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Meaning Of Positive Psychology:

Positive Psychology is a newly emerging branch of psychology
Martin Seligman officially introduced Positive Psychology as a
subfield of psychology. It is the science of happiness, human
strength and growth. It focuses on building of character strengths
like courage, joy, etc., rather than on anxiety and conflict.
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According to Seligman, Positive Psychology is “the scientific study

of positive human functioning and flourishing on multiple levels
that include the biological, personal, relational, institutional,
cultural and global dimensions of life.”

Need and importance of positive psychology:

Negative events tend to be intense and hence easily attract our
attention, e.g., outbursts of anger by a person will be quickly
noticed. Positive Psychology believes that a person can prevent
and overcome many psychological problems by adopting a
positive approach. Therefore, today, positive psychology is
important.
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Life Above Zero:

Traditional psychology focused on life at and below zero. Zero is
the line that divides illness from health. Hence, life below zero
indicates a life that is full of problems stress, diseases, etc.
Positive psychology emphasizes the study of life above zero.
-1 to +1 indicates neutral characteristics while below 0 indicates
disorders/ illness. Life above zero covers a large area of positive
aspects of behaviour such as mindfulness, resilience, happiness,
hope, trust and empathy.

The ‘Broaden and Build theory of positive emotions’ by Barbara

Fredrickson explains that when we experience positive emotions,
we have more positive thoughts and also indulge in positive
behaviours. Experiencing a positive emotion leads to broadening
the number of actions that we can think of performing. This will
increase and strengthen our psychological and social resources to
lead a fulfilling life.
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Happiness:
Happiness is a positive emotional state. It is subjective to each
person, for e.g., people feel happy when they are successful or
surprised or loved etc.
The main theories of happiness are:

 Need/ goal satisfaction theories – Happiness is experienced

when a need or goal is satisfied, e.g., Rohit feels happiness
when he clears IIT-JEE exams.
  Process/ activity theories – Happiness is experienced when
one engages in a particular activity, e.g., Sumit enjoys
trekking.
 Genetic/ personality theories – Genetic and personality
characteristics are involved in the experience of happiness.

Determination of Happiness: Factors like health, prestige,

income, success, etc., contribute to only a small portion of our
total happiness.
The following factors are predictors of long-lasting happiness –

 Strong, intimate social relationships, positive contacts and

good support system.
 Optimism leads to less of negative emotions like stress.
 Self-esteem enhances our confidence level and ability to
approach challenges in a constructive manner.
 Achieving challenging goals- If the goals are too easy, it
leads to boredom and if they are too difficult, it leads to
frustration. Moderately challenging goals, increase the
chance of success, leading to happiness.
 Perceiving meaning and purpose in life, without which we
will experience frustration, boredom, etc.
 Looking at life’s challenges as an opportunity rather than a
threat helps to develop our potential.

Optimism:
Optimism is a mental attitude that includes feelings of
hopefulness, a belief that the future will be positive and
favourable and that negative events are merely setbacks that are
temporary and can be overcome.
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The two components of optimism are –

1. feeling of being hopeful, confident, etc.

2. thinking i.e., view the adverse event as temporary and
hence not to generalize failure to any future events.
Seligman explained about optimism in the book ‘Learned
Optimism.’. According to him, our perspective determines
whether or not we will show optimism.

Empathy:
Empathy is the capacity to understand and feel what another
person is experiencing from within their frame of reference, i.e.,
capacity to place oneself in another’s position. According to
Simon Baron-Cohen, there are three components of empathy viz.
cognitive empathy (perspective taking), emotional reactivity and
social skills.
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A world where people exhibit empathy will create a supportive,

nurturing environment that encourages creativity and openness
to experience.
Empathy builds a sense of security and trust. It is closely related
to emotional intelligence and is a key to successful relationships.

Empathy can be nurtured by employing methods like –

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 increase social interactions

 connecting through similarities
 understanding one’s own feelings
 challenging oneself
 cultivate a sense of curiosity
 widen the social contact circle.

Mindfulness:
Mindfulness is the basic human ability to be fully aware of where
we are and what we are doing and not be overly reactive or
overwhelmed by what is going on around us. It refers to mental
awareness that helps to focus on the ‘Here and Now. Mindfulness
helps to increase self-regulation.

