CHAPTER 6 patients.

However, only the normal

individuals in this study showed
CONSCIOUSNESS
States of Consciousness activity in the frontal areas of the
To be conscious means to be cortex, implying that these brain
aware. Consciousness consists of your regions must be functional in order for
awareness of external events in the someone to have a conscious
environment around you, as well as experience of pain (Laureys et al.,
your awareness of your mental 2002).
processes, including thoughts, Altered States of Consciousness
memories, and feelings about your
experiences and yourself (Morin, Many other states of conscious
2006; Robinson, 2008). Essentially, your also differ from normal awareness,
consciousness is your awareness of including states of consciousness
yourself and the world around you. related to fatigue, delirium, hypnosis,
This awareness is subjective and unique drugs, and euphoria (Chalmers, 2010).
to you. If you can describe something Everyone experiences at least some
you are experiencing in words, then it is altered states, such as sleep, dreaming,
part of your consciousness. and daydreaming.

Disorders of Consciousness In everyday life, changes in

consciousness may even accompany
We spend most of our lives in waking long-distance running, listening to
consciousness, a state of clear, music, making love, or other
organized alertness. In waking circumstances. How are altered states
consciousness, we perceive times, distinguished from normal awareness?
places, and events as real and can
respond to external stimuli. But many During an altered state of
other states of consciousness are consciousness (ASC), changes occur
possible. For example, brain injury can in the quality and pattern of mental
result in anything from a short-lived activity. Typically, distinct shifts happen
disorientation to a disorder of in our perceptions, emotions, memories,
consciousness—a long-term lack of time sense, thoughts, feelings of self-
consciousness and responsiveness control, and suggestibility (Hohwy &
Fox, 2012). Definitions aside, most
In one study, normal individuals people know when they have
and patients in a persistent experienced an ASC. In fact, heightened
vegetative state—a longer-term self-awareness is an important feature
waking state without any signs of of many ASCs What are some of the
awareness—were administered a other causes of ASCs? One dramatic
mildly painful stimulus. Normal example is the regular consumption of a
individuals consciously reported feeling mind-altering potion called
pain, while vegetative patients did ayahuasca.
not, as expected. Positron emission
tomography (PET) scans revealed “Dreamtime,” the ritual use of
brain activity in the midbrain, thalamus, ayahuasca is meant to cleanse the
and somatosensory cortex of both mind and body. When they are
normal individuals and vegetative especially intense, such experiences
can bring altered awareness and suggested actions as if they were
personal revelation (de Rios & Grob, involuntary. Hypnotized persons feel like
2005). their actions and experiences are
automatic—they seem to happen
In addition to the cultural
without effort. Contrary to popular
meanings of altered states, we could
misconceptions, hypnotized people
add sensory overload (a rave, Mardi
generally remain in control of their
Gras crowd, or mosh pit), monotonous
behavior and are aware of what is going
stimulation (such as “highway
on. For instance, most people will not
hypnotism” on long drives), unusual
act out hypnotic suggestions that they
physical conditions (high fever,
consider immoral or repulsive, such as
hyperventilation, dehydration, sleep
disrobing in public or harming someone
loss, near-death experiences), restricted
(
sensory input (extended periods of
isolation), and many other possibilities.

Hypnosis and Meditation Can everyone be hypnotized?

