COMPLEX NUMBERS AND QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS

INTRODUCTION
Prior to the introduction of negative numbers we were justified in saying that the equation 2x
+ 4 = 0 has no solution. But with the introduction of negative numbers this equation 2x + 4 =
0 became solvable.

Our motive for the introduction of complex numbers was our desire to make every algebraic
equation solvable. Let us consider the equation
x2 + 4 = 0.

This equation has no solution in the set of real numbers, for there cannot be a real number x
whose square is –4.

In order to remedy this situation a new kind of number were introduced and were given the
name complex numbers.

Euler was the first to introduce the symbol i (iota) for 1 with the property i2 = – 1. Thus is

a symbol used for 1 so that i2 = – 1.

Definitely iis not a real number and it was given the name imaginary number. i is called the
imaginary unit.

COMPLEX NUMBERS
● The square root of −1 is represented by the symbol i. It is read as iota.
i = 1 or i2 = −1
● Any number of the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, is known as a
complex number. A complex number is denoted by z. z = a + ib
● For the complex number z = a + ib, a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.
The real and imaginary parts of a complex number are denoted by Re z and
Im z respectively.
● For complex number z = a + ib, Re z = a and Im z = b
● A complex number is said to be purely real if its imaginary part is equal to zero, while
a complex number is said to be purely imaginary if its real part is equal to zero. For
e.g., 2 is a purely real number and 3i is a purely imaginary number.
● Two complex numbers are equal if their corresponding real and imaginary parts are
equal. Complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id are equal if a = c and b = d.
ALGEBRA OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

In this Section, we shall develop the algebra of complex numbers.

ADDITION OF TWO COMPLEX NUMBERS

● The addition of two complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id is defined as

z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i(b + d)
For example: (4 + 3i) + (−2 + 6i) = (4 − 2) + i(3 + 6) = 2 + 9i
● Several properties are exhibited by the addition of complex numbers.
● Closure law
The addition of complex numbers satisfies closure property i.e., the sum of two
complex numbers is a complex number.
If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then z1 + z2 is also a complex number.
● Commutative law
The commutative law holds for the addition of complex numbers.
If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then z1 + z2 = z2 + z1.
For example: z1 = 3 + 2i and z2 = −5 + 4i
z1 + z2 = (3 + 2i) + (−5 + 4i) = −2 + 6i
z2 + z1 = (−5 + 4i) + (3 + 2i) = −2 + 6i
∴ z1 + z2 = z2 + z1
● Associative law
● The associative law holds for the addition of complex numbers.
If z1, z2 and z3 are any three complex numbers, then (z1 + z2) + z3 = z1 + (z2 + z3)
● Additive identity
The complex number (0 + i0) is the additive identity. It is denoted by 0.
For every complex number z, z + 0 = z
● Additive inverse
The complex number {−a + i(−b)}is the additive inverse of the complex
number z = a + ib. The inverse of a complex number z is denoted by −z.
Also, z + (−z) = 0.
For example: The inverse of the complex number 7 − 3i is −7 + 3i.

DIFFERENCE OF TWO COMPLEX NUMBERS

● The difference of complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id is defined as

z1 − z2 = z1 + (−z2) = (a + ib) + {−(c + id)}
= (a + ib) + {−c − id)}
= (a − c) + i(b − d)
For example: Let z1 = −1 + 3i and z2 = 7 + 4i
z1 − z2 = (−1 + 3i) − (7 + 4i) = (−1 − 7) + i(3 − 4) = −8 – i
● Closure law
The difference of complex numbers satisfies the closure property i.e., the difference
of two complex numbers is a complex number.
If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then z1 − z2 is also a complex number.
MULTIPLICATION OF TWO COMPLEX NUMBERS

Multiplication of two complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id is defined as

z1z2 = (a + ib) × (c + id)
= a(c + id) + ib(c + id)
 i  1  i 2  1 
= ac + iad + ibc + i2bd  
= (ac − bd) + i (ad + bc)
z1z2   ac  bd   i  ad  bc 
∴

