University of Technology Sarawak

EEM3442 Electronics Engineering

Your Class: TUESDAY : 1100am – 100pm
Lecturer: Dr. Peter Yek Nai Yuh
Room 31 (Level 2 Block 8, AS2)
Phone : +6 084 367 531 / 016-8859180
Email: peter.yek@uts.edu.my
Google classroom: n6jt7mh
Google scholar: https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=Y1amErcAAAAJ&hl=en
Scopus: https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=57194903842
 EEM3442 Electronics Engineering

Progress Test 20 %
- PT1: week 6
- PT2: week 12
Assignment & Presentation 20 %
Final Exam 60 %

Course Outcomes:
 Comprehend basic principles in electronics and their applications. (C2)
 Solve arithmetic operations with signed Binary numbers and express the
logic gates with Boolean algebra. (C4)(C5)

References:
 Floyd, Thomas L. (2017). Electronic Devices (Electron Flow Version), 10th Edition,
Pearson Education.
 Floyd, Thomas L. (2015). Digital Fundamentals. 11th Edition, Pearson Education.
 Boylestad, Robert L., & Nashelsky, Louis. (2013). Electronic Devices and Circuit
Theory. 11th Edition, Pearson Education.
Chapter 1: Solid State Principles

OUTLINE:
1.1 ATOMIC THEORY
1.2 TYPES OF MATERIALS
1.3 SEMICONDUCTOR
1.4 ENERGY LEVEL
1.5 DOPING
1.6 PN JUNCTION
1.7 BIASING
Introduction to Solid State Principles

• Definition of Solid State Physics

• Solid state studies the properties and behaviors of solid materials, especially at the
atomic and molecular levels.
• Focuses on crystalline solids where atoms are arranged in periodic arrays.

• Key Concepts
• Electron Band Theory: Explains electrical, thermal, and magnetic properties of
materials.
• Quantum Mechanics: Essential for describing electron behavior in solids.

• Importance of Solid State Physics

• Drives innovations in electronics, energy solutions, and communication
technologies.
• Helps in advancing emerging fields like nanotechnology and quantum computing.

4
list of solid state products

1. Computing and Electronics 7. Magnetic and Storage Technologies

• Integrated Circuits (ICs) • Magnetoresistive Random Access Memory (MRAM)
• Microprocessors • Giant Magnetoresistance (GMR) sensors
• Solid State Drives (SSDs)
8. Medical and Scientific Instruments
• Flash Memory Devices (USB sticks, SD cards)
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) systems
2. Display Technologies • Superconducting Quantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs)
• Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
• Liquid Crystal Displays (LCDs) with Thin-Film Transistors
(TFTs)
• Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)

3. Energy Technologies
• Solar Panels (Photovoltaic cells)
• Solid State Batteries

4. Optoelectronics and Photonic Devices

• Solid State Lasers
• Fiber Optic Components (optical switches, modulators)
• Photodetectors and Solar Cells

5. Sensors and Imaging

• CMOS Image Sensors
• Hall Effect Sensors
• Thermoelectric Coolers (Peltier devices)

6. Power Electronics
• Transistors (BJT, FET, MOSFET)
• Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Gallium Nitride (GaN) power
devices 5
1.1 Atomic Theory

Dalton’s “Billiard
Ball” Model

Thomson’s “Plum
Pudding” Model

Rutherford’s Model

Quantum Mechanical Model

Bohr’s Model

Figure: Evolution of the atomic model.

1.1 Atomic Theory

Bohr Atom

The Bohr model of the atom is that electrons can circle

the nucleus only in specific orbits, which correspond to
Energy
discrete energy levels called shells.
The atomic number is the
number of protons in the nucleus.

The outermost occupied shell is

called the valence shell and
electrons that occupy this shell are
Nucleus Shell 1
called valence electrons.
Shell 2
1.1 Atomic Theory

• There is a symbolism for describing atoms which is

universally used across all scientific disciplines.