About 75 percent of people can be
Hypnosis
hypnotized, but only 40 percent will be
The term hypnosis comes from good hypnotic participants. People who
Hypnos, the Greek god of sleep, are imaginative and prone to
although the similarity between fantasy are often highly responsive
hypnosis and sleep is superficial. to hypnosis (Hoeft et al., 2012). People
Hypnosis is a condition of focused who are readily hypnotized are also
attention and increased easily absorbed while reading books or
suggestibility that occurs in the listening to music, becoming unaware
context of a special hypnotist–subject of what is happening around them, and
relationship. People under hypnosis they often spend an unusual amount of
are in a trancelike state of heightened time daydreaming. But people who lack
susceptibility to the suggestions of these traits also may be hypnotized.
others. These people, then, show a high ability
to concentrate and to become
How is hypnosis done? Could I be
completely absorbed in what they are
hypnotized against my will? Hypnotists
doing (Kirsch & Braffman, 2001; Rubichi
use many different methods. Still, all
et al., 2005; Benham et al., 2006). If
techniques encourage a person to (1)
you are willing to be hypnotized,
focus attention on what is being said,
chances are good that you could be.
(2) relax and feel tired, (3) “let go” and
accept suggestions easily, and (4) use a What can (and cannot) be achieved
vivid imagination (Barabasz & Watkins, with hypnosis? Hypnosis has been used
2005). Basically, you must cooperate to successfully to solve practical human
become hypnotized. What does it feel problems. In fact, psychologists working
like to be hypnotized? Personal in many different areas have found
experiences vary widely. You might hypnosis to be a reliable, effective tool.
have mild feelings of floating, sinking, It has been applied to a number of
anesthesia, or separation from your areas, including the following:
body. A key element in hypnosis is the
Controlling pain. Patients suffering
basic suggestion effect—a tendency
from chronic pain may be given the
of hypnotized persons to carry out
suggestion, while hypnotized, that their sensations without reacting to
pain is gone or reduced. They also may them. Ultimately, the goal is to achieve
be taught to hypnotize themselves to a total, nonjudgmental awareness of the
relieve pain or gain a sense of control world (Hölzel et al., 2011). An example
over their symptoms. Hypnosis has is becoming fully consciousness while
proved to be particularly useful during walking in the wilderness with a quiet
childbirth and dental procedures (Mehl- and receptive mind.
Madrona, 2004; Hammond, 2007).
In contrast, concentrative
Reducing smoking. Although it hasn’t meditation techniques such as
been successful in stopping drug and transcendental meditation involve
alcohol abuse, hypnosis sometimes attending to a single focal point,
helps people stop smoking through such as an object, a thought, or
hypnotic suggestions that the taste and your own breathing. The basic idea is
smell of cigarettes are unpleasant to sit still and quietly focus on some
(Elkins et al., 2006; Fuller, 2006). external object or on a repetitive
internal stimulus, such as your own
Treating psychological disorders.
breathing or humming. Alternatively,
Hypnosis sometimes is used during
you can silently repeat a mantra (a
treatment for psychological disorders.
word used as the focus of attention
For example, it may be employed to
in concentrative meditation).
heighten relaxation, reduce anxiety,
Typical mantras are smooth,
increase expectations of success, or
flowing sounds that are easily
modify self-defeating thoughts (Zarren
repeated. A widely used mantra is the
& Eimer, 2002; Iglesias, 2005; Golden,
word om. A mantra also could be any
2006).
pleasant word or a phrase from a
Assisting in law enforcement. familiar song,
Witnesses and victims are sometimes
poem, or prayer. If other thoughts arise
better able to recall the details of a
as you repeat a mantra, just return
crime when hypnotized.
attention to it as often as necessary to
Improving athletic performance. maintain meditation.
Athletes sometimes turn to hypnosis to
How is meditation done?
improve their performance.
Anyone can meditate by following a few
Meditation simple procedures. The fundamentals
include sitting in a quiet room with the
Meditation is a learned
eyes closed, breathing deeply and
technique for refocusing attention
rhythmically, and repeating a word or
that brings about an altered state
sound—such as the word one—over and
of consciousness. In general,
over. Practiced twice a day for 20
meditation heightens awareness and
minutes, the technique is effective in
produces relaxation by interrupting the
bringing about relaxation (Benson et al.,
typical flow of thoughts, worries, and
1994; Aftanas & Golosheykin, 2005).
analysis.
What are the effects of
Meditation takes two major forms.
meditation? After meditation, people
Mindfulness meditation is “open,”
report feeling thoroughly relaxed. They
or expansive. The aim is to observe
sometimes relate that they have gained
your own thoughts, feelings, and
new insights into themselves and the use based on curiosity) or social-
problems they are facing. For example, recreational users (occasional social use
cancer patients who are taught for pleasure or relaxation).
mindfulness meditation have lower
While these may be examples of
levels of distress and a greater sense
misuse, harm is more typically
of well-being (Jones et al., 2013).
associated with intensive use (daily use
Similarly, being mindful makes it easier
with elements of dependence) or
to quit smoking (Brewer et al., 2011).
compulsive use (intense use and
Such benefits apply to healthy people,
extreme dependence), in which case
too. The long-term practice of
the person may be diagnosed with a
meditation may even improve health
substance use and addictive disorder
because of the biological changes it
(Center for Behavioral Health
produces. For example, during
meditation, oxygen usage decreases, Statistics and Quality, 2016).
heart rate and blood pressure decline,
Reasons for Drug Abuse
and brain-wave patterns change
(Arambula et al., 2001; Barnes et al., Drug abuse can stem from many
2004; Lee et al., 2007). causes, three of which seem to be very
important.
Drug-Altered Consciousness
1. Coping Efforts.
One common way to alter
human consciousness is to Many abusers turn to drugs in a
administer a psychoactive drug—a self-defeating attempt to cope with
substance capable of altering life. All the frequently abused drugs
attention, emotion, judgment, produce immediate feelings of
memory, time sense, self-control, pleasure. The negative consequences
or perception. Many psychoactive follow much later.
drugs can be placed on a scale ranging
2. Effects on the Brain.
from stimulation to depression.
Nearly all addictive drugs
In general, psychoactive drug use
stimulate the brain’s reward circuitry,
falls into two categories. Using a drug
producing feelings of pleasure (Kalat,
to address a particular issue, such
2016; Prus, 2014). In particular,
as taking a painkiller for a headache,
addictive drugs stimulate a brain region
a cup of coffee to stay awake, or an
called the nucleus accumbens to
antidepressant to treat depression is
release dopamine (DOPE-ahmeen), a
instrumental use. In contrast,
neurotransmitter that results in
recreational users focus on
intensified feelings of pleasure. As a
experiencing the psychoactive
result, the reward pathway signals,
effects of a drug. Getting high on
“That felt good. Let’s do it again. Let’s
heroin, even though you are not in
remember exactly how we did it.” This
physical pain, is an example.
creates a compulsion to repeat the drug
The term drug abuse is usually experience. It’s the hook that
reserved for cases when drug misuse eventually snares the addict.
causes some sort of harm. Many
At the same time, addiction may
recreational users can be classified
damage the prefrontal cortex, the brain
as experimental users (short-term
system involved in self-control (Everitt
& Robbins, 2016). Adolescents, it should definition, a person who has lost control
be noted, are especially susceptible to over drug use, for whatever reason, is
addiction because the prefrontal brain addicted.
systems that restrain their risk taking
Stimulants: Up, Up, and Away
are not as mature as those that reward
pleasure seeking (Boyd, Harris, & A stimulant, or upper, is a
Knight, 2012). substance that increases activity in the
body and nervous system. Some of the
3. Dependency
most common uppers are
A third reason that drug abuse is amphetamines, cocaine, caffeine, and
so common is that taking nicotine.
psychoactive drugs tends to create
Amphetamines are synthetic
dependencies. Once you get started,
stimulants. Some common street names
it can be very difficult to stop
for amphetamines are speed, bennies,
(Calabriaet al., 2010).
dixies, amp, and uppers. These drugs
Drug dependence falls into two were once widely prescribed for weight
broad categories (Maisto, Galizio, & loss or depression. Today, the main
Connors, 2015). When a person instrumental medical use of
compulsively uses a drug to maintain amphetamines is to treat childhood
bodily comfort, a physical hyperactivity and overdoses of
dependence (addiction) exists. depressant drugs.
Addiction occurs most often with drugs
Large doses of amphetamines
that cause withdrawal symptoms—
can cause nausea, vomiting, extremely
the physical illness and discomfort that
high blood pressure, fatal heart attacks,
follows removal of a drug. Withdrawal
and disabling strokes. It is important to
from drugs such as alcohol,
realize that amphetamines speed up
barbiturates, and opiates can cause
the use of the body’s resources; they do
violent, flulike symptoms, including
not magically supply energy. After an
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, chills,
amphetamine binge, people suffer from
sweating, and cramps. Addiction is
crippling fatigue, depression, confusion,
often accompanied by a drug
uncontrolled irritability, and aggression.
tolerance—a progressive decrease
Repeated amphetamine uses damages
in a person’s responsiveness to a
the brain. Amphetamines also can
drug. This leads users to take larger
cause amphetamine psychosis, a
and larger doses to get the desired
loss of contact with reality. Affected
effect.
users have paranoid delusions that
Persons who develop a someone is out to get them. Acting on
psychological dependence feel that these delusions, they may become
a drug is necessary to maintain violent, resulting in suicide, self-injury,
their comfort or well-being. Usually, or injury to others (Scott, 2012).
they intensely crave the drug and its
Cocaine (also known as coke,
rewarding qualities. Psychological
snow, blow, snuff, and flake) is a
dependence can be just as powerful as
powerful central nervous system
physical addiction. That’s why some
stimulant extracted from the leaves of
psychologists define addiction as any
the coca plant. Cocaine produces
repetitively compulsive pattern. By this
feelings of alertness, euphoria,
well- being, power, boundless may cause convulsions, respiratory
energy, and pleasure (Julien, 2011). failure, and death.
Casual or first-time users’ risk having
A burning cigarette releases a
convulsions, a heart attack, or a stroke.
large variety of potent carcinogens
Cocaine increases the
(car-SIN-oh-jins: cancer-causing
neurotransmitters dopamine and
substances). Smoking causes
norepinephrine. Norepinephrine
widespread damage to the body,
arouses the brain, and dopamine
leading to an increased risk of many
produces a “rush” of pleasure. This
cancers (such as lung cancer),
combination is so powerfully rewarding cardiovascular diseases (such as
that cocaine users run a high risk of stroke), respiratory diseases (such as
becoming compulsive abusers chronic bronchitis), and reproductive
(Ridenour et al., 2005) disorders (such as decreased fertility).
Together, these health risks combine to
Caffeine is the most frequently
reduce the life expectancy of the
used psychoactive drug in the
average smoker by 10 to 15 years.
world. Many people have a hard time
starting a day (or writing another
paragraph) without a cup of coffee or
tea because caffeine suppresses
drowsiness and increases Depressants: Down and Out
alertness, especially when
In contrast to the initial effect of
combined with sugar. Caffeine is
stimulants, which is an increase in
found in tea, many soft drinks
arousal of the central nervous system,
(especially colas and so-called “energy
the effect of depressants is to impede
drinks”), chocolate, and cocoa.
the nervous system by causing neurons
Thousands of nonprescription drugs
to fire more slowly.
also contain caffeine, including stay-
awake pills, cold remedies, and many The most common depressant
name-brand aspirin products. is alcohol, which is used by more
Physically, caffeine can cause sweating, people than is any other drug. As the
talkativeness, tinnitus (ringing in the dose of alcohol increases, however, the
ears), and hand tremors (Nehlig, 2004). depressive effects become more
Caffeine stimulates the brain by pronounced. People may feel
blocking chemicals that normally inhibit emotionally and physically unstable.
or slow nerve activity (Maisto, They also show poor judgment and may
act aggressively. Moreover, memory is
Next to caffeine and alcohol,
impaired, brain processing of spatial
nicotine is the most widely used
information is diminished, and speech
psychoactive drug (Julien, 2011). A
becomes slurred and incoherent.
natural stimulant found mainly in
Eventually they may fall into a stupor
tobacco; nicotine is so toxic that it is
and pass out. If they drink enough
sometimes used to kill insects! In
alcohol in a short time, they may die of
large doses, it causes stomach pain,
alcohol poisoning (Murphy et al., 1998;
vomiting and diarrhea, cold sweats,
Zeigler et al., 2005; Thatcher & Clark,
dizziness, confusion, and muscle
2006).
tremors. In very large doses, nicotine
 Binge drinking, defined as people who are unknowingly given the
downing five or more drinks (four drinks drug are so incapacitated that they
for women) in a short time, is of special have no memory of the assault.
concern for adolescents because the
Hallucinogens: Psychedelic Drugs
brain continues to develop into the
early twenties. Research has shown that Although a hallucinogen (hal-LU-
teenagers and young adults who drink sin-oh-jen) is generally a mild stimulant,
too much may lose as much as 10 its main effect is to stimulate
percent of their brain power—especially perceptions at odds with reality. The
their memory capacity (Brown et al., most common hallucinogens include
2000; Goldstein et al., 2016). LSD, PCP, mescaline, psilocybin, and
cannabis.
Barbiturates are sedative drugs
that depress brain activity. Common The drug LSD (lysergic acid
barbiturates include amobarbital, diethylamide, or acid) is perhaps
pentobarbital, secobarbital, and tuinal. the best-known hallucinogen. Even
On the street, they are known as when taken in tiny amounts, LSD can
downers, blue devils, yellow jackets, produce hallucinations, mystical-type
lows, goofballs, reds, pink ladies, experiences, and psychotic-like
rainbows, or tooies. Frequently disturbances in thinking and perception
prescribed by physicians to induce (Liechti, Dolder, & Schmid, 2016). Two
sleep or reduce stress, barbiturates other common hallucinogens are
produce a sense of relaxation. Yet they mescaline (peyote) and psilocybin
too are psychologically and physically (magic mushrooms, or shrooms).
addictive and, when combined with Incidentally, the drug
alcohol, can be deadly, since such a
PCP (phencyclidine, or angel
combination relaxes the muscles of the
dust) can have hallucinogenic effects.
diaphragm to such an extent that the
However, PCP, which is an anesthetic,
user stops breathing.
also has stimulant and depressant
Tranquilizers lower anxiety and effects. This potent combination can
reduce tension. Doctors prescribe cause extreme agitation, disorientation,
benzodiazepine tranquilizers to alleviate violence, and—too often—tragedy.
nervousness and stress. Valium is the
best-known drug in this family; others
are Xanax, Halcion, and Librium. Even Cannabis is derived from the
at normal dosages, these drugs can hemp plant Cannabis sativa.
cause drowsiness, shakiness, and Cannabis (also called marijuana,
confusion. When used at too high a pot, grass, reefer, and MJ), whose
dosage or for too long, benzodiazepines active ingredient—
are addictive (McKim, 2013). tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) consists
of the dried leaves and flowers of the
A drug sold under the trade name
hemp plant. The effects of marijuana
Rohypnol (ro-HIP-nol) has added to
vary from person to person, but they
the problem of tranquilizer abuse.
typically consist of feelings of euphoria
Rohypnol is sometimes called the “date
and general well-being. Sensory
rape drug,” because when it is mixed
experiences seem more vivid and
with alcohol, it can prevent victims from
intense, and a person’s sense of self-
resisting sexual assault. Sometimes
importance seems to grow. Memory As sleep becomes deeper, people
may be impaired, causing users to feel enter stage 2 sleep, which makes up
pleasantly “spaced out.” In addition, about half of the total sleep of those in
marijuana has several medical uses; it their early 20s and is characterized by a
can be used to prevent nausea from slower, more regular wave pattern.
chemotherapy, treat some AIDS However, there are also momentary
symptoms, and relieve muscle spasms interruptions of sharply pointed, spiky
for people with spinal cord injuries. waves that are called, because of their
configuration, sleep spindles. It
Lesson 6.2 Sleep and becomes increasingly difficult to
Dreams awaken a person from sleep as stage 2
progresses.
Stages of Sleep
As people drift into stage 3 sleep,
People progress through a series the brain waves become slower, with
of distinct stages of sleep during a higher peaks and lower valleys in the
night’s rest—moving through the stages wave pattern. They signal a move to
in cycles lasting about 90 minutes. The deeper slow-wave sleep and a further
two most basic states of sleep, then, loss of consciousness.
are non-REM (NREM) sleep, which
occurs during all four sleep stages, and Most people reach stage 4 sleep (deep
REM sleep, with its associated dreaming sleep)—the deepest level of normal
(Rock, 2004). sleep—in about an hour. The pattern is
even slower and more regular, and
Let’s take a closer look at each one. people are least responsive to outside
When people first go to sleep, stimulation. If a sleeper hears a loud
they move from a waking state in which noise during Stage 4, he or she will
they are relaxed with their eyes closed wake up in a state of confusion and may
into stage 1 sleep (light sleep), which is not remember the noise.
characterized by relatively rapid, low- Several times a night, when
amplitude brain waves. This is actually sleepers have cycled back to a
a stage of transition between shallower state of sleep, something
wakefulness and sleep and lasts only a curious happens. Their heart rate
few minutes. Your heart rate slows even increases and becomes irregular, their
more. Breathing becomes more blood pressure rises, their breathing
irregular. The muscles of your body rate increases, and males—even male
relax. This may trigger a reflex muscle infants— have erections. Most
twitch called a hypnic (HIP-nik: sleep) characteristic of this period is the back-
jerk. (This is quite normal, so have no and-forth movement of their eyes, as if
fear about admitting to your friends they were watching an action-filled
that you fell asleep with a hypnic jerk.) movie. This period of sleep is called
During stage 1, images rapid eye movement, or REM sleep, and
sometimes appear, as if we were it contrasts with stages 1 through 4,
viewing still photos, although this is not which are collectively labeled non-REM
true dreaming, which occurs later in the (or NREM) sleep.
night. Paradoxically, while all this
activity is occurring, the major muscles
of the body appear to be paralyzed. In journey might symbolize death, and
addition, and most important, REM horseback riding or dancing could
sleep is usually accompanied by symbolize sexual intercourse.
dreams, which—whetheror not people
Do all dreams have hidden
remember them—are experienced by
meanings? Probably not. Freud realized
everyone during some part of their
that many dreams aretrivial “day
night's sleep. Although some dreaming
residues” or carryovers from ordinary
occurs in non-REM stages of sleep,
waking events. On the other hand,
dreams are most likely to occur in the
dreams do tend to reflect a person’s
REM period, where they are the most
current concerns, so Freud wasn’t
vivid and easily remembered.
entirely wrong.
Dream Theories
The Activation-Synthesis
Psychodynamic Dream Theory Hypothesis

Psychodynamic theories of According to psychiatrist Allan

dreaming emphasize internal conflicts Hobson and Robert McCarley, who
and unconscious forces (Fischer & proposed activation-
Kächele, 2009). Interpreting dreams is
synthesis theory, the brain produces
such an important part of
random electrical energy during REM
psychoanalysis that Freud referred to
sleep, possibly as a result of changes in
them as “the royal road to the
the production of particular
unconscious.” Sigmund Freud’s (1900)
neurotransmitters. This electrical
landmark book, The Interpretation of
energy randomly stimulates memories
Dreams, first advanced the idea that
lodged in various portions of the brain.
many dreams are based on wish
Because we have a need to make sense
fulfillment— an expression of
of our world even while asleep, the
unconscious desires.
brain takes these chaotic memories and
One of Freud’s key proposals was weaves them into a logical story line,
that dreams express unconscious filling in the gaps to produce a rational
desires and conflicts as disguised dream scenario.
symbols—images that have deeper
How does that help explain dream
symbolic meaning. However, because
content? According to the activation-
these desires or wishes are threatening
synthesis
to the dreamer’s conscious awareness,
the actual wishes—called the latent hypothesis, dreams are usually
content of dreams—are disguised. The meaningless. Let’s use the classic chase
true subject and meaning of a dream, dream as an example. In such dreams,
then, may have little to do with its we feel that we are running but not
apparent story line, which Freud called going anywhere. This occurs because
the manifest content of dreams. the brain is told that the body is
running, but it gets no feedback from
For instance, a woman who
the motionless legs. To try to make
dreams of stealing her best friend’s
sense of this information, the brain
wedding ring and placing it on her own
creates a chase drama. A similar
hand may be unwilling to consciously
process probably explains dreams of
admit that she is sexually attracted to
floating or flying.
her best friend’s husband. Similarly, a
 So, dreams have no meaning? Schredl, 2011; MacDuffie & Mashour,
The activation-synthesis hypothesis 2010). However, studies of dream
rejects the idea that dreams are content tend to support neurocognitive
deliberate, meaningful messages from theory’s focus on the continuity
our unconscious. However, it does not between dreams and waking thought.
rule out the possibility that we can find Rather than seeming exotic or bizarre,
meaning in some dreams. Because most dreams reflect everyday events
dreams are created from memories and (Domhoff & Schneider, 2008; Pesant &
past experiences, parts of dreams can Zadra, 2006). For example, athletes
sometimes reflect each person’s mental tend to dream about the previous day’s
life, emotions, and concerns (Hobson, athletic activities (Erlacher & Schredl,
2000). 2004).