● The multiplication of complex numbers satisfies the following properties:

● Closure law
The product of two complex numbers is a complex number.
If z1 and z2 are any two complex numbers, then z1z2 is a complex number.
● Commutative law
Commutative law holds for the product of complex numbers i.e., for any two complex
numbers z1 and z2, z1z2 = z2z1

● Associative law
Associative law holds for the product of complex numbers.
For any three complex numbers z1, z2 and z3: (z1z2) z3 = z1 (z2z3)
● Distributive law
For any three complex numbers z1, z2 and z3:
z1(z2 + z3) = z1z2 + z1z3
(z1 + z2)z3 = z1z3 + z2z3
● Multiplicative identity
The complex number 1 + i0 is the multiplicative identity of the complex number. It is
denoted by 1. For any complex number z, z × 1 = z.
● Multiplicative inverse
The complex number z2 is said to be the multiplicative inverse of the complex number
z1 if z1z2 = 1 (1 is the multiplicative identity). The multiplicative inverse of a complex
number z is denoted by z−1.
1
 z  1
z
1
∴ z is the multiplicative inverse of z.
Multiplicative inverse of the complex number z = a + ib is given by
1 1 a  b 
z   i
z a2  b 2 a2  b 2

POWER OF i

● i  1
i2 = – 1
i3 = i2 × i (– 1) × i = –i
i4 = i2 × i2 = (–1) × (–1) = 1
i5 = i4 × i = 1 × i = i
i6 = i4 × i2 = 1 × – 1 = –1
And so on…
● In general, we can write
 i4k = 1; i4k+1 = i
i4k+2 = –1; i4k+3 = – i
Where k is any integer
For example: i39 = i36+3 = i4×9+3
It is of the form i 4k + 3, where k = 9
∴ i 39 = − i

DIVISION OF TWO COMPLEX NUMBERS

z1 1
 z1 
● The division of two complex numbers z1 and z2 can be defined as z2 z2 ,
1
where z 2 is the multiplicative inverse of z2.
z1
 z1 
z2 multiplicative inverse of z2
● To find the quotient of two complex numbers, find the product of the first number
with the multiplicative inverse of the second number.
z1 1i  1 
  1  i    
For example: If z1 = 1 + i and z2 = 2 − 3i, then z2 2  3i  2  3i 
We know that the multiplicative inverse of the complex number z = a + ib is given by
1 a  b 
 i
a  ib a2  b 2 a2  b 2
1 2 3 2 3
  i  i
2  3i 2   3  2   3 
2 2 2 2
13 13
z1  2 3   2 3   2 3  1 5
 1  i   i     i   i
Now, z2  13 13   13 13   13 13  13 13

THE SQUARE ROOTS OF A NEGATIVE REAL NUMBER

Note that i2 = –1 and ( – i)2 = i2 = – 1

Therefore, the square roots of – 1 are i, – i. However, by the symbol 1 , we would mean i
only.
Now, we can see that i and –i both are the solutions of the equation x2 + 1 = 0 orx2 = –1.
 3i    3  i
2 2
2
 3   1   3
Similarly
  3i     3 
2 2
i 2  3

Therefore, the square roots of –3 are 3i and  3i .

Again, the symbol 3 is meant to represent 3i only, i.e., 3 = 3i .