Mindlessness means performing a task with less concentration

and awareness mainly because we are absorbed in our own
thoughts, memories, worries, etc. This can be dangerous
sometimes.

Mindfulness Meditation: In Buddhist philosophy, mindfulness

practice is a form of meditation. Mindfulness meditation helps in
developing a non-reactive state of mind which is the foundation of
a peaceful mind. This helps to reduce anxiety, frustration, etc.,
and enhances mental well-being.

Resilience:
According to the American Psychological Association, resilience is
the process of adapting well in the face of adversity, trauma,
tragedy, threats or significant sources of stress such as family,
health, etc. It is the act of ‘bouncing back’ in spite of barriers or
setbacks.

There are three ways in which people face adverse situations viz.

1. consider oneself as a ‘victim’ and hence indulge in self-pity

or anger
2. get overwhelmed by negative emotions like fear, anxiety,
etc., which makes them vulnerable to physiological and
psychological collapse
3. become upset about the disruption and experience a sense
of loss, pain, grief, etc.

However, they understand that setbacks are a part of life so they

work through these feelings in ways that foster strength and
growth. Sometimes, they may emerge stronger than they were
prior to the setback. Such persons are called Resilient individuals.

The four types of resilience are –

1. Physical resilience – It is the body’s ability to adapt to

challenges, maintain stamina, and quickly recover when
faced with illness, injury or other physical demands.
2. Psychological resilience – It is developing coping strategies
that enable one to adapt to uncertainty, challenges and
adversity and to move on without prolonged negative
consequences.
3. Emotional resilience – It refers to the ability to manage one’s
emotions by adequately using one’s resources to cope with
adversity.
4. Community resilience – It is the ability of groups of people to
respond to and recover from adverse situations such as
natural disasters and other challenges to their community.

The ‘building blocks for resilience (7 C’s of Resilience)

According to Ann Masten, resilience is is ‘ordinary magic’, which
involves behaviour that can be
easily learnt.

The 7 C’s of resilience are :

  Competence – Competence is the ability or know-how to
handle situations effectively. Competence is acquired
through actual experience.
 Confidence – True confidence is a strong belief in one’s own
abilities. Confidence is gained by demonstrating competence
in real-life situations.
 Connection – Family is the central force in an individual’s
life. Connections with other people, schools and
communities gives the individual a sense of security that
allows him/her to be independent and develop creative
solutions.
 Character – It refers to a clear sense of right and wrong and
a commitment to integrity. An individual with character has
a strong sense of self-worth and confidence.
 Contribution – An individual who understands the
importance of personal contribution develops a sense of
purpose that can motivate him/her, further leading to his/her
psychological well-being.
 Coping – A person who learns to cope effectively with stress
is better prepared to overcome life’s challenges.
 Control – When an individual realizes that he can control the
outcomes of his decisions and actions, he is more likely to
know that he has the ability to bounce back.

The importance of resilience:

Resilience helps the person to recover from setbacks with the
least negative consequences.
Individuals high on resilience –

 regain their confidence after a period of emotional

disturbance
 they are able to maintain their psychological well-being.

Glossary:

→ Empathy – it is the ability to understand and share the similar

feelings of another.

→ Happiness – An emotional state showing feelings of joy,

gladness, satisfaction and well being.

→ Life above zero – It is an element of positive psychology that

involves adopting mindful responses to various experiences in life
to raise our mental well-being and make life-enriching and
meaningful.

→ Mindfulness – It is a state of being conscious and fully aware of

the present moment.

→ Optimism – lt is a positive mental attitude that is characterised

by hopefulness and a belief that good things will happen in the
future.

→ Pessimism – It is a negative mental attitude that is

characterised by hopelessness and an anticipation that negative
events are more likely to happen.

→ Positive psychology – This is a branch of psychology that

focuses on strengths and virtues that enable individuals,
communities and organisations to thrive.

→ Resilience – This is the process of successfully adapting to

challenges and difficulties in life.
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Introduction:
According to a study conducted by NIMHANS (2014-2016), nearly
10% of the population suffers from common mental disorders.
Stressors such as work or academic pressures, lack of social
support can contribute to poor mental health.
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The main hurdles in receiving treatment for poor mental health

are –

 Lack of awareness
 stigma attached to mental illness
 high cost of treatment
 reliance on non-medical explanations for mental illness, for
e.g., evil spirits,
 shortage of trained mental health professionals.