Sleep Disturbances

Insomnia means “lack of

sleep.” Insomnia includes difficulty in
Neurocognitive Dream Theory
getting to sleep or staying asleep (such
Can’t dreams just be about as frequent night-time awakenings or
everyday stuff? Yes, they can. According waking too early). Insomnia results from
to William Domhoff’s neurocognitive causes including noise,worries (e.g.,
dream theory, dreams have much in breakup of a relationship, concerns
common with waking thoughts and about a test score), indigestion,
emotions. Domhoff believes this is true uncomfortable temperatures, use of
because many brain areas that are alcohol or caffeine, and medical or
active when we are awake remain psychological disorders (American
active during dreaming (Domhoff, 2003, Insomnia Association, 2005). In
2011). laboratory studies, insomnia
complainers do sleep less than others.
From this perspective, our dreams
But they typically overestimate how
are a conscious expression of REM sleep
long it takes them to fall asleep and
processes that are sorting and storing
underestimate how long they actually
daily experiences (Klinger, 2013; Levin
have slept (Harvey & Tang, 2012). Even
& Nielsen, 2009). Speaking very loosely,
if we have been awake only an hour or
it’s as if the dreaming brain were
two, we may think we have had very
reviewing messages left on voice mail
little sleep because it’s the waking part
to decide which are worth keeping.
we remember.
Thus, we shouldn’t be surprised if a
student who is angry at a teacher Other sleep problems are less
dream of embarrassing the teacher in common than insomnia, although they
class, a lonely person dreams of are still widespread. For instance, some
romance, or a hungry child dreams of 20 million people suffer from sleep
food. It is not necessary to seek deeper apnea. Apnea (AP-nee-uh) means
symbolic meanings to understand these “no breathing.” Sleep apnea is a
dreams. condition in which a person has
difficulty breathing while sleeping.
Which dream theory is the most
In sleep apnea, breathing stops for
widely accepted? Each theory has
periods of 20 seconds to 2 minutes. As
strengths and weaknesses (Hobson &
the need for oxygen becomes intense,
the person wakes a little and gulps in lists: those who sleepwalk) avoid
air. She or he then settles back to sleep. obstacles, descend stairways, and on
But soon, breathing stops again. Some rare occasions may step out of windows
people with apnea wake as many as or in front of automobiles. The
500 times during the course of a night, sleepwalker’s eyes are usually open,
although they may not even be aware but a blank face and shuffling feet
that they have wakened. Not reveal that the person is still asleep.
surprisingly, such disturbed sleep
Sleep talking is when an
results in extreme fatigue the next day.
individual vocalizes in their sleep,
Sleep apnea also may play a role anything from a few words to whole
in sudden infant death syndrome conversations. Both occur during stage
(SIDS), a mysterious killer of seemingly 4 sleep and are more common in
normal infants who die while sleeping. children than in adults. Sleeptalkers and
sleepwalkers usually have a vague
Narcolepsy (NAR-koe-lep-see)
consciousness of the world around
is the sudden and uncontrollable
them, and a sleepwalker may be able to
sleeping that occurs for short
walk with agility around obstructions in
periods while a person is awake.
a crowded room. Unless a sleepwalker
Victims may fall asleep anywhere for a
wanders into a dangerous environment,
few minutes to a half-hour, during alert,
sleepwalking typically poses little risk.
daytime activities such as standing,
talking, or even driving. Emotional The Need for Sleep
excitement, especially laughter,
Our sleep patterns differ from
commonly triggers narcolepsy. (Tell an
person to person. But why do we have
especially good joke and a narcoleptic
this need for sleep? Psychologists
may fall asleep.)
believe sleep may exist for five reasons.

1. Sleep protects. When darkness

Night terrors (sleep terror) are shut down the day’s hunting, food
sudden awakenings from non-REM gathering, and travel, our distant
sleep that are accompanied by ancestors were better off asleep in a
extreme fear, panic, and strong cave, out of harm’s way. Those who
physiological arousal. An attack may didn’t try to
last 15 or 20 minutes. When it is over,
navigate around dark cliffs were more
the person awakens drenched in sweat
likely to leave descendants. This fits a
but only vaguely remembers the terror.
broader principle: A species’ sleep
Because sleep terrors occur during
pattern tends to suit its ecological niche
NREM sleep (when the body is not
(Siegel, 2009).
immobilized), victims may sit up,
scream, get out of bed, or run around 2. Sleep helps us recuperate. It
the room. They occur most frequently in helps restore the immune system and
children between the ages of 3 and 8. repair brain tissue. Bats and other
animals with high waking metabolism
Sleepwalking, also known as
burn a lot of calories, producing a lot of
somnambulism, is a condition in
free radicals, molecules that are toxic to
which a sleeping person exhibits
neurons. Sleeping a lot gives resting
behaviors associated with being
neurons time to repair themselves,
awake. Somnambulists (som-NAM-bue-
while pruning or weakening unused can’t concentrate, and show a loss of
connections (Gilestro et al., 2009; creativity, even after only minor
Tononi & Cirelli, 2013). deprivation. They also show a decline in
logical reasoning ability. However, after
3. Sleep helps restore and rebuild
being allowed to sleep normally, they
our fading memories of the day’s
bounce back quickly and are able to
experiences. Sleep consolidates our
perform at pre-deprivation levels after
memories. It reactivates recent
just a few days (Veasey et al., 2002;
experiences stored in the hippocampus
McClelland & Pilcher, 2007).
and shifts them for permanent storage
elsewhere in the cortex (Diekelmann & What is the normal range of
Born, 2010; Racsmány et al., 2010). sleep? The majority of us sleep on a
Among older adults, more frequently familiar seven-to-eight-hour-per- night
disrupted sleep also disrupts memory schedule. Only a small percentage of
consolidation (Pace- Shott & Spencer, the population are short sleepers,
2011). After sleeping well, older people averaging five hours of sleep or fewer
remember more of recently learned per night. On the other end of the scale,
material (Drummond, 2010). Sleep, it we find long sleepers, who doze nine
seems, strengthens memories in a way hours or more (Grandner & Kripke,
that being awake does not. 2004). A few rare individuals can even
get by on an hour or two of sleep a
4. Sleep feeds creative thinking.
night—and feel perfectly fine. Urging
More commonplace is the boost that a
everyone to sleep eight hours would be
complete night’s sleep gives to our
like advising everyone to wear medium-
thinking and learning. After working on
size clothing.
a task, then sleeping on it, people solve
difficult problems more insightfully than We sleep less as we get older,
do those who stay awake (Barrett, right? Yes, total sleep time declines
2011; Sio et al., 2013). They also are throughout life. Infants spend up to 20
better at spotting connections among hours a day sleeping, usually in two- to
novel pieces of information (Ellenbogen four-hour cycles. As they mature, most
et al., 2007). To think smart and see children go through a nap stage and
connections, it often pays to ponder a eventually settle into a steady cycle of
problem just before bed and then sleep sleeping once a day. In contrast, those
on it. older than 50 average only six hours of
sleep a night. Mid-afternoon sleepiness
5. Sleep supports growth. During
is a natural part of the sleep cycle.
deep sleep, the pituitary gland releases
Perhaps we should all continue to take
a growth hormone that is necessary for
an afternoon siesta. Brief, well-timed
muscle development. As we age, we
naps can help maintain alertness in
release less of this hormone and spend
people such as truck drivers and
less time in deep sleep (Pekkanen,
hospital interns, who often must fight to
1982).
stay alert (Ficca et al., 2010).
People who participate in sleep
deprivation experiments, in which they
are kept awake for stretches as long as
200 hours, show no lasting effects. It’s
Tips to Sleeping Better
no fun—they feel weary and irritable,
 Do you have trouble sleeping? 4. Relaxation. Some insomniacs lower
You’re not alone! For those of us who their arousal before sleep by using a
spend hours tossing and turning in bed, physical or mental strategy for relaxing,
psychologists studying sleep such as progressive muscle relaxation,
disturbances have a number of meditation, or blotting out worries with
suggestions for overcoming insomnia calming images. It also is helpful to
(Edinger et al., 2001; Finley & Cowley, schedule time in the early evening to
2005; Benca, 2005). Here are some write down
ideas:
worries or concerns and plan what to do
1. Stimulus control. Insisting on a about them the next day in order to set
regular schedule helps establish a firm them aside before going to bed.
body rhythm, greatly improving sleep.
5. Exercise. Strenuous exercise during
This is best achieved by exercising
the day promotes sleep (Brand et al.,
stimulus control, which refers to linking
2010). However, exercise within three
a response with specific stimuli. It is
to six hours of sleep is helpful only if it
important to get up and go to sleep at
is very light.
the same time each day, including
weekends (Vincent, Lewycky, & 6. Food intake. What you eat can
Finnegan, 2008). In addition, insomniacs affect how easily you get to sleep.
should avoid doing anything but Eating starchy foods increases the
sleeping when they are in bed. They are amount of tryptophan (TRIP-tuh-fan: an
not to study, eat, watch television, read, amino acid) reaching the brain. More
pay the bills, worry, or even think in tryptophan, in turn, increases the
bed. (Lovemaking is okay, however.) In amount of serotonin in the brain, which
this way, only sleeping and relaxation is associated with relaxation, a positive
become associated with going to bed at mood, and sleepiness (Silber & Schmitt,
specific times. 2010). Thus, to promote sleep, try
eating a starchy snack, such as bread,
2. Sleep restriction. Even if an entire
pasta, or dry cereal.
night’s sleep is missed, it is important
not to sleep late in the morning, nap 7. Stimulant avoidance. Stimulants,
more than an hour, sleep during the such as coffee and cigarettes, should be
evening, or go to bed early the avoided. It also is worth remembering
following night. Instead, restricting that alcohol, although not a stimulant,
sleep to normal bedtime hours avoids impairs sleep quality.
fragmenting sleep rhythms (Vincent,
Lewycky, & Finnegan, 2008). LESSON NO. 7.1
3. Paradoxical intention. Another UNDERSTANDING
helpful approach is to remove the
LEARNING
pressures of trying to go to sleep.
Instead, the goal becomes trying to What is learning?
keep the eyes open (in the dark) and
Learning is defined as a relatively
stay awake as long as possible (Nau &
permanent change in behavior because
Lichstein, 2005). This allows sleep to
of practice and experience. It may
come unexpectedly and lowers
include learning new skills, developing
performance anxiety (Taylor & Roane,
habits, learning lessons in class and
2010).
other behaviors. Psychological consequence of the relationship that
processes that may be appropriate or exists between a stimulus (S) and a
inappropriate can also result from response (R). Another name for this is
learning. Learning occurs in diverse the S-R learning model. It also suggests
ways. One learns to ride a bicycle after that the principles of human learning
series of exercises or may have learned ought to apply to the many ways that
it by observing others take the paddle. animal species behave, which may be
Once this skill is mastered, it becomes the motivation behind the experiments
ingrained and forms part of one's skill that show how different kinds of
set. Learning can occur through learning might occur. Moreover,
association such as acquiring fears after behaviorists hold that learning is mostly
encountering an adverse experience influenced by environmental events and
with an object or situation, or the that creatures are born as blank slates.
tendency to feel relaxed upon smelling This theory highlights two types of
mints. In this note, nonhumans also learning proposed by Ivan Pavlov and
learn a great deal for the purpose of B.F Skinner, the classical and operant
survival. But do they benefit from learning.
experience as humans do? Perhaps,
a. Associative Learning or Classical
yes, as we can observe our pets’
Conditioning. This type of learning
learning tricks and formed habits.
was coined by Ivan Petrovich Pavlov
Whether nonhumans learn as we do,
(Russian Physiologist). Pavlov came up
the fact remains to be that human
with a straightforward experiment to
beings learn in a uniquely separated
find out why salivation happened
and scientific ways. Humans, being
without a clear physical reason. This he
rational employ hypothesizing which is
noticed while doing research on
absent in other forms of creatures.
digestion. To further understand this
Furthermore, the idea that the human
observation, Pavlov conducted an
brain is prewired to learning is
experiment where he tried ringing a bell
intriguing. Research on infants' learning
before presenting a meat powder.
abilities suggests that humans possess
Initially, the dog did not salivate after
an innate core knowledge that primes
the bell was rung, however, upon
them to acquire information from their
repeatedly pairing the bell and meat
physical environment. However, due to
powder, salivation occurred at the
ethical constraints and risks, it is highly
sound of the bell alone. To further
unlikely that parents would allow infants
understand the experiment, the phases
to participate in studies purposely to
and the stimulus-response process are
validate this theory. Hence, this concept
illustrated below.
remains unresolved.