Mass number Legend

6C
12 Mass number = Number of protons
Element and neutrons
Symbol Atomic number = Number of Protons
Atomic
number
 Quantum
Mechanical
Model
Standard Notation
for Indium:
•1s² 2s² 2p⁶ 3s² 3p⁶ 4s²
3d¹⁰ 4p⁶ 5s² 4d¹⁰ 5p¹

Bohr Model:
In the Bohr Model, Indium's
electron configuration is structured
as follows:
•K-shell (1st shell): 2 electrons
•L-shell (2nd shell): 8 electrons
•M-shell (3rd shell): 18 electrons
•N-shell (4th shell): 18 electrons
•O-shell (5th shell): 3 electrons

9
Electron filling

s orbital: Can hold 2

electrons.
p orbital: Can hold 6 electrons
(3 orbitals, each holding 2
electrons).
d orbital: Can hold 10
electrons (5 orbitals, each
holding 2 electrons).
f orbital: Can hold 14
electrons (7 orbitals, each
holding 2 electrons).

1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p → 5s → 4d → 5p → 6s → 4f → 5d
→ 6p → 7s → 5f → 6d → 7p
10
1.2 Type of materials

Conductors

Materials can be classified by their ability to conduct

electricity. This ability is related to the valence electrons.
Core (+)
Copper is an example of an
excellent conductor. It has only
one electron in its valence band,
which can easily escape to the
+29
conduction band, leaving behind a
positive ion (the core). Like all
metals, copper has many free
electrons which are loosely held
by the attraction of the positive
metal ions.
1.2 Type of materials

Insulators

• Insulators have tightly bound electrons with few electrons

available for conduction.
• Nonmetals, such as glass, air, paper, and rubber are excellent
insulators and widely used in electronics.
• Even these materials can break down and conduct electricity if
the voltage is high enough.
1.2 Type of materials

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are between conductors and insulators

in their ability to conduct electricity.
Core (+)
Silicon is an example of a single
element semiconductor. It has four
+14
electrons in its valence band.
1.3 Semiconductors

• The three semiconductors used most frequently in

the construction of electronic devices are:

Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)

Silicon (Si)

Germanium (Ge)
1.3 Semiconductors
• Semiconductors such as Si are tetravalent (four valence electrons).
• In an intrinsic (pure) silicon crystal, a Si atom form a covalent bonding
arrangement by sharing one of its valence electron with four adjoining Si
atoms.
• Unlike metals, silicon forms strong covalent bonds (shared electrons)
with its neighbors. Intrinsic silicon is a poor conductor because most of
the electrons are bound in the crystal and take part in forming the bonds
between atoms
- -
- Si - - Si -
- - - - - - -
Chemical - -
- Si - - Si - Reaction - Si
-
Si
-
Si -
- - - -
- - -
- Si - - Si - Sharing of
electrons
- Figure: The formation of silicon crystal. -
 1.4 Energy Levels
• However, as atoms are brought closer together to form a crystal
lattice structure, the interaction will cause the expansion of the fixed,
discrete energy levels of the valence electrons (electrons at the
outermost shell).

Shell Shell Shell

Number Energy Number Energy Number Energy

Conduction
Band Conduction
Band - - - - - Conduction
Eg Eg
Valence
Band
- - - - - Band

Valence + + + + +
Band
Valence
Band - - - - -

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

Figure: Conduction and valence bands of an insulator, a semiconductor and a

conductor.
1.4 Energy Levels

Semiconductors

• In intrinsic silicon, a few electrons can jump the energy gap between
the valence and conduction band.
• Having moved into the conduction band, a “hole” (vacancy) is left in
the crystal structure.

Conduction Free
band electron
Energy gap Heat
Energy
Valence Hole
band
Electron-hole pair
1.4 Energy Levels

• Characteristics of intrinsic semiconductors:

Semiconductor Energy Gap (eV*) Intrinsic Carriers Relative Mobility
(per cm3) Factor (cm2/V·s)
Si 1.1 1.5 X 1010 1500

Ge 0.67 2.5 X 1013 3900

GaAs 1.43 1.7 X 106 8500

* 1 eV = 1.6 X 10-19 J

Conduction Free
band electron
Energy gap Heat
Energy
Valence Hole
band
Electron-hole pair
1.5 Doping
• Intrinsic semiconductors
• do not conduct current well.
• The number of charge carriers is therefore determined by the
properties of the material itself
• At normal room temperature, the number of excited electrons and
the number of holes are equal: n = p.
• If a voltage is applied, then both the electron and the hole can
contribute to a small current flow.
• Extrinsic semiconductor
• Characteristics of intrinsic semiconductors can be altered significantly
by a process named doping.
• Doping is a process of adding a tiny amount of impurities (e.g. one
part in a million) to a intrinsic semiconductor, forming an extrinsic
(impure) semiconductor.
1.5 Doping
Extrinsic semiconductor
Extrinsic
Semiconductors

