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IJBS M M a y 2023, 14(5):683- 690 Print ISSN 0976-3988 Online ISSN 0976-4038 Article AR3449
Res ea rch Arti cl e Natural Resource Management
DOI: HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.23910/1.2023.3449

Serum Biochemical Profile of Captive Asian Elephants

(Elephas maximus) in Tamil Nadu, India
M. Veeraselvam1, P. Selvaraj2 , S. Senthil Kumar1, A. Senthil Kumar2, T. M. A. Senthilkumar3,
R. Jyothi Priya1, K. Jayalakshmi1 and S. Yogeshpriya1
1
Dept. of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary College and Research Institute, TANUVAS, Orathanadu, Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu
(614 625), India
2
Dept. of Wildlife Science, Madras Veterinary College, TANUVAS, Vepery, Chennai, Tamil Nadu (600 007), India
3
Zoonosis Research Laboratory, TANUVAS, Madhavaram Milk Colony, Chennai, Tamil Nadu (600 051), India

Open Access
Corresponding drdvmselvaraj3@gmail.com
0000-0001-9488-8685

ABSTRACT

T he experiment was carried out in 46 apparently health captive elephants maintained in different parts of Tamil Nadu, India
during the period from August 2020 to April 2021 to assess and evolve the baseline reference values for serum biochemical
parameters in captive Asian elephants raised in the Tamil Nadu state of India.As part of the periodical health assessment, blood
samples were collected from auricular vein for 46 apparently healthy captive Asian elephants maintained in Tamil Nadu, India.
Biochemical analyses were performed using auto biochemical analyzer using commercial kits as per the recommendations
of the manufacturer. The mean±SE, lower and upper value, 95% and 99% of confidence interval of the serum biochemistry
parameters comprised of glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin, cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, total
bilirubin, direct bilirubin, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium, serum enzymes AST, ALT, ALP, CK, GGT and LDH were
evaluated. The observed values were found to be within the normal ranges reported for the captive elephants and there were
no significant differences observed between the age groups. These serum biochemical values would serve as baseline reference
to evaluate the health and clinical conditions of captive elephant populations, as well as for planning health care measures in
elephants of this region and adjoining areas.

KEY WORDS: Asian elephant, lactate dehydrogenase, serum biochemical parameters

Citation (VANCOUVER): Veeraselvam et al., Serum Biochemical Profile of Captive Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus) in Tamil Nadu, India.
International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management, 2023; 14(5), 683-690. HTTPS://DOI.ORG/10.23910/1.2023.3449.
Copyright: © 2023 Veeraselvam et al. This is an open access article that permits unrestricted use, distribution and reproduction in any
medium after the author(s) and source are credited.
Data Availability Statement: Legal restrictions are imposed on the public sharing of raw data. However, authors have full right to transfer
or share the data in raw form upon request subject to either meeting the conditions of the original consents and the original research
study. Further, access of data needs to meet whether the user complies with the ethical and legal obligations as data controllers to allow
for secondary use of the data outside of the original study.
Conflict of interests: The authors have declared that no conflict of interest exists.

RECEIVED on 17th February 2023 RECEIVED in revised form on 15th April 2023 ACCEPTED in final form on 02nd May 2023 PUBLISHED on 16th May 2023