How does learning take place?

Although there are several theories that

explain human learning, a few major
theories are worth exploring.

1. Behaviorist Theories. These

theories assumed that conditioning is
the source of human behavior.
According to this, learning is a
 may be extinct after repeated pleasant
and safe flights.

3. Spontaneous Recovery. This

phenomenon involves the reappearance
of the previously extinguished response
after a rest period, however, is weaker
• NS- Neutral Stimulus – a stimulus to
than the original response. With the rest
which the organism responds in any
periods after every reappearance, the
noticeable way. The bell was this
response disappears rapidly. An
stimulus that did not initially elicit any
example would be when that fear of
response.
flying on a plane which was already
• UCS- Unconditioned Stimulus- a extinguished may resurface after some
stimulus that elicits a reaction. The dog time however, in weaker state and may
started to salivate after seeing the meat vanish after several exposures.
powder.
4. Generalization. A phenomenon in
• UCR – Unconditioned Response- is a which a conditioned response is elicited
reaction brought on by the UCS, in this by stimuli that are similar but not
case, salivation. identical to the conditioned stimulus.
This may be described a child who fears
• CS – Conditioned stimulus – the
hospitals, after a painful experience in
former NS after being paired by UCR,
being admitted, may now fear entering
now elicits a response, in this case, the
white- painted building or other
sound of the bell .
structures that resemble a hospital.
• CR- Conditioned response – the
5. Stimulus Discrimination. A
response of the dog, salivation, after
process through which individuals learn
the conditioning (pairing NS with UCR)
to differentiate among similar stimuli
Common Phenomena in Classical and respond appropriately to each one.
Learning This means responding only to the
original conditioned stimulus. In traffic
1. Associative Bias. This refers to
lights, one displays appropriate
people's tendency to make links or
response to the colors even if it has the
associations between ideas or stimuli
same shapes.
depending on previous experiences, or
cognitive shortcuts. This bias may affect 6. Higher Order Conditioning is a
how individuals view, comprehend, and phenomenon in classical conditioning
respond to new information. An where a neutral stimulus becomes a
example would be stereotyping or conditioned stimulus that can elicit a
priming. conditioned response even without the
presence of the initially established
2. Extinction. Ivan Pavlov discovered
conditioned stimulus. This occurs when
that with constant presentation of the
the neutral stimulus is repeatedly
CS, which is the sound of a bell without
paired with the conditioned stimulus
the unconditioned stimulus- the meat
before presented alone to elicit the
powder, will lead to successive
conditioned response. A person may
weakening of the conditioned response,
develop a preference for a particular
and eventually disappearance. For
coffee brand because its advertisement
instance, the fear of flying on a plane,
features their favorite song. Even • Positive Reinforcement. It is
though they haven't directly tried the presenting something pleasant after the
coffee, the positive emotions associated response. For example, verbal praise or
with the song lead them to favor the approval after attaining the sales target
brand. would increase the likelihood that the
employee will make effort to reach the
b. Operant Conditioning. In the late
target again.
1890s, Edward Thorndike conducted an
experiment where he placed a cat in a • Negative Reinforcement. It is
“puzzle box”. This box will only open reducing or removing something
through a device which must be unpleasant. For example, children are
manipulated obviously by intention. told that they will be relieved from
Upon observation, he noticed that the washing dishes if they get good grades
eventually opened door by its random during the first term.
behavior inside the box. The next time,
There are two forms of reinforcers.
the cat was place in the same box, it
has opened it in a lesser amount of • Primary Reinforces. These are
time. This then made Thorndike believe stimuli that are essential for survival
that behaviors are learned by trial-and- and are needed for physiological well-
error mechanism The law of effect being. This is also referred to as
refers to the principle that responses to unconditioned reinforcers.
a situation that are followed by
Examples are sleep, food, shelter.
satisfaction are strengthened;
responses that are followed by • Secondary Reinforcers. Also known
discomfort are weakened. (Ormrod, as conditioned reinforcers, are neutral
2016) Through his work, the American stimulus that when paired by another
Psychologist, B.F Skinner proposed that reinforcing stimulus will most likely elicit
organisms learn by consequences which a response (even without the
then led him to develop the “Skinner’s conditioned stimulus).
Box”. In this experiment, the presence
• There are two (2) ways to punish
of a metal bar when pressed, results to
a behavior.
the dispense of pellets of food. The rat
inside the box was able to grab food 1. Positive Punishment
when it learned by chance to press the
• presenting something unpleasant
bar. Hence, operant conditioning or
after the response
instrumental learning assumes learning
occurs through reinforcement. • receiving negative appraisal from your
teacher after being late.

2. Negative Punishment

o reducing or removing something

What is Reinforcement?
pleasant.
Reinforcement, coined by B.F Skinner in
o For example, parents removing
1937, is the process of increasing
financial allowance after a son got a
(strengthens response) the future
poor grade.
probability of the most recent response.
There are two types.
 Unlike inflicting punishment, retention, both cognitive processes,
positive reinforcement makes the contributes undoubtedly to human
person or animal feel better, helping learning. For instance, when a student
create a positive relationship with the concentrates on the material presented
person providing the reinforcement. by the teacher, it enhances retention,
Punishment combined with ultimately effective learning takes
reinforcement for an alternative place.
behavior is more effective than
punishment alone.
People can have considerable
2. Social Cognitive Theory
control over their actions and
The Social Learning theory was environments. Human beings have
proposed by Albert Bandura which personal agency which means that they
postulates the learning occur through have ways to create or modify their
observation and modeling. A child environments. They can consciously
learns dancing by imitating what’s on make changes or seek support from
the videos or by a dance instructor. This others.
is an example that learning takes place
Reciprocal Causation
after observing or copying other
people’s actions. Social Cognitive Theory argues that
people learn through the interaction of
Principles Social Cognitive Learning
three variables.
Theory
• Environment (E). This refers to the
People can learn by observing
general conditions and immediate
other’s behavior and its consequences.
stimuli. This includes factors like family,
Individuals can learn even without
peers, culture, and educational settings.
direct or firsthand experience. Simply
through exposure to a model • Person (P). This refers to the
performing a certain act and the physical characteristics, cognitive
outcome, human learning takes place. processes, and socially and culturally
For example, in the physical education conferred roles. For instance, age and
class, a student can learn the exercise gender, beliefs and attitudes, attention
by observing his instructor perform the or roles such as popular kid or leader.
action.
• Behavior (B). This refers to a
Learning can occur without a person’s actions and responses that are
change in behavior. Contrary to observable. The interaction of these
traditional concept of learning that it variables is what Bandura refers to as
involves change in behavior, SCT reciprocal causation.
suggests that learning takes place in
For instance, take the concept of
the absence of any visible change.
“modeling.” Consider a student who
When an individual acquires a behavior,
learns a technique for solving a math
change may happen at the same
problem by observing a classmate
moment, or later or may not be
perform it on the board. His positive
observable at all.
attitude towards learning enhances his
Cognition plays important roles in understanding of the process, while the
learning. The processes of attention and supportive and encouraging classroom
environment further fosters his to learn from experience, solve
engagement and confidence. Figure problems, and use knowledge to
adapt to new situations.
Key Concepts in Modeling
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
• Vicarious Reinforcement and
Punishment. This involves using ➢ Spearman and Thurstone’s
someone else’s experience in place of Intelligence Theories – General
your own and imitate that are being Intelligence (g)
rewarded especially if it’s by those you
According to one popular theory
admire.
in psychology, the core of intelligence is
• Self-Efficacy. This refers to the belief an overall mental ability called the g-
of having the ability to successfully factor, where the “g” denotes the idea
perform a task in a particular activity or that it represents a general level of
domain. We tend to imitate the actions intelligence, from navigating the sea to
of successful people but only if we feel excelling in school. The term was
self-efficacy, a belief that we could introduced in the early 1900s by
perform the task well. One may learn Charles Spearman, who believed that g
through modeling however this occurs was an overarching construct
primarily when we have self- efficacy. encompassing several specific mental
abilities like the working memory,
• Self-Reinforcement and Self-
reasoning, problem solving, and
Punishment. People typically set a
representing knowledge (Kan et al.,
goal for themselves and monitor their
2013; Ziegler et al., 2011).
progress toward that goal. Sometimes
people reinforce or punish themselves, Spearman granted that people
just as if they were training someone often have special, outstanding abilities.
else. But he noted that those who score high
in one area, such as verbal intelligence,
LESSON NO. 8.1 typically score higher than average in
other areas, such as spatial or
KNOWING YOUR reasoning ability. Spearman’s (1904)
INTELLIGENCE belief stemmed in part from his work
with factor analysis, a statistical
DEFINITION OF INTELLIGENCE
procedure that identifies clusters of
In many studies, intelligence has related variables.
been defined as whatever intelligence
One of Spearman’s early critics
tests measure, which has tended to be
was L. L. Thurstone (1887–1955).
school smarts. But intelligence is not a
Thurstone gave 56 different tests to
quality like height or weight, which has
people and mathematically identified
the same meaning to everyone
seven clusters of primary mental
worldwide. People assign this term to
abilities (word fluency, verbal
the qualities that enable success in
comprehension, spatial ability,
their own time and culture (Sternberg &
perceptual speed, numerical
Kaufman, 1998). In a North American
ability, inductive reasoning, and
high school, it may reflect mastering
memory). Thurstone did not rank
difficult concepts in calculus or
people on a single scale of general
chemistry. Intelligence is the ability
aptitude. But when other investigators
studied these profiles, they detected a and Gc bridge the gap from general
persistent tendency: Those who intelligence to specific abilities. We use
excelled in one of the seven clusters our g-based fluid intelligence to learn,
generally scored well on the others. So, and we gain crystallized intelligence
the investigators concluded, there was (specific abilities) in return. Through
still some evidence of a g factor. this, Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) theory
was conceptualized, affirming a general
We might, then, liken mental
intellectual ability factor, the existence
abilities to physical abilities: Athleticism
of Gf and Gc, and identifying more
is not one thing, but many. The ability to
specific abilities, such as reading and
run fast is distinct from the eye-hand
writing ability, memory capacity, and
coordination required to throw a ball on
processing speed (Schneider & McGrew,
target. Yet there remains some
2012).
tendency for good things to come
packaged together-for running speed ➢ Theories of Multiple Intelligences
and throwing accuracy to correlate. So,
▪ Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
too, with intelligence—for humans
worldwide (Warne & Burningham, Consider Sven, a grade-school
2019). student