N-Type P-Type
Semiconductors Semiconductors

• Arsenic (As) • Baron (B)

• Phosphorus (P) • Gallium (Ga)
• Antimony (Sb) • Indium (In)
1.5.1 N-Type Semiconductor
• Pentravalent atoms (5 electrons at valence band) can be added to
intrinsic silicon to produce n-type semiconductors.
• These atoms are also known as donor atoms because they provide
an extra electron to the semiconductor’s crystal structure.
• Examples of pentravalent atoms:
• Arsenic (As)
• Phosphorus (P)
• Antimony (Sb)
1.5.1 N-Type Semiconductor
1.5.1 N-Type Semiconductor

• Since most of the current carriers are electrons, the free

electrons are called the majority carriers in a n-type
semiconductor; while the holes are named the minority
carries.
Free electron
- from P atom

- Si - - Majority
- - - - - -
Carriers

- - - -
- Si - P - Si - - + -
- - -
- - - - - - + -
- Si - Minority
- Carriers

Adding a pentravalen Majority and minority carriers in

atom in a silicon crystal a n-type semiconductor

Figure: N-type semiconductors.

1.5.2 P-Type Semiconductors

• Trivalent atoms (3 electrons at valence band) can be added

to intrinsic silicon to produce p-type semiconductors.
• These atoms are also known as acceptor atoms because
they provide a hole which is readily to accept a free
electron in the semiconductor’s crystal structure.
• Examples of trivalent atoms:
• Baron (B)
• Gallium (Ga)
• Indium (In)
1.5.2 P-Type Semiconductors
1.5.2 P-Type Semiconductors

• Since most of the current carriers are holes, the holes are called the
majority carriers in a p-type semiconductor; while the free electrons
are named the minority carries.

-
Holes from B
- Si - atom Minority
- - + - + + Carriers

- - - -
- Si - B - Si - + ++ + + +
- - - - + + + +
- Si - Majority
- Carriers

Adding a trivalen atom Majority and minority carriers in

in a silicon crystal a p-type semiconductor

Figure: P-type semiconductors.

1.5.3 NP Semiconductors
Within the crystalline structure, there are two types of charge
movement (current):
1) The conduction band electrons are free to move under the
influence of an electric field.
2) The bound (valence) electrons move between atoms, effectively
moving holes from one atom to another as illustrated. Holes act
like positive charges, with their own mobility.

Holes Electrons

Si Si Si
Semiconductor company

• Chips Designing – Synopsys …

• Front end fabrication
• Backend fabrication

Electronic Design Automation

(EDA)
https://www.synopsys.com/
Front end: chip fabrication process

Lithography

Etching

Deposition

Planarization

Oxidation

Ion implantation

Diffusion
Chip fabrication company:
• Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company,(TSMC)
• X-fab, Kuching
• Infineon Kulim, Kedah
Circuit board (PCB) design company
Malaysia PCB company
• Silvtronics Sdn. Bhd
• Asia Printed Circuit Sdn. Bhd
• Silver Circuits Sdn Bhd.
1.6 PN Junction
1.6.1 Diffusion Current
• Due to thermally induced random motion, charge carries in a
semiconductor tend to move from a region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration.
t =0 t = t1

+ - - + - +
+ + - Thermal
+ +
+ - - - Energy - -
+ + - + - + -

Figure: Diffusion of charge carriers in an extrinsic silicon.

32
1.6.2 Drift Current

• In a semiconductor, there are charge carries.

• The process in which charged carries move due to an electric field is
named drift.

+ -
- + +
- + -
+ - -+
Current
Current

+ -

Figure: A semiconductor with an applied electric field.

33
1.6.2 Drift Current (Electrons)

• When a voltage is applied across a piece of semiconductor,

the free electrons at the conduction band will drift towards
the positive end.
• This movement of free electrons is called electron current.

- - - -
- -- +- -- +
- - - - - -
Current + - - - -
+ - -- -- +- - -
- - - - -
- - - - -
- +- -- -- -
- - - + - Valence
Free Electron
Electron

Figure: Movement of free electrons with an applied electric field.