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Veeraselvam et al., 2023

1. IN TR OD U C T ION region specific blood values represents an important

prerequisite for the application of haematological and
C aptive Asian elephants have been very closely associated
and deeply entwined with the religion, myths and
cultural heritage for centuries (Kumar et al., 2019).
biochemical analyses in the evaluation of animal welfare
in health and disease (Santos et al., 2020; Steyrer et al.,
2021). The health profile of captive elephants depends
Elephants have adapted to a wide variety of environments
on various factors including body mass index, husbandry
in captive conditions. The health status of captive elephants
management, geographic location and diseases (Mikota,
depends on various factors including body mass index,
1994, Sadler, 2001). Factors such as gender, age, season
husbandry management, nutrition and infectious and non-
and animal nutrition may also affect haematological and
infectious diseases (Mikota et al., 1994, Schmitt, 1998,
serum biochemical parameters (Morfeld and Brown, 2017;
Sadler, 2001). Changes in environmental, social, physical,
Chusyd et al., 2021). Furthermore, most of the blood
physiological and psychological factors in captive conditions
parameter data for Asian elephants were available from
can modify the homeostasis of individual elephants and lead
different geographical locations and hence may not be
to a range of health issues that could contribute to significant
relevant across all elephant population, due to influencing
morbidity and mortality in elephants (Fowler and Mikota,
factors such as feeding management, geographic, climate
2006). Studies on captive elephant health and diseases are
and management conditions which affects the values
far less and hence evolving remedial measures to promote
(Janyamethakul et al., 2017). Serum chemistry values may
health and welfare remains challenging one. Understanding
also be altered by physiological factors such body condition,
the health-related parameters and evidence of diseases in
restraining methods, drugs used, nutrition and infectious
captive-reared elephants will be significantly helpful towards
and non-infectious diseases etc. (Watson et al., 1990;
enriching the management as well as their healthcare
(Veasey, 2006; Veeraselvam et al., 2021). The diagnostic Norkaew et al., 2018; Thapa et al., 2021).Stress due to
and prognostic value of health parameters varies among daily duty and activity, clinical condition, temperature, sex
domestic species and not all have been adequately studied can make significant differences in blood values (Shawaf
in elephants (Fowler and Mikota, 2006, Janyamethakul et et al., 2018; Steyrer et al., 2021). Although normal serum
al., 2017). This study addresses significant knowledge gaps biochemical reference values exist for Asiatic elephants, the
regarding health and disease management of elephants in overall range tends to be very broad (Dhairykar et al., 2022).
captive situation. Baseline samples obtained on individual captive elephants
while healthy may provide the most accurate reference
The health and disease related information in captive values when illness is suspected (Boonprasert et al., 2021).
elephants is still in a state of infancy in India. Elephants are
prone to a variety of infectious and non-infectious diseases, Hence, this study was undertaken to establish the base-line
but recognizing that they are even sick may be difficult and serum biochemical profile for the captive elephants of Tamil
challenging (Miller et al., 2015; Miller and Fowler, 2015). Nadu state of India. This base-line serum biochemical data
Elephants often do not manifest clinical signs of illness will be significantly useful not only for diagnosing and
until disease is well advanced. Such masking of clinical treating, but also for monitoring purposes by veterinarians,
signs makes identifying and treating diseases in elephants is wildlife stake holders and policy makers and to formulate
very challenging for veterinarians and zoo managers (Thapa effective management and disease prevention measures.
et al., 2021). Clinical pathological examination including 2 . MA TE R I A LS A N D ME TH O DS
haematology, serum biochemistry and electrolyte values are
most often the valuable diagnostic tools for elephants and are
used to help differentiate diseases from healthy individuals,
especially when clinical signs were nonspecific and other
T he study was carried out in 46 apparently health captive
elephants maintained in different parts of Tamil Nadu
during the period from August 2020 to April 2021.
diagnostic techniques may not be available for immediate The study population consisted of 46 female captive
applications (Salakij et al., 2005; Fowler and Mikota, 2006). elephants maintained in different parts of Tamil Nadu.
Blood values especially haematology and serum biochemical Out of this, 24 captive Asian elephants were assessed
values have been used in health assessments for a range of during a health and welfare campaign for captive elephants.
wild animals and so can be an essential part of investigating Remaining 22 captive elephants were privately maintained
the responses to treatment, prognosis and management elephants and were assessed during their periodical health
strategies (Girling et al., 2015; Edwards et al., 2020). and veterinary examinations. The age of elephants in
Haematology and Biochemical values may differ according this study ranged from 11 years to 62 years and all the
to the environmental circumstances of the area where elephants were apparently healthy during the study period.
the animal lives (Elarabany, 2018). Knowledge about During sampling, the animals were positioned into lateral