➢ The Cattel-Horn-Carroll who is two years behind in reading, but

Intelligence Theory who shows his teacher how to solve a
difficult math problem. Or what about
Raymond Cattell (1905–1998) and
his classmate, Malika, who is also a
his student, John Horn (1928–2006)
poor reader but plays intricate pieces of
simplified Thurstone’s primary mental
piano music? Both of these children
abilities into two factors: fluid
show clear signs of what have
intelligence (Gf)—our ability to
sometimes been called aptitudes, yet
reason speedily and abstractly, as
there are some psychologists who feel
when solving logic problems—and
that they are better labeled types of
crystallized intelligence (Gc)—our
intelligence. One such psychologist is
accumulated knowledge as
Howard Gardner of Harvard University.
reflected in vocabulary and applied
Gardner (2008, 2011) theorizes that
skills (Cattell, 1963). Example, an
there are nine distinctly different kinds
experienced psychotherapist may use
of intelligence, including: Linguistic
her Gf to develop creative, new, and a
(language abilities), Logical-
more holistic intervention to treat
mathematical logic and number
patients. Her Gc may be evident in the
abilities), Visual (pictorial abilities),
way she expertly discusses how she
Musical (music abilities), Bodily-
handles her patients during a
kinesthetic (physical abilities),
conference. Our Gf and Gc often work
Intrapersonal (self-knowledge),
together just like solving problems from
Interpersonal (social abilities),
our accumulated knowledge.
Naturalist (an ability to understand
After analyzing hundreds of the natural environment),
previous intelligence studies, Carroll Existential (an ability to
(1993) found support on the following: understand spirituality and
There is a general intelligence factor existence).
(g); we have more specific abilities; Gf
 If Gardner’s theory of multiple giftedness bring both spice to life and
intelligences is correct then traditional challenges for education. Trained to
views really only capture a small part of such variety, many teachers have
real-world intelligence, namely applied multiple intelligence theories in
linguistic, logical-mathematical, and their classrooms.
spatial abilities (Roberts & Lipnevich,
o Emotional Intelligence
2012). Instead, Gardner would argue
that a student like Malika should also be Emotional intelligence is the
considered highly intelligent owing to ability to perceive, use, and understand
her skill with music. In addition, emotions in us
Gardner’s notion of multiple
and others, as well as the ability to
intelligences continues to influence
manage those feelings effectively
many educators’ belief that children
(Caruso, Salovey, &Mayer, 2015). Being
have different “learning styles, ” such
emotionally skilled can make us more
as visual and auditory (Newton & Miah,
flexible, adaptable, agreeable, and
2017).
emotionally mature (English et al.,
o Sternberg’s Three Intelligences 2012; Johnson, Batey, & Holdsworth,
2009). But how do psychologists think
Robert Sternberg (1985, 2015,
about emotional intelligence? While
2017) agrees with Gardner that there is
some researchers view it as a stable
more to success than academic
trait that people possess to a greater or
intelligence and that we have multiple
lesser extent (Gugliandolo et al., 2015),
intelligences. But Sternberg’s triarchic
others see emotional intelligence as a
theory proposes three, not eight or
collection of skills that can be learned
nine, reliably measured intelligences:
(Campo, Laborde, & Weckemann,
• Analytical (academic problem- 2015).
solving) intelligence is assessed by
The idea that we can improve
intelligence tests, which present well-
upon our emotional intelligence is an
defined problems having a single right
important one. A lot of circumstances
answer. Such tests predict school
tell us that we need to develop this
grades reasonably well and vocational
characteristic. For example, focusing on
success more modestly.
various types of psychopathologies,
• Creative intelligence is demonstrated including common forms of psychoses,
in innovative smarts: the ability to as well as mood and anxiety disorders.
adapt to new situations and generate Difficulties with emotional intelligence
novel ideas. have been associated with
schizophrenia and depression. And on
• Practical intelligence is required for
another example, using it in
everyday tasks that may be poorly
psychological therapies. Clinical and
defined and may have multiple
counseling psychologists draw heavily
solutions. Gardner and Sternberg differ
in emotional intelligence. They rely on
in some areas, but they agree on two
such skills when listening to their clients
important points:
and discuss emotional issues as well as
to understand and manage their own
emotions to deliver therapy effectively.
Multiple abilities can contribute to
Also another example, psychologists
life success, and differing varieties of
have found that emotional intelligence cues and know what to say to soothe a
is related with other psychological grieving friend, encourage a workmate,
concepts, like prosocial and anti-social and manage a conflict. They can delay
behavior, nonverbal communication gratification in pursuit of long-range
skills, which depend on the ability to rewards. Thus, emotionally
understand people’s emotional states. intelligent people tend to succeed
Given that emotional intelligence is in relationship, career, and
very important in our everyday life, we parenting situations where
should take time to improve and academically smarter but less
develop this skill. emotionally intelligent people may fail.
They also tend to be happy and healthy.
It is natural to welcome positive
emotions, such as joy, while avoiding Aware of these benefits, school-based
negative emotions, such as anger. But programs have sought to increase
make no mistake—being able to teachers’ and students’ emotional
recognize and effectively manage intelligence.
negative emotions can be valuable and
INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT AND
constructive. Recognizing emotions in
DYNAMICS
yourself and others, being emotionally
intelligent is associated with ➢ Studying the Science:
understanding how to manage your Characteristics of Good Intelligence
emotions appropriately, a necessary Tests
skill in an increasingly social world.
The first question we should
Many elements contribute to emotional
always ask about a psychometric test
intelligence, this consist of four
is, “Is it reliable?” which refers to the
elements:
test’s ability to deliver consistent
• Perceiving emotions (recognizing results. The second is, “Is it valid?” a
them in faces, music, and stories, and question that gets at whether the test
identifying actually measures what it claims to
measure. Third, we want to ask about
one’s own emotions),
whether the test can accurately assess
• Understanding emotions a diverse group of people. We can be a
(predicting them and how they may bit more certain of this if the test has
change and blend), been standardized. Finally, we’d also
want to know whether the test was
• Managing emotions (knowing how
objective; in other words, that the
to express them in varied situations,
results would be interpreted the same
and how to
way by many people.
handle others’ emotions), and
It’s important to note that the
• Using emotions to facilitate vast majority of “IQ tests” that you can
adaptive or creative thinking. find on the Internet would not meet the
bar that’s set by these standards—
Emotionally intelligent people
these tests may have some
are both socially aware and self-
entertainment value, but don’t make
aware. They avoid being hijacked by
the mistake of thinking that your score
overwhelming depression, anxiety, or
on them will be a good measure of your
anger. They can read others’ emotional
intelligence.
In a good psychometric test four measure what it claims to measure
elements, which are the following, (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2015). By no
should be present: stretch of the imagination could a test
of intelligence be valid if the person
o Reliability – a reliable psychometric
who wrote it is the only one who can
test must give approximately the same
pass it.
score each time a person takes it
(Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2018). In other How is validity established? Great
words, the scores should be consistent question! Validity is usually
each time the test is taken. It is easy to demonstrated by comparing test scores
see why unreliable tests have little to actual performance on some other
value. Imagine a medical test for measure (or criterion) that is known to
pregnancy or breast cancer, for assess the construct you’re trying to
instance, which gave positive and measure. This is called criterion
negative responses for the same validity. Scores on a test of math
woman on the same day. ability, for example, might be compared
to grades in high school math (the
To check the reliability of a test,
criterion). If high test scores correlate
we could give it to a large group of
with high grades, or some other
people. Then each person could be
standard (criterion) of success, the test
tested again a week later to establish
is more likely to be valid.
test–retest reliability. We also might
want to know whether scores on one o Objectivity and Standardization -
half of the test items match scores on If your IQ test is given the same score
the other half (split-half reliability). If when evaluated by different people, it is
two versions of a test are available, we an objective test. However, objectivity
could compare scores on one version to is not enough to guarantee a fair test.
scores on the other (equivalent-forms Useful tests must also be standardized
reliability). In all cases, if the test is (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2015).
reliable then the scores being compared
Test standardization refers to two
should be similar, or highly correlated
things. First, it means that standard
with one another.
procedures are used in giving the test.
o Validity – Just because a The instructions, answer forms, amount
psychometric test is reliable, however, of time to work and so forth are the
does not mean that it should be trusted; same for everyone. Second, it means
test validity is also important. To see finding the norm, or average score, for
why this is the case, try creating an IQ a large group of people similar to those
test with 10 questions that only you for whom the test was designed.
could possibly answer. Your test would Without standardization, we couldn’t
be very reliable: Each time you give the fairly compare the scores of people
test, everyone scores zero, except you, taking the test at different times. And
who scores 100 percent (apparently, without norms, there would be no way
you’re a genius!). Even though we all to tell whether a score is high, low, or
have days when it seems we are the average. For many tests, including
only smart person left on the planet, it intelligence tests, developers will
should be obvious this wouldn’t be a establish norms for a variety of groups,
great intelligence test. A test must also including different age groups, sexes, or
have validity; in other words, it should races.
WAYS TO MEASURE INTELLIGENCE but lazy). So Binet and an associate
created a test made up of
Intelligence can be measured in a
“intellectual” questions and
number of different ways. of them:
problems. Next, they learned which
general aptitude tests, the Stanford-
questions an average child could
Binet test, and the Wechsler Scales.
answer at each age. By comparing
o General Aptitude Tests - An test scores of individual children to
aptitude is a capacity for learning the average score for their ages,
certain abilities. Persons with they could tell whether a child was
mechanical, artistic, or musical performing up to his or her potential,
aptitudes are likely to do well in careers which is also known as their mental age
involving mechanics, art, or music, (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2018). For
respectively. Are there tests for general example, an 8-year-old with a below-
aptitudes? How are they different from average mental age (perhaps
intelligence tests? Aptitude tests performing at the level of typical 6-year-
measure a narrower range of abilities old) would struggle with age-
than do intelligence tests (Kaplan & appropriate schoolwork.
Saccuzzo, 2018). For example, special
American psychologists quickly
aptitude tests predict whether you will
saw the value of Alfred Binet’s test. By
succeed in a single area, such as
1916, Lewis Terman and others at
clerical work or computer programming
Stanford University had revised it for
Multiple aptitude tests use in North America. After more
measure two or more types of ability. revisions, the Stanford-Binet
These tests tend to be more like Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5),
intelligence tests, and it’s possible that continues to be widely used. The SB5
you’ve taken one yourself. For example, primarily is made up of age-ranked
the National Career Assessment questions that get a little harder at each
Examination (NCAE), as do the tests for age level. The SB5 is appropriate for
entry into graduate schools of law, people from age 2 to 85+ years, and
medicine, business, and dentistry. Each scores on the test are very reliable
of these group tests is designed to (Roid & Pomplun, 2012).
predict your chances for success in
The SB5 measures five cognitive
college programs. Because the tests
factors, or mental abilities, thought to
measure general knowledge and a
make up general intelligence: fluid
variety of mental aptitudes (language,
reasoning (roughly related to fluid
math, and reasoning), each can also be
intelligence), knowledge (roughly
used to estimate intelligence. The
related to crystallized intelligence),
broadest aptitude measures are general
quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial
intelligence tests, which assess a wide
processing, and working memory. Each
variety of intellectual abilities (Kaplan &
factor is measured with verbal
Saccuzzo, 2018).
questions (those involving words and
o Stanford Binet Intelligence Test – numbers) and nonverbal questions
Alfred Binet, the French Minister of (items that use pictures and objects). If
Education, wanted to find a way to you were to take the SB5, you would be
distinguish slower students from assessing your general intelligence (g-
the more capable (or the capable factor, or the overall score), verbal
intelligence (the score on the verbal tests yield a single overall intelligence
questions), nonverbal intelligence (the (g-factor) score. In addition, these tests
score on the nonverbal questions), and also have separate scores for
each of the five cognitive factors (Roid performance (nonverbal) intelligence,
& Pomplun, 2012). From such tests, and verbal intelligence—language- or
German psychologist William Stern symbol-oriented intelligence.
derived the famous term intelligence
quotient, or IQ. The IQ was simply a LESSON NO. 8.2
person’s mental age divided by
chronological age and multiplied by 100
INFLUENCES OF
to get rid of the decimal point. Thus, an INTELLIGENCE
average child, whose mental age (8)
GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
and chronological age (8) are the same,
INFLUENCES OF INTELLIGENCE
has an IQ of 100. But an 8-year-old who
answers questions as would a typical Like the vast majority of our
10- year-old has an IQ of 125: traits, psychologists agree that