34
1.6.2 Drift Current (Holes)
• Electrons at the valence band can move into a nearby holes,
with little change in their energy level.
• This movement of holes is called hole current.

- - - -
- -- +- -+ -
- - - - - -
Current + - - - -
+ - -- -- +- - -
- - - - -
- - - - -
- +- -- -- -
- - - + -
Movement of a valence
electron to fill up a hole

Figure: Movement of holes with an applied electric field.

35
1.6.3 Formation of PN JUNCTION

• The basic silicon structure at the

instant of junction formation
showing only the majority and
minority carriers.
• Free electrons in the n region near
the pn junction begin to diffuse
across the junction and fall into holes
near the junction in the p region.
1.6.3 Formation of PN JUNCTION

• For every electron that diffuses

across the junction and combines
with a hole, a positive charge is left
in the n region
• and a negative charge is created in
the p region, forming a barrier
potential.
• This action continues until the
voltage of the barrier repels further
diffusion.
• two layers of positive and negative
charges form the depletion region
1.6.4 Barrier Potential

• In the depletion region there are

many positive charges and many
negative charges on opposite sides
of the pn junction.
• The forces between the opposite
charges form an electric field, as
described by Coulomb’s law
• This electric field is a barrier to the
free electrons in the n region, and
energy must be expended to move
an electron through the electric
field.

38
1.6.4 Barrier Potential

• external energy must be applied to

get the electrons to move across
the barrier of the electric field in
the depletion region.
• barrier potential is the potential
difference of the electric field
across the depletion region
• It is the amount of voltage required
to move electrons through the
electric field.

39
1.6.5 Energy Diagrams of the PN Junction
• The valence and conduction bands in an n-type material are at
slightly lower energy levels than the valence and conduction bands in
a p-type material.
• p-type material has trivalent impurities and n-type material has
pentavalent impurities.
• electron orbits p-type materials are slightly larger and hence have
greater energy than the electron orbits in the n-type materials.
• The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band
remains the same. Energy

Conduction
band

Valence
band

0
p region n region
Depletion
region 40
1.7 Biasing a P-N Junction
• Bias refers to the application of an external voltage across a p-n
material to extract a response.
• when an external voltage is applied across the diode, almost all of
this voltage is dropped across the depletion region.
• There are three options available:
• No bias
• Forward bias
• Reverse bias

41
1.7 Biasing a P-N Junction

42
1.7.1 No Bias

• In the absence of an applied bias voltage across a p-n

junction, the net flow of charge in any one direction is zero.

p n

ID = 0 mA

+ -
VD = 0 V

Figure: No bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.

43
1.7.2 Forward Bias
• A forward bias condition is established by applying
the positive potential to the p-type material and the
negative potential to the n-type material.
• It’s the condition that permits current through the
diode.
p n

ID

+ -

VD > 0 V

Figure: A forward bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.

44
1.7.2 Forward Bias
• The negative terminal of the bias-voltage pushes the free
electrons in the n region toward the p-n junction.
• The positive terminal pushes the holes in the p region also
toward the p-n junction.
• This process reduces the width of the depletion region.
• As the applied bias-voltage increases in magnitude, the
depletion region will continue to decrease in width until a flood
of free electrons can pass through the junction, resulting in an
exponential rise in current.
p n

ID

+ -

VD > 0 V 45
1.7.3 Reverse Bias

• A reverse bias condition is established by applying

the positive potential to the n-type material and the
negative potential to the p-type material.
• It’s the condition that prevents current through the
diode.
p n

IS

- +

VD < 0 V

Figure: A forward bias voltage is applied across the p-n junction.

46
1.7.3 Reverse Bias

• The negative terminal of the bias-voltage attracts

holes in the p region away from the p-n junction.
• While the positive terminal also attracts electrons
away from the p-n junction.
• As electrons and holes move away from the p-n
junction, the depletion region widens.
• The widening of the depletion region will establish a
great barrier until the flow of majority carries is
reduced to zero. p n

IS

- +
VD < 0 V 47
1.7.3 Reverse Bias: saturation current

• However, the number of minority carries entering

the depletion region will not change, resulting in
minority carrier flow (IS).
• IS or saturation current is usually in no more than a
few μA and typically in nA.