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International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management 2023, 14(5):683-690

recumbency with the help of their care takers and blood 3 . R E S U LT S A N D DI S C U S S I O N

was collected from auricular vein Into plain vacutainer
tubes and they were allowed to clot for 30 minutes at room
temperature. Serum was separated by centrifugation at 2000
T he mean±SE, lower and upper value, 95% and 99%
of confidence interval of the serum biochemistry
parameters are presented in Table 1. The parameters
rpm for 10 min and the serum was stored at -20°C until
comprised of glucose, total protein, albumin, globulin,
further processing.
cholesterol, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, total
Serum biochemical examinations including organ function bilirubin, direct bilirubin, calcium, phosphorus, and
profiles such as blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine, magnesium, serum enzymes AST, ALT, ALP, CK, GGT
total bilirubin, direct bilirubin, blood metabolic profile and LDH were evaluated. The observed values were found
such as total protein, albumin, globulin, blood glucose, to be within the normal ranges reported for the captive
serum cholesterol, calcium and phosphorus and serum elephants and there were no significant differences observed
enzyme profile such as alanine aminotransferase (ALT), between the age groups (Table 2 and 3).
aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase
3.1. Serum glucose
(ALP), creatine kinase (CK), gamma-glutamyl transferase
(GGT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) were estimated In the present study the overall mean value of serum
in this study. Biochemical analyses were performed using glucose was 94.09±5.04 mg dl-1 with the range from 27 mg
auto biochemical analyzer (Selectra Pro XS Automatic dl-1 to 232 mg dl-1. This mean value of glucose was within
Biochemistry Analyser, ELITECH, Netherlands) using the reference values reported for elephants by Fowler and
commercial kits as per the recommendations of the Mikota (2006) who observed of a range of 60-116 mg dl-1.
manufacturer. Basic statistics including mean, median, and The wide range of serum glucose levels observed could be
standard deviation were determined for each variable. For due to the variations in feeding pattern, nutrition and age
normally distributed variables, a 95% and 99%confidence advancement of the elephants (Morfeld and Brown, 2017).
interval for means was calculated. The statistical analysis Higher range values were considered to be associated with
of data was carried out using IBM® SPSS® ver.23.0 for stress and due to the pain during restraining and blood
windows. collection in elephants (Fowler and Mikota, 2006). In this

Table 1: The Mean±SE, lower and upper value and confidence intervals (95% and 99%) for serum biochemistry values
Parameters Mean±SE Max Min 95% confidence interval 99% confidence interval
Glucose (mg dl-1) 94.09±5.04 232 27 84.226–21.622 81.129–107.031
Totalprotein (g dl ) -1
8.41±0.17 9.87 4.70 8.076–8.724 7.975–8.825
Albumin (g dl ) -1
2.44±0.11 4.89 1.6 2.220–2.660 2.151–2.729
Globulin (g dl ) -1
5.99±0.21 8 2.17 5.737–6.563 5.607–6.693
BUN (mg dl ) -1
19.18±1.28 44 4.1 16.738–21.622 15.971–22.389
Creatinine (mg dl ) -1
1.19±0.12 4.46 0.38 0.959–1.421 0.886–1.494
Cholesterol (mg dl ) -1
48.63±2.82 146 29 43.096–54.164 41.357–55.903
ALT (U l )-1
7.09±0.50 16 3 6.092–8.068 5.781–8.379
AST (U l ) -1
25.11±1.80 83 9 21.569–28.631 20.459–29.741
ALP (U l ) -1
281.02±12.35 428 88 256.806–305.234 249.198–312.842
CK (U l )-1
182.69±12.92 460 64.4 161.248–211.912 153.288–219.872
GGT (U l ) -1
19.78±0.97 41 10 17.881–21.679 17.285–22.275
LDH (U l-1) 352.41±12.03 600 184 328.832–375.988 321.423–383.397
Totalbilirubin (mg dl-1) 0.20±0.01 0.36 0.09 0.183–0.217 0.177–0.223
Directbilirubin (mg dl-1) 0.26±0.03 1.58 0.12 0.189–0.311 0.170–0.330
Calcium (mg dl ) -1
11.77±0.25 16.75 7.8 11.288–12.240 11.130–12.390
Phosphorus (mg dl ) -1
5.31±0.16 7.99 3.25 4.985–5.615 4.886–5.714
Magnesium (mg dl ) -1
1.97±0.09 2.43 1.27 1.813–1.987 1.726–2.014
(Not significant - p>0.05)