intelligence is a product of both genes
and environment. The question of how
much each contributes, however, can
be contentious. Some psychologists
The original IQ formula worked
believe that intelligence is strongly
fairly well for children but not for adults.
affected by heredity. Others feel that
(Should a 40- year-old who does as well
environment is dominant. Let’s examine
on the test as an average 20-year-old
the evidence for each view.
be assigned an IQ of only 50?) Most
current intelligence tests, including the HEREDITARY AND INTELLIGENCE
Stanford-Binet, no longer compute an IQ
Heritability is the portion of
in this manner (though the term IQ still
variation among individuals in a group
lingers as a shorthand expression for
that we can attribute to genes.
“intelligence test score”). Instead, they
Estimates of the heritability of
assign a score that represents a test-
intelligence—the extent to which
taker’s performance relative to the
intelligence test score variation within a
average performance (which is
group can be attributed to genetic
arbitrarily set at 100) of others the
variation—range from 50 to 80 percent.
same age. Most people—about 68
Does this mean that we can assume
percent of those taking an intelligence
that 50–80 percent of your intelligence
test—fall between 85 and 115.
is due to your genes, and the rest to
o Wechsler Tests - Psychologist David your environment? No. Heritability
Wechsler created what is now the most never applies to an individual, only to
widely used individual intelligence test, why people in a group differ from one
the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale— another.
Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV), together with a
➢ Twin Studies
version for school-age children (the
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children One evidence that can help
— Fifth Edition [WISC]), and another for understand the influence of genes in
preschool children (Evers et al., 2012). intelligence is the twin studies. Notice in
Like the Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler the figure, IQ scores of fraternal twins,
are more alike than IQs of ordinary environments would tend to inflate
brothers and sisters. Fraternal twins apparent genetic effects by making the
come from two separate eggs that are separated twins’ IQ more alike. Another
fertilized at the same time. They are no frequently overlooked fact is that twins
more genetically alike than ordinary grow up in the same environment
siblings. Why, then, should the twins’ IQ before birth (in the womb). Taking these
scores be more similar? The reason is ideas into account, it’s possible that
environmental: Parents likely treat intelligence may be less than 50
fraternal twins more alike than ordinary percent heritable (Nisbett et al., 2012;
siblings, resulting in a closer match in Turkheimer et al., 2003); however,
IQs. arriving at a specific number is likely to
be impossible. What’s clear from these
More striking similarities are
twin studies is that genes do make an
observed with identical twins, who
important contribution to the cognitive
develop from a single egg and have
abilities that are measured by IQ tests.
identical genes. At the top of figure, you
can see that identical twins who grow There’s an interesting twist on the
up in the same family have highly heritability of intelligence, though: It
correlated IQs. Their scores are nearly has a developmental component. This
as similar as those of the same person means that the importance of genes as
taking the same test twice. This is contributors to intelligence changes as
expected with an identical genome and we move across lifespan. Their
very similar environments. But what importance changes in a way that is the
happens if when identical twins are opposite of what people typically
reared apart? As you can see, the expect. We’ve noted that heritability
correlation drops, but only from .86 estimates are approximately 50
to .72. Figures like these show that percent, but that number is much lower
differences in adult intelligence are in childhood, and it gets higher as we
roughly 50 percent hereditary (Jacobs et age. Put another way, genes make less
al., 2008; Nisbett et al., 2012). Identical of a contribution to measures of
twins also exhibit substantial similarity intelligence in childhood, but they have
(and heritability) in their personality an increasing influence as we move into
traits, their specific talents, such as adulthood (Sauce and Matzel, 2018).
music, math, and sports. Scans also
➢ Are there known genes for
reveal that identical twins’ brains have
genius?
similar gray- and white-matter volume,
and the areas associated with verbal When 100 researchers pooled
and spatial intelligence are virtually the their data on 269,867 people, all of the
same. Their brains also show similar gene variations analyzed accounted for
activity while doing mental tasks. This only about 5 percent of the differences
suggests that heredity contributes to in educational achievement (Savage et
personality as well as intelligence. al., 2018). Another analysis of genes
from 1.1 million people accounted for
However, it is also important to
about 12 percent of their educational
know and consider that identical twins
attainment differences (Lee et al.,
reared apart are often placed in
2018). The search for smart genes
adoptive homes that are socially and
continues. Some have wondered: Might
educationally similar. These similar
IVF (in vitro fertilization) physicians
screen candidate embryos for functions, which help us regulate and
intelligence genes? Statistical coordinate our thoughts. However,
geneticists report that, for the intelligence involves more than just the
foreseeable future, the intelligence gain frontal lobes. The extent to which the
from embryo selection would be frontal cortex is interconnected with
minimal (Kaiser, 2019). That’s because other parts of the brain also matters, as
intelligence is polygenetic, involving intelligence relies on the coordination of
many genes. Wendy Johnson (2010) multiple brain regions. Additionally,
likens the polygenetic effect to height: brain imaging studies show that people
More than 50 specific gene variations with higher IQs tend to have larger
together account for 5 percent of our areas in both the frontal cortex and
individual height differences, leaving other parts of the brain, highlighting the
the rest yet to be discovered. What complexity of intelligence and its
matters for intelligence (as for height, dependence on various brain areas
personality, sexual orientation, working together.
schizophrenia, or just about any human
▪ Effects on the Functioning of the
trait) is the combination of many genes
Nervous System
— including 52 intelligence-linked genes
identified in one pooling of findings Researchers are also studying
from nearly 80,000 people (Sniekers et how differences in brain function
al., 2017). contribute to intelligence. One idea is
that intelligent people have brains that
➢ How Genes Influence Intelligence
work more efficiently, while another is
If genes influence intelligence, it’s that their nervous systems respond
worth asking how and where they exert more quickly. To explore this, scientists
their effects. Since IQ tests rely heavily measure how fast individuals process
on tasks involving the central nervous information, often using reaction time—
system (the brain and spinal cord), the the time it takes to respond to a
question arises: what exactly are these stimulus. Studies also record brain
genes coding for? What makes the activity following a stimulus to assess
nervous system of someone who the brain’s speed and efficiency.
performs well on an IQ test different? Generally, people with higher IQs tend
Let’s explore two possibilities: first, that to respond faster in these tasks, and
genes may contribute to differences in brain areas involved in higher mental
the structure of the nervous system; the abilities show increased activity during
second is that these structural reaction time tests. These findings
differences may result in corresponding suggest that a quick and efficient
changes to its functioning. nervous system is part of what it means
to be smart, swift, or brainy.
▪ Effects on the Structure of the
Nervous System In addition to speed, though,
much Intelligent behavior also reflects
Your genome plays a key role in
the quality of our thinking skills.
human development, including the
According to cognitive psychologist
development of the brain. The brain’s
David Perkins, how smart a person is
frontal lobes, particularly the prefrontal
depending on three factors:
area, are linked to higher-level mental
processes, known as executive
o Relatively fixed neural statues (SES). Dutch developmental
intelligence (the speed and efficiency psychologist Marinus van IJzendoorn
of the nervous system) conducted two major meta-analyses to
explore this. The first, involving 62
o Experiential intelligence
studies and 18,000 children, found that
(specialized knowledge and skills
adopted children had IQ scores
acquired over time)
averaging 17.6 points higher than those
o Reflective intelligence (an ability to who were not adopted. The second
become aware of one’s own thinking meta-analysis, investigated 3,800
habits). children in 19 countries, showed that
children adopted from orphanages had
While neural intelligence is mostly
IQ scores averaging 16.5 points higher
unchangeable, people can enhance
than non-adopted children.
their intelligence by increasing their
Interestingly, the IQ difference was
experiential knowledge. Prior
slightly smaller in orphanage locates in
knowledge stored in long-term memory
countries with a higher Human
plays a key role in learning, as the more
Development Index (11.9 points)
you know, the faster you can process
compared to those with a lower index
new information. Reflective intelligence
(21 points), further emphasizing the
allows individuals to develop
role of environmental factors like living
metacognitive skills—thinking about
conditions and quality of life.
how they think. These skills include
breaking problems into smaller parts, ➢ The Flynn Effect
setting goals, tracking progress, and
Many psychologists now agree
making adjustments. Mastering
that IQ scores in Western, industrialized
metacognitive strategies is an essential
nations have risen over the last 50 or so
step toward becoming more intelligent.
years (Flynn, 2012; Williams, 2013). If
our grandparents scored an IQ of 100,
50 years ago, they might score as low
as about 70 on today’s IQ tests.
Conversely, if your IQ is 100 today, 50
years ago you might have scored as
ENVIRONMENT AND INTELLIGENCE
much as 130 on the old IQ tests. This
Genes’ contribution to brain rapid rise in IQ,
development is only part of the story.
referred to as the Flynn effect after the
Evidence shows that the environment
discoverer, New Zealand psychologist
has a role to play in intelligence. This is
James Flynn, has occurred in far too
supported by findings from adoption
short a time to be explained by
studies, long- term studies of the Flynn
genetics. Instead, it is more likely that
effect, and research examining the
the gains reflect environmental factors
impact of formal education.
(Flynn, 2012; Rindermann, Becker, &
➢ Adoption studies Coyle, 2017).
Adoption studies provide evidence Flynn attributes this rise to the
for the environmental influence on increasing complexity of modern life,
intelligence, particularly for children which demands more abstract thinking
adopted from low socioeconomic and problem-solving skills. Tasks like
setting up technology or navigating programs likely help children develop
online forms push people to improve other important skills, such as self-
these abilities. Additionally, video regulation, problem-solving, and
games, the Internet, and television are emotional stability. Additionally, by
more intellectually engaging than enabling parents to work and improve
before, requiring greater cognitive their family’s standard of living, ECE
effort. In the end, popular culture may programs may contribute to a better
well be inviting us to read, reflect, and overall environment for children’s
problem solve more than ever before development.
(Jaeggi et al., 2008). Our intelligence,
GENE–ENVIRONMENT
along with the ways we measure it,
INTERACTIONS
cannot easily reseparated from the
social and cultural context of the Genes and experience together
particular places and times in which we weave the fabric of intelligence.
grow up. Epigenetics studies part of the dynamic
biology of this nature–nurture meeting
➢ Formal Education
place. With all our abilities—whether
The Flynn effect suggests that life mental or physical—our genes shape
experiences can raise IQ scores, leading the experiences that shape us. If you
to questions about whether formal have a natural aptitude for sports, you
education can boost intelligence. Early will probably play more of others. Or, if
childhood education (ECE) programs, you have a natural aptitude for
like Head Start, aim to provide academics, you will more likely stay in
disadvantaged preschool children with school, read books, and ask questions—
quality educational experiences to all of which will increase your brain
prepare them for school. power. The same would be true for your
identical twin—who might, not just for
Initial research showed mixed
genetic reasons, also become a star
results, with academic improvements
performer. In these gene–environment
seeming to fade over time. However,
interactions, small genetic advantages
recent high-quality studies have found
can trigger social experiences that
long-term benefits. For example,
multiply our original skills (Sauce &
children in ECE programs are less likely
Matzel, 2018).
to be placed in special education
classes and more likely to graduate Environmental conditions can
from high school. Large-scale research significantly impact cognitive and
on the Head Start program revealed physical development, either enhancing
even more significant outcomes, or hindering it. Severe deprivation, such
including higher rates of high school as in poorly managed orphanages, has
graduation, a 9% increase in college been shown to stunt development, as
enrollments, and a 19% increase in seen in an Iranian orphanage where
college graduation rates. children failed to achieve basic
milestones. A lack of responsive
caregiving led to passivity and delayed
The exact reasons for these development, but when caregivers were
benefits remain unclear. While trained to engage infants in interactive
academic skills like reading and math language activities, dramatic
may not be the primary factor, these improvements followed, with children
developing language skills and gaining Many motivated activities begin
the interest of adoptive families. with a need, or internal deficiency.
Needs cause a drive (state of bodily
tension that arises from an unmet need)
Poor environmental conditions, to develop. Drives activate a response
often linked to poverty, can suppress (an action or series of actions) designed
cognitive development and impair to push us toward a goal (the target of
performance due to stress and
motivated behavior). Reaching a goal
distractions. For example, studies have
that satisfies the need ends the chain of
shown that financial worries can
events. Thus, a simple model of
diminish cognitive capacity, as
motivation can be shown in this way:
demonstrated by sugar cane farmers in
India who scored higher on cognitive
tests after receiving payment.

