg sin = (fs)max
= µs mg cos
= tan–1µs
This angle tan–1µs is called the angle of repose, the angle at which the block tends to move on
an inclined plane
Here two situations are possible.
(a) Theblock remains at rest
Then frictional force is
f = mg sin
mg sin = µs mg cos
(b) Block slides down
As the block is sliding down, the kinetic frictional force
acts.
f = µk N = µk mg cos
mg sin  kmg cos 
a= Figure 6.54
m

 a = g(sin – µk cos)
Case (iii)
mg sin> (fs)max > µs mg cos
Here, the static frictional force is not
successful in keeping the block at rest. So,
the block starts sliding and kinetic frictional
Figure 6.55
force acts.
Frictional force
f = µk N= µk mg cos
mg sin  kmg cos 
a=
m

a = g(sin – µk cos)

SOME NOTEWORTHY POINTS

a) If l is the length of the inclined plane and h is the N

height. The time taken to slide down starting from rest
mg sin 
from the top is 

21 1 2h
t=  mg
g sin sin g mg cos 
Figure 6.56

The sliding block takes more time to reach the bottom than to fall freely from the top of
the incline.
e) Velocity of the block at the bottom of the inclined plane is
V= 2glsin  2gh same as the speed attained if block falls freely from the top of the
inclined plane.
f) If a block is projected up the plane with a velocity u, the acceleration of the block is
a = - g sin
g) Distance travelled up the plane before its velocity becomes zero is
u2
S=
2g sin

u
h) Time of ascent is t =
g sin
 FRICTION ON A VERTICAL SURFACE
Consider a block pressed with a force F on the wall.
N=F
(fs) max = µs F
Case (i)
mg < (fs)max Figure 6.57
Block will be at rest
fs = mg
Case (ii)
mg = (fs)max
Here two situations are possible
(a) Block is at rest
f = mg
(b) Block starts sliding down. Then kinetic frictional force acts Figure 6.58

fk = µ k N
= µk F
mg   k F
a=
m

Case (iii)

mg > (fs)max
Block starts sliding down then kinetic frictional force acts
fk = µ k N = µ k F
mg  µ k F
a=
m

ANGLE OF FRICTION
Consider a block as shown
The net contract force is

R = N2  f 2
f
tan = ,
N

Here  is the angle between normal and the resultant of normal Figure 6.59
force and frictional force.
It is called an angle of friction.
ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
i) Safe walking on the floor is possible because of the friction between the floor and the
feet.
ii) Nails and screws are driven in the walls or wooden surfaces due to friction.
iii) Friction help the fingers to hold a drinking water tumbler or pen.
iv) Vehicles move on the roads without sliding due to friction and they can be stopped due
to friction.
v) The mechanical power transmission of the belt drive is possible due to friction .
DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION
i) Friction results in a large amount of power loss in engines.
ii) Due to friction, the wear and tear of the machine increases.
iii) Due to friction, heat is generated which goes as a waste.
METHODS OF REDUCING FRICTION
i) Friction between two surfaces of contact can be reduced by polishing the surfaces.
ii) A lubricant is a substance which forms a thin layer between two surfaces in contact and
reduces friction. The process of reducing friction is called lubrication. Soap water, two–
in–one oil and grease are examples of lubricants.
iii) The free wheels of vehicles like cycles, two-wheelers, motor cars, shafts of motors,
dynamos etc., are provided with ball bearing to reduce the friction.
iv) Automobiles and aeroplanes have special construction i.e. they are stream lined to
reduce the friction due to air.
CIRCULAR MOTION
CIRCULAR MOTION
CENTRIPETAL FORCE
If a particle moves in a circle as seen from an inertial frame, a resultant nonzero force must
act on the particle. That is because a particle moving in a circle is accelerated and
acceleration can be produced in an inertial frame only if a resultant force acts on it. If the
speed of the particle remains constant, the acceleration of the particle is towards the centre

and its magnitude is v2/r. Here v is the speed of the particle and r is the radius of the circle.
The resultant force must act towards the centre and its magnitude F must satisfy
 F v2 F mv 2
a or,  or, F 
m r m r