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Table 2: Comparison of serum biochemistry parameters with age group of elephants

Groups Glucose Total Albumin Globulin BUN Creatinine Cholesterol Total Direct
(mg dl-1) protein (m dl-1) (m dl-1) (mg dl-1) (mg dl-1) (mg dl-1) bilirubin bilirubin
(mg dl-1) (mg dl-1) (mg dl-1)
10–25 years 96.11± 8.82± 2.32± 6.49± 14.90± 1.07± 46.00± 0.22± 0.23±
(n=9) 15.86 0.57 0.69 0.84 8.02 0.21 9.39 0.07 0.08
26–40 years 87.85± 8.39± 2.43± 6.01± 19.78± 1.11± 51.10± 0.20± 0.29±
(n=20) 33.20 1.26 0.90 1.52 7.98 0.53 23.60 0.05 0.31
>40 years 100.35± 8.20± 2.51± 5.71± 20.72± 1.35± 47.11± 0.19± 0.22±
(n=17) 41.90 1.15 0.64 1.54 8.93 1.17 17.51 0.05 0.07
f-Value 0.062 0.896 0.173 0.886 1.523 0.530 0.294 0.479 0.596
p Value 0.540 0.415 0.841 0.419 0.229 0.591 0.746 0.622 0.555
(Not significant - p>0.05)

Table 3: Comparison of serum biochemistry parameters with age group of elephants

Groups ALT AST ALP CK GGT LDH Calcium Phosphorus Magnesium
(Ul-1) (Ul-1) (Ul-1) (Ul-1) (Ul-1) (Ul-1) (mg dl-1) (mg dl-1) (mg dl-1)
10–25 years 6.22± 31.44± 290.00± 226.85± 20.33± 313.44± 11.83± 5.51± 1.94±
(n=9) 1.71 0.96 93.64 93.37 8.27 88.16 1.30 0.86 0.29
26–40 years 7.20± 23.40± 256.60± 176.50± 20.45± 356.35± 11.69± 5.34± 1.93±
(n=20) 3.67 0.59 78.96 102.77 5.98 60.48 1.36 1.11 0.15
>40 years 7.41± 23.76± 305.21± 166.57± 18.70± 368.41± 11.81± 5.16± 1.95±
(n=17) 3.85 9.18 80.95 57.33 6.53 96.68 2.16 1.18 0.41
f-Value 0.363 1.544 1.642 1.513 0.352 1.401 0.032 0.319 0.004
p Value 0.697 0.225 0.205 0.231 0.705 0.257 0.967 0.728 0.995
(Not significant - p>0.05)

study the estimated values were higher when compared observed in this study.
to the values (52–67 mg dl-1) reported by Nirmalan and Santos et al. (2020) reported that the food quality and
Nair (1969). A value of 119–131 mg dl-1 from elephants in quantity influenced the elephant’s protein intake. Further, it
Nepal was reported. Those variations might be occurring was observed that during the dry season, elephants ingested
due to the differences in management and feeding pattern low levels of protein and in wet seasons they consumed
in different regions of the elephant range countries. The higher protein levels. The estimated values of total protein
normal value of the glucose observed in this study indicated and globulin were observed to be higher than the values of
the wellbeing of the elephants in this study. other domestic animals like cattle (Alberghina et al., 2011)
3.2. Serum total protein and albumin and horse (Riondet al., 2009). Fowler and Mikota (2006)
opined that elephant had a higher total protein and globulin
Protein and albumin are essentially monitored in health
values and a lower albumin level than most of the other
evaluations. In this study, elephants had a mean value of
mammals, they further stated that the viscosity of elephant
8.41±0.17 g dl-1 of total protein with a range from 4.70 g
blood is almost twice that of other domestic species and
dl-1 to 9.87 g dl-1, they had a mean value of 2.44±0.11 mg
this could be a probable reason for high serum protein and
dl-1 of albumin with a range from 1.6 to 4.89 mg dl-1. They
increase in globulin levels. The normal value of the protein
had a median value of 5.99±0.21 g dl-1 globulin with a range
observed in the study again indicated the wellness of these
from 2.17 to 8.0 mg dl-1. No significant differences could
elephants.
be observed between the age groups. The mean value of
total protein described by Silva and Kuruwita (1993) in free 3.3. Blood urea nitrogen and creatinine
ranging Asian elephants was 8.4±1.2 g dl-1, Janyamethakul BUN and creatinine are part of health evaluations in various
et al. (2017) observed in captive Asian elephants a value species. The overall mean value of BUN in this study was
of 6.5 to 8.9 g dl-1. These values were similar to the values 19.18±1.28 mg dl-1 and that of creatinine was 1.19±0.12