Generally, if a is a positive real number,  a  a 1  a i ,

IDENTITIES

The identities for complex numbers are the same as the algebraic identities for real numbers.
The identities which hold for complex numbers are as follows:
● (z1 + z2)2 = z12 + z22 + 2z1z2
● (z1 − z2)2 = z12 + z22 − 2z1z2
● z12 − z22 = (z1 + z2)(z1 − z2)
● (z1 + z2)3 = z13 + z23 + 3z12z2 + 3z1z22
● (z1 − z2)3 = z13 − z23 − 3z12z2 + 3z1z22

THE MODULUS AND THE CONJUGATE OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Modulus of a Complex Number
● The modulus of a complex number z = a + ib is denoted by z and defined as
z  a2  b 2 .
o For example: The modulus of the complex number z  1  3i is
1     3   1  3  4  2
2 2
z 
● The following results hold true for two complex numbers z1 and z2.
o z1 z 2  z 1 z 2
z1 z1

o z2 z 2 provided z2  0
Conjugate of a Complex Number
● The conjugate of a complex number z = a + ib is denoted by z and defined as z  a  ib .
o For example: The conjugate of the complex number 2   5 is z  2  5  2  i 5
● The following results hold true for two complex numbers z1 and z2.
o z1 z 2  z1 z 2

o z1  z 2  z 1  z 2

o z1  z 2  z 1  z 2
 z1  z1
 
o  z2  z2 provided z2 ≠ 0
● The modulus of a complex number and the modulus of its conjugate are equal.
zz

ARGAND PLANE AND POLAR REPRESENTATION

We already know that corresponding to each ordered pair of real numbers (x, y), we get a
unique point in the XY-plane and vice-versa with reference to a set of mutually perpendicular
lines known as the x-axis and the y-axis. The complex number x +iy which corresponds to
the ordered pair (x, y) can be represented geometrically as the unique point P(x, y) in the XY-
plane and vice-versa.
Some complex numbers such as 2 + 4i, – 2 + 3i, 0 + 1i, 2 + 0i, Y
– 5 –2i and 1 – 2i which correspond to the ordered pairs (2, 4), B(–2,3) A(2, 4)
(–2, 3),
C(0, 1)
(0, 1), (2, 0), (–5, –2), and (1, –2), respectively, have been X X
O D(2, 0)
represented geometrically by the points A, B, C, D, E, and F,
E(–5,–2) F(1,–2)
respectively in the Figure 5.1.
The plane having a complex number assigned to each of its Y
point is called the complex plane or the Argand plane.
Figure 5.1
Obviously, in the Argand plane, the modulus of the complex Y
P(x, y)
number x + iy = x  y is the distance between the point P(x, x 2  y2
2 2

y) and the origin O (0, 0) (Figure 5.2). The points on the x-axis
X X
corresponds to the complex numbers of the form a + i 0 and the O
(0, 0)
points on the y-axis corresponds to the complex numbers of the
form
Y
0 + i b. The x-axis and y-axis in the Argand plane are called,
respectively, the real axis and the imaginary axis. Figure 5.2

The representation of a complex number z = x + iy and its Y

P(x, y)
conjugate z = x – iy in the Argand plane are, respectively, the
points P (x, y) and Q (x, – y).
X X
Geometrically, the point (x, – y) is the mirror image of the O

point
(x, y) on the real axis (Figure 5.3). P(x,–y)
Y

Figure 5.3

POLAR REPRESENTATION OF A COMPLEXNUMBER

● A complex number z = a + ib can be written in the polar form as z = r (cosθ + i sinθ).

Here, r is the modulus of the complex number and is given by r  a  b
2 2
o
b
  tan 1
o θ is the argument of the complex number and is given by a
● Geometrically, r represents the distance of the point that Y
P(z)
represents the complex number from the origin,
and θ represents the angle formed by the line joining the
point and the origin with the positive x-axis. 
X X
O

Y
Figure 5.4

● The polar coordinates of a complex number z are (r, θ). Y

P(r, )
The origin is considered as the pole and the positive x-
axis is considered as the initial line.
 X
X
Pole O Initial line

Y
Figure 5.5

● The value of θ lying in the interval −π < θ ≤ π is called the principal argument of the
complex number z. In order to write the polar form of a complex number, we always
find the principal argument.
● If θ lies in quadrants I or II, then the argument is found in the anticlockwise direction.
If θ lies in quadrants III or IV, then the argument is found in the clockwise direction.
Y Y


X X X X
O O


Y Y
Figure 5.6

Problems based on polar form of a complex number.