Mental Health First Aid (MHFA) is an internationally recognized

training programme designed to teach people how to identify the
signs and symptoms of mental health and to provide assistance
on a first aid basis. MHFA was originally developed by Betty
Kitchener and Anthony Jorm.
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First Aid in Mental Health is a concept based on the idea of

“prevention is better than cure. If the early signs of mental illness
are recognized, it can help in the following ways.

 Diagnosis – timely diagnosis at the onset of mental illness

helps to prevent it from developing into a more severe form.
 Intervention – early intervention helps to get professional
help.
 Relapse prevention – it can prevent reoccurrence of
symptoms of the mental illness.

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Algee – Action Plan:

Approach, assess and assist in any crisis: An attempt is

made to understand the situation and observe if there are
behavioural changes in the person whom we are concerned
about.

Listen non-judgmentally: We should listen to the other person

without letting our opinions influence us. We should not judge/
criticise but listen with acceptance and empathy. It does not
imply that we agree with what the other person is saying but it
ensures that the person feels supported.
Give support and information: This helps the person to feel
more in control of the situation since they have emotional and
informational support.
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Encourage the person to get professional help: Persons

suffering from mental illness may hesitate to seek help due to
lack of knowledge or due to stigma attached. Others may not
know how to respond to someone showing ‘red flags’ of mental
illness and may do more harm than good. Mental health
professionals are trained to help the person to identify the
problem and cope with the situation.

Encourage self-help and other support strategies: Self-help

strategies are tasks that help to increase our resources to deal
with stress and to maintain mental health such as exercise, rest,
and sleep, proper diet, having hobbies, etc.
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First Aid In Depression:

Individuals who experience depression, commonly have a
negative thinking style and feel worthless and helpless.
A number of changes are noticed in their behaviour such as

 complaining of feeling tired or sleepy all the time

 avoiding family and friends and spending much time alone
 remaining sad and forgetful
 bunking class or performing poorR7 in exams and having
difficulty in concentrating.

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First Aid In Anxiety:

If anxiety is excessive or persists after the anxiety creating
situation has subsided, it can lead to anxiety disorders such as
phobias, acute stress disorder, etc.

The factors contributing to anxiety are genetic factors; imbalance

of certain neurotransmitters, traumatic events, etc.
Symptoms shown in anxiety –

Behavioural Addictions:
Behavioural addictions refers to the need to engage in an activity
or behaviour repeatedly, even though it has a negative impact on
one’s physical and mental health. For e.g. shopping addiction,
gambling addiction, internet addiction, etc.

Internet and Social media usage: The amount of time spent

on using internet as well as the purpose of its usage is significant.
Over-dependence on the internet and social media can lead to
problems in life. The four C’s are indicators of excessive usage of
internet – Craving, Control, Compulsion, Consequence.

The Red Flags that indicate over-dependence on internet are-

 Feelings of euphoria while using the internet.

 Physical symptoms like headache, dry eyes, etc.
 Inability to keep to schedules and boredom with routine
tasks.
 Neglect of personal hygiene and nutrition just to remain
online.

NIMHANS (Bengaluru) has begun the Service for Healthy Use of

Technology (SHUT) to deal exclusively with mental health issues
that are technology-related.
Providing First Aid in mental health issues is a bridge between the
person and the mental health professional.

Glossary:

→ Mental Health – It is a state of mind that is characterised by

emotional well-being, good adjustment and ability to cope with
the demands and stresses of daily living.

→ Mental well-being – It is a feeling of wellness in which an

individual realises his or her own potential, can cope with stressful
situations and can make productive contributions to the society to
live a meaningful life

→ Sleep hygiene – Techniques and routines that can he followed

to improve sleep patterns.

→ Stigma – A negative social attitude which is associated with

individuals diagnosed with a mental disorder and often leads to
social disapproval, discrimination and exclusion of that individual
in society.

→ Procrastination – Is the avoidance of completing a task that

needs to be completed.
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Mental Health Continuum Model:

The major criteria of abnormality are deviance, personal distress
and impaired functioning. Illness and absence of illness are not
distinct categories but are on opposite poles of the continuum
sequence as explained below.