While enriched environments

cannot transform a normal infant into a
genius, providing adequate sensory, Aren’t needs and drives the
social, and linguistic exposure is crucial same thing? No. The strength of needs
for healthy development. Intensive and drives can differ (Deckers, 2014).
enrichment programs for older children, For example, it is not unusual for older
particularly in preschool, have shown people to suffer from dehydration (a
positive results, especially for children physical need for water) despite
from disadvantaged backgrounds. experiencing a lack of thirst (the drive
Programs like quality preschool to drink) (Begg, Sinclair, & Weisinger,
experiences, nutritional supplements for 2012). Usually, our actions are
pregnant mothers and infants, and energized by a mixture of internal
interactive reading initiatives have all needs and external incentives. That’s
been found to modestly but significantly why a strong need may change an
boost intelligence scores. unpleasant incentive into a desired
goal.

Theory of Motivation
LESSON NO. 9.1
Classifying motives can be useful
Basics of Motivation for predicting how people will behave
under certain conditions; however, the
The Basics of Motivation classification systems differ in their
What are your goals? Why do you focus. In this section, we’ll look at three
pursue them? When are you satisfied? systems. The first stems from self-
When do you give up? These are all determination theory. The second is a
questions about motivation, or why we more complex model developed by
act as we do. Psychologists believe that humanist Abraham Maslow. Finally, we’ll
motivation refers to the dynamics of consider a simplified model of
behavior—the ways in which our actions classifying motives that fits both self-
are aroused, maintained, and guided determination theory and Maslow’s
(Deckers, 2014; Petri & Govern, 2013). work.