1. Polar or trigonometrical form of a complex number z is r (cos θ + isin θ), where r=|z| and
θ = arg z
θ is taken in radian and θ is usually taken between 0 and 2π (0 being included).
2. If a complex number z = r (cos θ + isin θ) where r ≥ 0, then r = |z| and θ arg z.
3. If z1 = r1 (cos θ1 + isin θ1) and z2 = r2 (cos θ2 + i sin θ2), then
(i) z1z2 = r1r2 [cos (θ1 + θ2) + i sin(θ1 + θ2)] [by actual multiplication]
 z1 r1  cos 1  i sin 1  r1  cos 1  i sin 1  cos 2  i sin 2 
 
(ii) z2 r2  cos 2  i sin 2  r2  cos 2  i sin 2  cos 2  i sin 2 

r1 cos  1  2   i sin  1  2 

r2 cos 2 2  i sin2 2
r1

r2 [cos(θ1 – θ2) + i sin(θ1 – θ2)]

Problems based on Argand plane.

1. Each complex number x + iy can be represented by a point P (x, y) in the xy-plane. The
xy – plane is called the Argand plane .The x-axis is called real axis and y-axis the
imaginary axis.
1. (i) Geometrically x + iy can be called the point P (x, y). Y

(ii) Geometrical meaning of |z| is the distance between origin P(x, y)

Z = x + iy
and point representing z.
(iii) Geometrical meaning of arg z is the angle which the line

joining the origin and the point representing z makes with O X
the positive direction of x-axis.

(iv) Each complex number z can be represented by a vector OP , where P is the point
representing the complex number z.

z = x + iy = OP ∴ |z| = OP
andarg z = ∠POX = θ
   Y
3. (i) z1 – z2 = OP  OQ  QP
P(z1)

(ii) | z1 – z2| = | QP | =
QP = Distance between points
Q(z2)
representing z1 and z2.
 
(iii) arg (z1 – z2) = Angle which QP makes with the O X
positive direction of x-axis = α.

AP m mz 2  nz 1
 z
4. If PB n , then mn
mz 2  nz 1
z
If P divides AB externally in the ratio m : n, then m n
z1  z 2
z
Mid-point of AB is 2
5. (i) If complex numbers representing the points are not given, make suitable choice of
origin and the axes and find the complex numbers representing the various points
as required in the question.
(ii) If needed, results of coordinate geometry may be used.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
● Complex numbers are used for finding the roots of a quadratic equation whose
discriminant is negative.
● The roots of a quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
b  b 2  4ac
x
2a , where b2 − 4ac is the discriminant of the quadratic equation
● If the discriminant i.e., the value under the square root is negative, then the roots of the
quadratic equation will be complex numbers.
o For example: For the equation 3x2 + 7x + 6 = 0, a = 3, b = 7 and c = 6
∴ Discriminant = b2 − 4ac = (7)2 − 4(3)(6) = 49 − 72 = −23
Thus, the roots of the quadratic equation are complex numbers.

QUADRATIC EQUATION WITH REAL COEFFICIENTS

If a, b, c are real numbers, and a ≠ 0, then ax2 + bx + c = 0 is called a quadratic equation with
real coefficients.

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

We know that a linear equation has only one root and a quadratic equation has two and only
two roots. Now the equation arises, how many roots a polynomial equation of nth degree will
have? The answer to this question is a consequence of a theorem known as fundamental
theorem of algebra.

Statement: Every polynomial equation of degree n ≥ 1 with complex coefficients has at least
one root which is a complex number (real or imaginary). From fundamental theorem of
algebra, it follows that “A polynomial equation of degree n has n roots.”
This result is very important and we will assume it without proof.