48
1.7.4 Reverse Breakdown

• Reverse breakdown occurs when the external reverse bias

voltage is increased to a large enough value.
• As the reverse bias voltage increases, the velocity of the
minority carries responsible for the reverse saturation
current will also increase.
• Eventually, the velocity of the minority carriers will acquire
enough energy to release additional carriers through
collisions with other stable atomic structures.
• The rapid multiplication of the collisions caused an
avalanche effect which results in a rapid buildup of reverse
current.
• Most diodes normally are not operated in reverse
breakdown region and can be damaged if they are.
49
Approximations

Three diode approximations are:

IF IF IF

VR VF VR VF VR VF
0.7 V 0.7 V

IR IR IR

Ideal Practical Complete

In addition, the complete model includes the effect of a large reverse

resistance that accounts for a tiny current when reverse-biased.
Example

Use the practical model to determine the current in the circuit:

3.3 kW
+
VBIAS 12 V
–

Solution:
VR = VBIAS − 0.7 V = 12 V − 0.7 V = 11.3 V
VR 11.3 V
I= = = 3.4 mA
R 3.3 kW
Typical diode packages

Some common configurations are

K
K A
K
A
A K
A K
A
K

K
A

K A
K K

A A
K
K
A
 Selected Key Terms

Electron The basic particle of negative electrical charge.

Valence Related to the outer shell of an atom.

Free Electron An electron that has acquired enough energy to

break away from the valence band of the parent
atom; also called a conduction electron.

Conductor A material that easily conducts electrical current.

Insulator A material that does not normally conduct

current.
Semiconductor A material that lies between conductors and
insulators in its conductive properties.

Crystal A solid material in which the atoms are

arranged in a symmetrical pattern.

Hole The absence of an electron in the valence

band of an atom in a semiconductor crystal.

Diode A semiconductor device with a single pn

junction that conducts current in one direction
only.
 PN junction The boundary between two different types of
semiconductive material.

Barrier The amount of voltage required to produce

Potential full conduction across the pn junction in
forward bias.

Forward bias The condition in which a diode conducts

current.

Reverse bias The condition in which a diode prevents

current.
 Quiz

1. A semiconductor is a crystalline material with

a. many free electrons held by the attraction of
positive ions
b. strong covalent bonds between neighboring atoms
c. only one electron in its outer shell
d. a filled valence shell
 Quiz

2. A metallic conductor has

a. many free electrons held by the attraction of
positive ions
b. covalent bonds between neighboring atoms
c. four electrons in its outer shell
d. a filled valence shell
 Quiz

3. In a semiconductor, the concept of an energy gap is

used to show the difference between the energies of the
a. nucleus and outer shell electrons
b. nucleus and the free electrons
c. conduction band electrons and valence electrons
d. core electrons and valence electrons
 Quiz

4. An impurity such as Antimony (Sb) has five electrons

in its outer shell. When silicon has Sb impurities,
a. an n material is formed
b. the crystal will be negatively charged
c. both of the above
d. none of the above
 Quiz

5. Compared to a p-material, the energy levels in an n-

material are
a. the same
b. greater
c. lower
 Quiz

6. When a pn junction is formed, electrons move across

the junction and fill holes in the p-region. The filled hole
is a
a. neutral atom
b. minority carrier
c. positive ion
d. negative ion
 Quiz

7. The forward biased knee voltage in a semiconductor

diode is approximately equal to the
a. bias supply voltage
b. breakdown voltage
c. output voltage
d. barrier potential
 Quiz

8. Using the ideal diode model, the current in the circuit

shown is
R
a. 0.73 mA
10 kW
b. 0.80 mA +
VBIAS 8.0 V
–
c. 0.87 mA
d. 1.2 mA
 Quiz

9. Using the practical diode model, the current in the

circuit shown is
R
a. 0.73 mA
10 kW
b. 0.80 mA +
VBIAS 8.0 V
–
c. 0.87 mA
d. 1.2 mA
 Quiz

10. The diode model which includes the large reverse

resistance is the
R
a. ideal model
10 kW
b. practical model +
VBIAS 8.0 V
–
c. complete model
d. all of the above
 Quiz

Answers:
1. b 6. d
2. a 7. d
3. c 8. b
4. a 9. a
5. c 10. c