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International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management 2023, 14(5):683-690

mg dl-1. The BUN and creatinine levels were similar to The mean value of ALT level from the investigated
the values (BUN- 5 to 20 mg dl-1, Creatinine -1.0 to 2.0 elephants of this study was 7.09±0.50 U l-1, which was
mg dl-1) reported by Fowler and Mikota (2006), however, higher than the ALT level of 1.5–3.0 U l-1 reported by
these BUN values of this study were higher than the values Fowler and Mikota (2006). ALT is generally considered
(10±3.5 mg dl-1) reported by Silva and Kuruwita (1993). The not much a useful test for elephants in the diagnosis, since
differences may also be related to the amount of protein in the serum ALT levels were observed to be low in elephants
the diet and their metabolism in elephants which results in (Fowler and Mikota, 2006). This study findings were also
urea excretion (Santos et al., 2020). In this study, the range in agreement with Kaneko (1989) and Sreekumar and
of BUN and creatinine values were 4.1 to 44 mg dl-1 and Nirmalan (1992) who stated that livers of mature horses,
0.38 to 4.46 mg dl-1 respectively. Though the upper range cattle, sheep and goats did not contain appreciable levels
values observed were seems to be higher, the elephants were of ALT and only small elevations occurred from hepatic
apparently healthy and no appreciable signs of any disease changes in these species.
were evident. Wide range of BUN and creatinine values Mean value for serum ALP level in this study was
were found to be influenced by age of animals and season of 281.02±12.35 U l-1 and these values were higher than the
sample collection. Senthilkumar et al. (1999) observed that mean values (136.2±24.2 U l-1) reported by Fowler and
young elephants had a lower value of urea and creatinine Mikota (2006) and the mean values (68±23 U l-1) reported
while it was higher in adults. This is might be due to the by Steyrer (2021) in African elephants. Brown and White
increased protein intake with the increased age of animals.
(1976) reported a serum ALP level of 131.5 U l-1 in African
The protein metabolism was found to be in higher level
elephants, which was lower than mean value observed from
in adult animals than young ones (Rahman et al., 2018).
this study. The present study also revealed that there were
Such wide ranges of BUN and creatinine levels may also
no significant differences between the age groups. However,
reflect the impact of factors such as dehydration, varied
Fowler and Mikota (2006) reported that the ALP levels
protein intake, protein catabolism and renal excretions. In
were typically higher in young growing mammals, including
this study, there were no significant differences could be
elephants. Mean value for serum lactate dehydrogenase
observed between the age groups of elephants. Santos et
(LDH) observed in the present study was 352.41±12.03 U
al. (2020) observed of seasonal changes in BUN levels in
l-1, which was similar to the values (366±12.0 U l-1) reported
Asian elephants, which was found to be decreased (29.9%)
by Sreekumar and Nirmalan (1992).
in the hot season, when compared with that in the cold
season, further they stated that creatinine was not affected Gamma-glutamyl transferase is a biliary enzyme and is
by seasons. The values obtained in this study indicated that monitored for assessing the hepato biliary health of animals.
the elephants were in their healthy status and terrified the The mean value of serum GGT level was 9.78±0.97 U l-1
overall wellness of those captive elephants. in this study and it was within the range values reported by
Fowler and Mikota (2006), a higher mean value (11±2.00 U
3.4. Liver enzymes
l-1) was reported by Steyrer et al. (2021) in African elephants.
Liver enzyme monitoring helps to assess the health of the GGT being a liver specific indicator of cholestasis, it is
liver as well as the overall health of the animal. AST occurs commonly used in large mammals. The variation in GGT
in higher levels in liver, cardiac and skeletal muscles and is levels between the present study and previous studies may
a more reliable indicator for liver diseases. In the present be attributed to the variations in age of animals, their
study, the mean value for serum AST was 25.11±1.80 U l-1, physiological conditions etc. Niemuller et al. (1990) reported
which is similar to the value reported by Fowler and Mikota an increased level of GGT in musth Asian elephant bulls.
(2006), but it was higher than the mean value (10.2±3.8 U However, in the present study no major signs suggestive of
l-1) reported by Sreekumar and Nirmalan (1992) in Indian hepato-biliary involvement was evident and all the elephants
elephants. Brown and White (1976) reported the AST level were apparently healthy.
in African elephants, which had an average serum value of
19.7 U l-1. Steyrer et al. (2021) reported a mean value of 3.5. Total bilirubin and direct bilirubin
AST as 21±6 U l-1 in African elephants. These variations Liver function is monitored with total and direct bilirubin
in serum AST levels between the elephant species could in all the animals. The mean values of total bilirubin and
possibly be related to their feeding behaviour, drinking direct bilirubin in this study were 0.20±0.01 mg dl-1 and
habit and metabolic changes between species of elephants. 0.26±0.03 mgdL-1 respectively. These observed values were
The present study revealed that there was no significant lower than the findings of Silva and Kuruwita (1993) who
difference among age groups. This was in agreement with reported a total bilirubin value of between 0.23 to 0.94 mg
Fowler and Mikota (2006) who also observed that AST was dl-1. This variation might be due to the changes in feed and
not affected by age and gender. feed quality across various geographical locations. Elevated