Since this resultant force is directed towards the centre, it is called centripetal force. Thus, a

centripetal force of magnitude mv2/r is needed to keep the particle in uniform circular
motion.
It should be clearly understood that “centripetal force” is another word for “force towards the
centre”. This force must originate from some external source such as gravitation, tension,
friction, coulomb force etc. Centripetal force is not a new kind of force, just as an “upward
force” or a “downward force” is not a new kind of force.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
We have learnt in the chapter Newton‟s Laws of motion, that when a situation is analysed
from a non–inertial frame of reference, Newton‟s laws of motion are applicable only if, we
allow to include an additional pseudo force, on the system.
Let us analyse, the case of a body rotating with a uniform speed.
Consider a particle „P‟ placed on a rough circular N
table, which rotates about its vertical axis passing
through its centre with uniform angular velocity „‟
f
see figure6.33. Let the particle „P‟ be at rest,
(relative to the table) at a distance „r‟ from the axis
of rotation. As seen from ground (inertial reference mg

frame) the F.B.D. of particle appears to be as shown Figure 6.61

Figure 6.60
in figure 6.60.
For the vertical equilibrium, weight mg of particle
acting downwards is balanced by the normal
reaction „N‟ offered by the table surface on the
particle.

Since the particle revolves about the axis of rotation, it is being accelerated, by a force
directed towards the axis. This force is supplied by the frictional force. Had there been no
friction, the particle would not have stayed at rest relative to the table.
Thus f = m2r _____________ (1)
Next, let us attach a reference frame to the circular table, which is non–inertial
reference frame, since it would be in an acceleration. When we start analysing the situation
 withrespect to the circular table, the particle appears to be at rest. But before applying
Newton‟s laws of motion, we should allow for “pseudo force” to act on the particle.
The figure 6.62 shows, the F.B.D of the particle w.r.t non inertial N
frame. Considering the horizontal equilibrium f = m2r which is
same as the result arrived in equation (1).
This pseudo force is equal but opposite to centripetal force and is f m2 r

known as centrifugal force (“centrifugal” means “fleeing away

mg
from centre”). Thus centrifugal force is always equal but opposite
to the centripetal force. No, centrifugal force exists in reality. Figure 6.62
However, it is a fictitious or pseudo or virtual (something not real)
force, which should be applied on a system executing circular
motion, when the reference frame is itself performing circular
motion.
When vehicles go through turnings, they travel along a nearly circular arc. There must be
some force which will produce the required centripetal acceleration. If the vehicles travel in a
horizontal circular path, this resultant force is also horizontal. The necessary centripetal force
is being provided to the vehicles by following three ways.
1. By friction only
2. By banking of roads only
3. By friction and banking of roads both.
In real life the necessary centripetal force is provided by friction and banking of roads both.
Now let us write equations of motion in each of the three cases separately and see what the
constraints in each case are.
BY FRICTION ONLY
Suppose a car of mass m is moving at a speed v in a horizontal circular arc of radius r. In this
case, the necessary centripetal force to the car will be provided by force of friction f acting
towards centre.
mv 2
Thus , f 
r

Further, limiting value of f is N or fL   N  mg N  mg 

mv 2 mv 2 v2
Therefore, for a safe turn without sliding  fL or   mg or   or v  rg
r r rg
Here, two situations may arise. If  and r are known to us, the speed of the vehicle should not
exceed rg and if v and r are known to us, the coefficient of friction should be greater than

v2
.
rg

BY BANKING OF ROADS ONLY

Friction is not always reliable at circular turns if high speeds and N

sharp turns are mv 2
G
r
involved. To avoid dependence on friction, the roads are banked
at the turn so that the outer part of the road is somewhat lifted

compared to the inner part.
Applying. Newton‟s second law along the radius and the first
mg
law in the vertical direction.
Figure 6.63
mv 2
N sin   and Ncos   mg
r

v2
From these two equations, we get tan   or v rg tan 
rg

BY FRICTION AND BANKING OF ROAD BOTH

If a vehicle is moving on a circular road which is rough and banked also, then three forces
may act on the vehicle, of these the first force, i.e., weight (mg) is fixed both in magnitude
and direction.
N y
f N
 