A Model of Motivation A. Self-Determination theory

 According to self-determination choice (Moneta, 2012; Murayama et al.,
theory, we are all motivated by three 2015). Moreover, when extrinsic
innate motives: competence (our desire motivation is stressed, people are less
to experience mastery over our likely to solve tricky problems and come
environment), autonomy (our desire to up with innovative ideas (Hennessey &
control our own lives), and relatedness Amabile, 2010). While some popular
(our desire to be connected to, and care press reports have suggested that
for other people). younger adults are more motivated by
intrinsic factors than older adults when
Self-determination theory stresses
selecting and persisting in a job, large-
the importance of freedom of choice
scale studies in the United States and
and classifies motives depending on
elsewhere indicate that this is not the
whether you are doing something
case (Heyns & Kerr, 2018; Twenge et
because it inherently brings you
al., 2010). Apparently, finding value and
pleasure, or because there are outside
intrinsic reward in your career path is
forces that are compelling you to act
important at any age.
(Olafsen et al., 2015; Ryan, Curren, &
Deci, 2013). For example, some people
cook for a living and consider it hard
work. Others cook for pleasure and
dream of opening a restaurant. For B. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
some people, gardening is gratifying
One of the limitations of self-
and a wonderful way to relax. For
determination theory is that it does not
others, it’s the equivalent of having to
focus on more “basic” biological
do housework outdoors.
motives such as eating, drinking, and
Intrinsic motivation occurs sex. A more comprehensive
when we act based on internal rewards classification system that accounts for
without any obvious external rewards. such motives was proposed by Abraham
We simply enjoy an activity or see it as Maslow. Specifically, Maslow proposed
an opportunity to explore, learn, and that we humans experience a hierarchy
actualize our potential. In contrast, of needs, in which some needs are more
extrinsic motivation stems from factors basic or powerful than others.
outside of the person, such as pay,
Maslow’s hierarchy is often
grades, rewards, obligations, and
represented as a pyramid that shows
approval. Most of the activities we think
basic, biological needs at the bottom
of as “work” are extrinsically rewarded
and higher-level needs for personal
(Murayama et al., 2017).
fulfillment at the top). It’s worth noting
It’s important to note that that historians have suggested that
although salaries and bonuses may representing the hierarchy of needs as
increase the amount of work done, a pyramid was not Maslow’s idea, but
people are not motivated solely by instead became very popular when his
external rewards such as money. A theory was applied to the issue of
chance to do challenging, interesting, managing employees in a business
and intrinsically rewarding work is often setting (Bridgman, Cummings, &
just as important. Work quality is Ballard, 2019). Along the way, some of
affected more by intrinsic factors, such Maslow’s ideas have been
as personal interest and freedom of misrepresented and oversimplified, so
let’s take a closer look at what he had fulfillment and satisfaction. In both
to say. cases, growth needs are being
addressed while basic needs for food
Maslow believed that basic needs
and safety are not (Bridgman et al.,
related to our physical survival
2019).
(physiological needs; safety and
security) must be met for us to live, and Maslow’s hierarchy is not well
consequently they tend to be prepotent, documented by research, and studies
or dominant, in our everyday lives. that have been carried out raise
Other basic needs are for love and questions about his definition of self-
belonging (family, friendship, caring) actualization and the applicability of the
and esteem and self-esteem model in other cultures. Despite such
(recognition and self-respect). All the objections, Maslow’s work was
basic needs are deficiency motives— important in raising awareness about
that is, they are activated by a lack of the rich interplay of very diverse human
food, water, security, love, esteem, and motives (Peterson & Park, 2010).
so on.
LESSON NO. 9.2
At the top of the hierarchy, we
find growth needs, which are expressed CLASSIFICATION OF
as a need for self-actualization. If our
MOTIVES
basic needs are met, he said, we tend
to move on to actualizing our potential Three-Way Classification of Motives
(Tay & Diener, 2011). For instance, a
A third and final method for classifying
person who is starving (physiological
motives groups them into three major
needs not met) or feeling threatened
categories:
(safety needs not met) might have little
interest in writing poetry or even talking 1. Biological motives are based on
with friends as a way of meeting higher- innate needs that must be met for
level needs (Noltemeyer et al., 2012). survival. The most important biological
The need for self-actualization is not motives are hunger, thirst, pain
based on deficiencies; rather, it is a avoidance, and the needs for air, sleep,
positive, life-enhancing force for elimination of wastes, and regulation of
personal growth (D’Souza & Gurin, body temperature. Satisfyingbiological
2016). needs is so routine that we overlook the
extent to which they guide our
It is important to realize, however,
behavior.
that Maslow was clear on the point that
the dominance of basic needs is not Biological drives are essential
absolute. Instead, his original work was because they maintain homeostasis or
sensitive to the fact that culture and bodily equilibrium (Cooper, 2008). The
circumstances might lead to needs term homeostasis means “standing
emerging in a different order than the steady” or “steady state.” Optimal
one outlined in the pyramid. For level exists for body temperature,
example, think of a person who fasts as chemicals in the blood, blood pressure
part of a social protest, or someone who and so forth (Goel, 2012; Petri &
engages in humanitarian work in a Govern, 2013). When the body deviates
dangerous war zone because their from these “ideal” levels, automatic
efforts bring them a sense of personal reactions begin to restore equilibrium
(Deckers, 2014). Thus, it might help to 2014). However, “male” hormones also
think of homeostasis as similar to a affect the female sex drive.
thermostat set at a particular
Perhaps the most interesting fact
temperature.
about the sex drive is that it is largely
Let us dig more deeply into five specific non-homeostatic – relatively
biological motives: sex, sleep, pain, independent of the body need states. In
humans, the sex drive can be aroused
thirst, and hunger.
at virtually any time by almost
● Sex anything. Therefore, it shows no clear
relationship to deprivation (the amount
Sex is unlike most other biological
of time since the drive was last
motives because (contrary to anything
satisfied). Certainly, an increase in
your personal experience might
desire may occur as time passes. But
suggest) it is not necessary for
recent sexual activity does not prevent
individual survival. It is necessary, of
sexual desire from occurring again.
course, for group survival. The term sex
Notice, too, that people may seek to
drive refers to the strength of one’s
arouse the sex drive as well as to
motivation to engage in sexual
reduce it. This unusual quality means
behavior. In lower animals, the sex drive
that the sex drive is capable of
is directly related to hormones. Female
motivating a wide range of behaviors.
mammals (other than humans) are
(It also explains why sex is used to sell
interested in mating only when their
almost everything imaginable.)
fertility cycles are in the stage of estrus,
or “heat.” Estrus is caused by a The non-homeostatic quality of
release of estrogen (one of several the sex drive is illustrated by the fact
types of female sex hormone) into the that a male animal that is allowed to
bloodstream. Hormones are important copulate until it seems to have no
in males as well. But in contrast to further interest in sexual behavior will
females, the normal male animal is cease sexual activity. However, if a new
almost always ready to mate. His sex sexual partner is provided, the animal
drive is aroused primarily by the will often resume sexual activity
behavior and scent of a receptive immediately. This pattern is called the
female. Therefore, in many species, Coolidge effect, after former US
mating is closely tied to female fertility president Calvin Coolidge.
cycles.
● Sleep and Circadian Rhythms
How much do hormones affect
Our motivation also can vary over
human sex drives? Hormones affect
longer cycles, guided by internal
them human sex drive, but not as
“biological clocks.”
directly as in animals (Rosenthal, 2013).
The sex drive in men is related to the Every 24 hours, your body
number of androgens (male hormones undergoes a cycle of changes called a
such as testosterone) provided by the circadian rhythm (SUR-kay-dee-AN;
testes. When the supply of androgens circa: about; diem: a day) (Abbott, Reid,
dramatically increases at puberty, so & Zee, 2015; Goel, 2012). Throughout
does the male sex drive. Likewise, the the day, activities in the liver, kidneys,
sex drive in women is related to their and endocrine glands undergo large
estrogen levels (Hyde & DeLamater,
changes. Body temperature, blood ● Pain
pressure,
Not all drives are governed by
and amino acid levels also shift from circadian rhythms. While hunger, thirst,
hour to hour. These activities, and many and sleepiness come and go in a fairly
others, peak once a day. People are regular cycle each day, pain avoidance
usually more motivated and alert at the is an episodic drive: It occurs in distinct
high point, or peak, of their circadian episodes when bodily damage takes
rhythms (Bass & Takahashi, 2010; place or is about to occur. Most drives
Chipman & Jin, 2009). People with early prompt us to actively seek a desired
peaks in their circadian rhythms are goal (food, drink, warmth, and so forth).
“day people,” who wake up alert, are Pain prompts us to avoid or eliminate
energetic early in the day, and fall sources of discomfort.
asleep early in the evening. People with
● Thirst
later peaks are “night people,” who
wake up groggy, are lively in the Thirst is regulated by separate
afternoon or early evening, and stay up thirst and thirst satiety systems in a
late (Martynhak et al., 2010). small subcortical area of the brain
called the hypothalamus. However, you
What can be done to cope with
may be surprised to learn that thirst is
circadian rhythm disturbances?
only partially controlled by dryness of
Circadian rhythms are partially the mouth. If you were to take a drug
controlled by variations in levels of that made your mouth constantly wet
melatonin, a hormone produced by the or dry, for example, your water intake
pineal gland. Normally, when light would remain normal.
levels fall inthe evening, melatonin
Moreover, there are two different
levels rise; conversely, when light levels
kinds of thirst (Thornton, 2010).
rise in the morning, melatonin levels
Extracellular thirst occurs when water is
fall (hence the nickname “Dracula
lost from the fluids surrounding the cells
hormone”). Because of this, taking
of your body. Bleeding, vomiting,
small doses of melatonin just before
diarrhea, sweating, and drinking alcohol
bedtime for a few evenings may help
cause this type of thirst (Petri & Govern,
synchronize circadian rhythms to the
2013). When a person loses both water
day–night cycle.
and minerals in any of these ways—
Light exposure can also help. especially by perspiration—a slightly
Bright light affects the timing of body salty liquid such as Gatorade may be
rhythms by reducing the amount of more satisfying than plain water.
melatonin produced by the pineal
A second type of thirst occurs
gland. For this reason, a few
when you eat a salty meal. In this
intermittent five-minute periods of
instance, your body does not lose fluid.
exposure to bright light early in the
Instead, excess salt causes fluid to be
morning are helpful for resetting your
drawn out of your body’s cells. As the
circadian rhythm (Dodson & Zee, 2010).
cells “shrink,” intracellular thirst is
In contrast, even dim light at night can
triggered. Thirst of this type is best
upset circadian rhythms, reducing sleep
quenched by plain water (Thornton,
quality and causing weight gain (Fonken
2010).
et al., 2013).
● Hunger has demonstrated that if the
ventromedial hypothalamus is
What causes hunger? Many different
destroyed, dramatic overeating results.
factors combine to promote and
suppress hunger (Young, 2012). Finally, the paraventricular
Although no single “hunger thermostat” nucleus of the hypothalamus also
exists, the hypothalamus (HI-po- affects hunger (see Figure 10.6). This
THALamus) is especially important in area helps keep blood sugar levels
managing hunger, just as it is in the steady by both starting and stopping
control of thirst (Young, 2012). eating. It’s worth noting that it takes at
least 10 minutes for the hypothalamus
The hypothalamus receives neural
to respond after you begin eating.
messages from the tongue and
That’s why you are less likely to overeat
digestive system and is sensitive to
if you eat slowly and give your brain
levels of a variety of substances in the
time to get the message that you’ve
blood such as sugar. For example, as
had enough (Liu et al.,2000).
the levels of blood sugar (glucose) drop,
the liver responds by sending nerve Internal Factors and the Long-Term
impulses to the brain. When combined, Control of Weight
these signals provide an indication
In addition to determining when
about your level of hunger (Freberg,
to start eating and when meals are
2016; Woods & Ramsay, 2011).
over, your brain also controls your
(Incidentally, the hypothalamus also
weight over long periods of time. Like a
responds to a chemical in cannabis that
thermostat, your brain maintains a set
can produce intense hunger, sometimes
point in order to control your weight
known as the “munchies” [Koch et al.,
over
2015].)
the long term. It does this by monitoring
Three parts of the hypothalamus
the amount of fat stored in your body in
seem to have a role in hunger and
specialized fat cells (Gloria-Bottini,
eating. The first is the lateral
Magrini, & Bottini, 2009; Vieira &
hypothalamus, which acts as a
Valentine, 2009).
feeding “start button” and can be
activated in a variety of ways. (The Your set point is the weight that
term lateral simply refers to the sides of you maintain when you are not trying to
the hypothalamus.) If the lateral gain or lose weight. When your body
hypothalamus is “turned on” with an weight goes below its set point, you will
electrified probe, even a well-fed animal feel hungry most of the time. On the
immediately begins eating. If the same other hand, fat cells release a
area is destroyed (hence no “start substance called leptin when your
button”), the animal may never eat weight climbs above the set point and
again. your “spare tire” is well inflated. Leptin
is carried in the bloodstream to the
A second area in the
hypothalamus, where it tells us to eat
hypothalamus- the ventromedial
less (Woods & Ramsay, 2011).
hypothalamus-functions as a “stop
button” (Ribeiro et al., 2009). Can you change your fat set point?
(Ventromedial refers to the bottom Your leptin levels are partly under
middle of the hypothalamus.) Research genetic control. In rare cases, mice (and
we humans) inherit a genetic defect token, vegans and vegetarians shun
that reduces leptin levels in the body, eating any kind of meat. In short,
leading to obesity. In such cases, taking cultural values greatly affect the
leptin can help (Berman et al., 2013). incentive value of foods.
For the rest of us, the news is not so
Taste and Plenty. You may have
encouraging. Currently, there is no
noticed that if you eat too much of any
known way to lower your set point for
particular food, it becomes less
fat because the number of fat cells
appealing. Overindulging a particular
remains unchanged throughout adult
food can even lead to taste aversion, or
life (Spalding et al., 2008). To make
active dislike, for a particular food. This
matters worse, radical diets do not help;
can happen if a food causes sickness or
in fact, they may even raise the set
if it is merely associated with nausea
point for fat (Ahima & Osei, 2004). The
(Chance, 2014).
good news is that while you may not be
able to lose weight by resetting your But what if getting sick occurs
hypothalamus, psychologists have a long time after eating? How does
studied more effective approaches to the nausea become associated with a
weight loss. particular food? That’s a good question.
Taste aversions are a type of classical
External Factors that Control
conditioning. A long delay between the
Eating:
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the
External Eating Cues. Most of unconditioned stimulus (US) usually
us are sensitive to the “pull” of external reduces the effectiveness of
eating cues, signs and signals linked conditioning. However, psychologists
with food. In cultures like ours, in which theorize that we have a biological
food is plentiful, eating cues add greatly preparedness to associate an upset
to the risk of overeating (Casey et al., stomach with foods eaten previously.
2008). Many college freshmen gain Such learning usually protects us from
weight rapidly during their first three eating unhealthily foods. These shifts in
months on campus (the famous “Frosh taste probably help us maintain variety
15”). All you-can-eat dining halls in the in our diets and even avoid severe
dorms and night-time snacking appear nutritional imbalances.
to be the culprits (Kapinos & Yakusheva,
Dieting. A diet is not just a way
2011). The presence of others also can
to lose weight. Your current diet is
affect whether people overeat
defined by the types and amounts of
(orundereat), depending on how much
food you regularly eat. Some diets
everyone else is eating and how
actually tend to encourage overeating,
important it is to impress them (Pliner &
especially those that are high in sugar
Mann, 2004).
and fat (Dobson & Gerstner, 2010).
Cultural Factors. Learning to Dieting (starving) slows the body’s rate
think of some foods as desirable and of metabolism (the rate at which the
others as revolting has a large impact energy is used). In effect, a dieter’s
on what we eat. In North America, we body becomes highly efficient at
would never consider eating the eyes conserving calories and storing them as
out of the steamed head of a monkey, fat (Pinel, Assanand, & Lehman, 2000).
but in some parts of the world, they are
considered a delicacy. By the same
 To avoid bouncing between
feast and famine, a permanent
change in eating habits and
exercise is required. Such an Arousal Theory
approach is called behavioral dieting
Are stimulus motives
(Freedman, 2011; Kiernan et al., 2013),
homeostatic? Yes. According to arousal
and emphasizes actions such as
theory, we try to keep the arousal that
recording food intake in a “diet diary,”
stems from external stimuli at an
thinking carefully about your personal
optimal level (Güçlütürk, Jacobs, & van
eating cues (e.g., establishing when and
Lier, 2016; Petri & Govern, 2013).
where you do most of your eating and
Arousal refers to the activation of the
avoiding those situations), and
body and nervous system. Arousal is
developing techniques to control eating
zero at death, low during sleep,
(e.g., smaller portions, eating slowly,
moderate during normal daily activities,
and putting food away before leaving
and high at times of excitement,
the kitchen). Such approaches also
intense emotion, or panic.
stress the need to develop a balanced,
healthy diet that you can stick with over More importantly, the level of
the long term (that is, one that includes arousal that people experience is
foods that you like and doesn’t make closely linked with their motivation.
you feel as though you are being Arousal theory assumes that we
starved) and committing to regular become uncomfortable when arousal is
exercise. too low (“I’m bored”) or too high
(“We’re ready to begin your root canal
2. Stimulus motives express our
now”). In other words, when your level
needs for stimulation and information.
of arousal is too low or too high, you will
Examples include activity, curiosity,
seek ways to raise or lower it to achieve
exploration, manipulation, and physical
homeostasis. The right mix of activities
contact. Although such motives also
prevents boredom and overstimulation
appear to be innate, they are not
(Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh, &
strictly necessary for survival.
Nakamura, 2005).
Stimulus motives, which reflect needs
Do people vary in their needs
for information, exploration,
for stimulation? Arousal theory
manipulation, and sensory input, go
suggests that people learn to seek
beyond mere entertainment. Stimulus
particular levels of arousal (Lynne-
motives also help us survive. As we
Landsman et al., 2011). Where would
scan the external environment, we
you prefer to go on your next summer
constantly identify stimuli such as
vacation? Your backyard? How about a
sources of food, danger, shelter, and
week with your best friends at a cottage
other key details. The drive for
on a nearby lake? Or a shopping and
stimulation is already present during
museum trip to New York City? How
infancy. By the time a child can walk,
about scuba diving with sharks?
few things in the home have not been
tasted, touched, viewed, handled, or, in If the shark adventure attracts
the case of toys, destroyed you, you are probably high in sensation
seeking, a trait of people who prefer
high levels of stimulation (Lynne-
Landsman et al., 2011). Whether you see the inverted U shape, and as tasks
are a high or low sensation seeking is become even more complex your
probably based on how your body best performance will occur at
responds to new, unusual, or intense lower and lower levels of arousal.
simulation. Low sensation seekers are On the graph in Figure 10.9, this means
orderly, nurturant, and giving, and that as task difficulty increases, the
enjoy the company of others. In inverted-U curve moves to the left and
contrast, people with high sensation peak performance is achieved at lower
seeking tend to be bold, independent, levels of arousal.
and value change.
3. Learned motives are based on
Arousal and Peak learned needs, drives, and goals. Often
Performance. If we set aside individual social in nature, learned motives help
differences, most people perform best explain many human activities, such as
when their arousal level is moderate. running for office or auditioning for a
Let’s say that you have to take an essay reality show. Many learned motives are
exam. If you are feeling sleepy, lazy, or related to learned needs for power,
bored (arousal level too low), your achievement, affiliation (the need to be
performance will suffer. If you are in a with others), approval, status, and
state of anxiety or panic about the test security.
(arousal level too high), you also will
Learned motives are not as
perform below par. Thus, the
closely linked to survival as biological
relationship between arousal and
and stimulus motives. Instead, their
performance usually forms an inverted,
power comes from learned needs that
or upside-down, U function, a
are associated with concepts that
relationship referred to as the Yerkes-
humans value. For example, you will no
Dodson law (Petri & Govern, 2013).
doubt recognize that some of your
The inverted U tells us that at friends are more motivated than others
very low levels of arousal, you’re not by success, achievement, competition,
sufficiently energized to perform well. money, possessions, status, love,
Performance will improve as your approval, grades, dominance, power, or
arousal level increases, up to the middle belonging to groups. All of these are
of the curve. Then, performance begins social motives or goals. We acquire
to drop off as arousal continues to social motives through learning,
increase and you become anxious, including socialization and cultural
emotional, frenzied, or disorganized. conditioning (Deckers, 2014). The
behavior of many newsworthy
Is performance always best at
individuals is best understood in terms
moderate levels of arousal? No.
of such learned social motives,
According to the original theory
particularly the need for achievement
advanced by Yerkes and Dodson, the
and the need for power, which we
ideal level of arousal depends on the
explore in the next two sections.
complexity of a task. If a task is very
simple and well-practiced, it is best Need for Achievement
for arousal to be high, and this high
To many people, being
level of arousal will not compromise
“motivated” means being interested in
performance. When a task is
achievement (Petri & Govern, 2013; van
moderately complex, you begin to
de Pol & Kavussanu, 2012). The need the pursuit of power and financial
for achievement (nAch) is a drive to success is the dark side of the American
excel in one’s endeavors (McClelland, dream. People whose main goal in life is
1961). to make lots of money tend to be poorly
adjusted and unhappy (Kasser, 2016).
People with high nAch strive to
do well any time they are evaluated
(Steinmayr & Spinath, 2009). They also
tackle tasks, they do so with
perseverance, passion, and self-
confidence (Duckworth et al, 2007;
Munroe-Chandler, Hall, & Fishbrune,
2008). They also tend to complete
difficult tasks, they earn better grades,
and they tend to excel in their
occupations. College students high in
nAch attribute success to their own
ability; they attribute failure to
insufficient effort. Thus, high-nAch
students are more likely to renew their
efforts when they perform poorly. When
the going gets tough, high achievers
get going.

Is that like the aggressive

business person who strives to
make a lot of money? Not necessarily.
It’s true that nAch may lead to wealth
and prestige, but people who are high
achievers in art, music, science, or
amateur sports may excel without
seeking riches. Such people typically
enjoy challenges and relish a chance to
test their abilities. Put another way,
they are driven by intrinsic, rather than
extrinsic, motives.

Need for Power

The need for achievement differs

from the need for power, which is a
desire to have impact or control over
others (Lammers et al., 2016;
McClelland, 1975). People with a strong
need for power want their importance
to be visible: They buy expensive
possessions, wear prestigious clothes,
and exploit relationships. In some ways,