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level of total bilirubin (4.94 mg dl-1) was observed in a The values estimated in this study may be used as regional
30-year-old Asian female elephant with colic resulting from reference range for assessing the health status of captive
overfeeding (Fowler and Mikota, 2006). Cholesterol value Asian elephants in Tamil Nadu. However, further studies
observed in this study was 48.63±2.82 mg dl-1 and it was in to evaluate the variations associated with the age, gender
agreement with the values reported by Fowler and Mikota and season on serum biochemical parameters, would be
(2006), however, the mean values described by Silva and of additional help in the health management of captive
Dangolla (2002) were higher than the values observed in elephants.
this study. The reasons for variations in cholesterol level
4 . C O N C LU S I O N
could be due to the differences in feeding regimen and stable

T
feed availability under captive conditions. The observations he regional reference values for the serum biochemical
of normal value indicated the overall good health status of parameters of 46 captive elephants maintained in Tamil
these captive elephants. Nadu were presented. With no previous large population
3.6. Muscle enzymes studies were available in Tamil Nadu, the reference range
will help not only in the health monitoring, but also in
Muscle enzymes are essential in monitoring the musculo-
diagnostic and therapeutic planning in the captive elephants.
skeletal heath of animals. A mean serum value of
These valuescan be used by the veterinarians for proper
182.69±12.92 U l-1 was observed for serum Creatine kinase
therapeutic management, provided that the feeding pattern,
(CK) in the studied elephants. It was higher than the values
geographic location, immobilization techniques are taken
(51.2 ±7.4 U l-1) reported in Indian elephants by Sreekumar
into consideration when interpreting results.
and Nirmalan (1992). Steyrer et al. (2021) reported a
mean value of CK of 203 U l-1 in African elephants which 5 . A C K N O WLE DG E ME N T
was little lower than the value observed in this study. The
variations in enzyme levels observed between the present
study and previous studies might possibly due to variations T he authors thank the Dean, Faculty of Basic Sciences
and the Dean, Veterinary College and Research
Institute, Orathanadu, the Professor and Head, Centralized
in age of the animals and their physiological conditions
during sampling. While LDH is present in all tissues, Clinical Laboratory, Madras Veterinary College for their
its activity is highest in muscle and liver, CK is skeletal support and assistance. Authors also thank the various
and cardiac muscle specific. CK elevations occur within a institutions and individuals who maintained these captive
few hours of muscle damage, returning to normal within elephants and also the handlers of these elephants.
few hours following cessation of further damage. During 6. REFERENCES
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