X


mg f
  mg

Figure 6.64
The direction of second force, i.e., normal reaction N is also fixed (perpendicular to road)
while the direction of the third force, i.e., friction f can be either inwards or outwards while
its magnitude can be varied up to a maximum limit  fL  N  .
So the magnitude of normal reaction N and direction plus the magnitude of friction f are so
mv 2
adjusted that the resultant of the three forces mentioned above is towards the centre. Of
r

these m and r are also constant. Therefore, the magnitude of N and direction plus the
 magnitude of friction mainly depends on the speed of the vehicle v. Thus, the situation varies
from problem to problem. Even though we can see that:
i) Friction f is outwards if the vehicle is at rest or v = 0. Because in that case the
component of weight mg sin  is balanced by f.
ii) Friction f is inwards if v rg tan 

iii) Friction f is outwards if v rg tan 

iv) Friction f is zero if v rg tan 

By using the above four equations and drawing F.B.D of the vehicle and applying Newton‟s
law‟s we can solve any problem of this type.
VERTICAL CIRCLE
Consider a particle of mass 'm' tied to a string
and whirled in a vertical plane. Let its
velocity at the lowest point is v1 and its
velocity at the highest point is v2.
mv 12
T1 – mg =


mv 22
mg + T2 =


For the particle to complete a circular path,

Figure 6.65
then T2 0.

The minimum tension T2 should be equal to

zero.
mv 22
 mg + 0 =


 v2 = g

As tension is always perpendicular to the instantaneous displacement, work done by tension

is zero.
So, we can apply law of conservation of mechanical energy (LCME).
Applying LCME at A & B
K1 + U1 = K2 + U2
1 1
mv12 = mv22 + mg (2)
2 2
 v1 = v 22  4g = 5g

 Tension at lowest point

mv 12
T1 – mg =


mv 12
T1 = mg +


m  5g  
= mg +

= 6 mg
Hence we can conclude that, for the particle to just complete a vertical circle, the minimum
velocity that has to be provided at the lowest point should be 5g .

In this situation, the velocity at the highest point is g .

Also, tensions at the lowest and highest point are 6mg and zero.
Let us see different situations when the
velocity at the lowest point is other than
5g

Let the velocity at any point is 'v' and tension

is 'T'.
mv 2
T – mg cos = Figure 6.66


mv 2
T = mg cos +


Applying LCME for points A and P,

K1 + U1 = K2 + U2
1 1
mv12 = mv2 + mg(1 – cos)
2 2

v2 = v12 – 2g(1– cos)

v= v 12  2g  1  cos   …(1)

mv 2
T – mg cos =


m
T – mg cos = (v12) – 2mg(1 – cos)

mv 12
T= + mg (3 cos)….(2

Case (i) 0 < v1< 2g
 Let us take one value g within this range
If tension is zero at angle1, then
m  g 
0= – 2mg + 3 mg cos1

1
Cos1 =
3
If velocity is zero at an angle 2, then
0 = v12 – 2g (1– cos2)
0 =g– 2g + 2g cos
2

1
cos2 =
2

Clearly 2<1
i.e., the velocity of the particle becomes zero, before tension is zero.
Case (ii) v1 = 2g
If tension is zero at 1 from (2), 1 = 90°
If velocity is zero at 2,
From (1), 2 = 90°
i.e., both velocity and tension will become zero, when  = 90°.

Case (iii) 2g < v1< 5g

Let us take one value 3g within this range.
1
If tension is zero at 1 from (2), cos1 = 
3
1
If velocity is zero at 2, form (1), cos2 = 
2
Clearly 1<2

i.e., the tension becomes zero before velocity Figure 6.67

is zero and the particle leaves the circular

path and follows a parabolic path.

CONICAL PENDULUM
When a small bob connected to a string is
rotated in a horizontal plane with constant
angular speed and with the length of the
string always making a constant angle with
the vertical is called a conical pendulum.
Let the mass of the bob is m, length of the
pendulum l, and '' is the angle made by the Figure 6.68
string with the vertical
Clearly R = lsin
And Tsin provides the necessary centripetal
force.
As the bob is moving in the horizontal plane with constant speed, it is in equilibrium along
vertical.
Tsin = mR2
Tcos = mg
R 2
 tan =
g

g tan
 =
R

g tan
 =
 sin

g
=
 cos 

2 g
=
T  cos 

 cos 
T  2
g