Stage 1 – The person is physically and psychologically healthy.

He/She is motivated and emotionally stable.

Stage 2 – The person may get affected by life stressors, feel

anxious, lack energy, etc., for e.g., most students are tense
before the exams. It is possible to push oneself back towards
positive health by adopting a healthy lifestyle.

Stage 3 – The person shows signs of psychological damage and

may experience negative feelings like sadness, lack of motivation,
fear and may even indulge in addictive behaviour. However, even
this stage is not irreversible.

Stage 4 – The person exhibits extreme distress, impairment in

mental, emotional and social functioning. He/She needs
professional treatment.

Criteria For Psychological Disorders:

According to DSM-5, there are five criteria for psychological
disorders.

 Clinically significant syndrome – In psychological disorders,

there should be a cluster of symptoms together i.e., a
syndrome.
 Distress and Impairment – There should be distress, i.e.,
psychological pain due to negative feelings and stress, as
well as impairment, i.e., inability to perform appropriate
roles in personal and social situations.
 Dysfunction – If the symptoms lead to developmental or
psychological dysfunctions, it signifies mental disorders.
 Responses to stressors that are normally accepted
responses e.g., sadness experienced at the loss of a loved
one or culturally sanctioned responses are not considered as
signs of mental disorders.
 Behaviour which is only deviant but does not produce any
disability or distress or dysfunction does not become a sign
of mental disorder.

Mental Wellness:
According to the WHO, mental wellness refers to “a state of well-
being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can
cope up with the normal stresses of life, can work productively
and fruitfully, and is able to make a contribution to his or her
community.”

The important aspects of mental wellness are –

  Emotional aspect – There is a sense of well-being and
contentment
 Psychological aspect – There is high self-esteem and
tendency of self-actualization.
 Life philosophy – There are clear goals and objectives in life.

The Illness Wellness Continuum Model by John Travis:

Quadrant 1 – The person is in an ideal state of functioning.

Quadrant 2 – The person has no mental illness but experiences
subjective feeling of unhappiness.
The person suffers from mental illness yet he/she experiences a
high sense of subjective well-being.
This is the lowest level of functioning. The person has mental
illness and also experiences distress.

Mental Disorders – Classification:

There are two major systems to classify psychological disorders.

1. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM)

– DSM-5 was published by the American Psychiatric
Association (APA) in 2013. It contains 22 broad categories of
mental disorders with subcategories.
 2. International Classification of Diseases and Related Health
Problems (ICD) – ICD-11
was created by the WHO in 2019, according to which there
are 19 broad categories of mental disorders.

Major Psychological Disorders:

Anxiety Disorders:
The word ‘anxiety’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Anxietas’ which
means ‘uneasy or troubled mind’. Anxiety refers to a condition in
which the person feels worried and uneasy for a long time for no
obvious reasons.
The main anxiety disorders are:

Generalized Anxiety Disorder:

The person frequently experiences anxiety more intensely so that
it starts interfering with the ability to perform daily tasks.
Symptoms include irritability, headaches, insomnia, dizziness,
breathlessness, etc.

Phobic disorders:
The word ‘phobia’ is derived from the Greek word ‘Phobos which
was used to refer to the God of Fear. A phobia is an intense,
persistent but irrational and disproportionate fear of a specific
object or situation. DSM classifies phobias as simple phobias, e.g.,
Acrophobia, Claustrophobia etc., and social phobias, e.g., fear of
speaking or eating in public.

Depressive Disorders:
Depression is an emotional state typically marked by sadness and
guilt, feelings of anxiety and hopelessness. Other symptoms
include loss of appetite, interest and sleep, fatigue, sexual
dysfunction and suicidal thoughts.

Bipolar Disorders:
Bipolar disorder is also known as Manic Depressive disorder. The
person experiences alternate phases of two states viz. mania, i.e.,
extreme excitement and elation and depression, i.e., extreme
irritability, hopelessness and sadness. Main causative factor are
genetic factors and imbalance in neurotransmitters such as
dopamine, epinephrine, etc.

Trauma And Stress-Related Disorders:

Stress is inevitable in life. Daily hassles, relationship issues,
frustration, chronic illness, etc., lead to stress. If stress is in
moderate intensity, it acts as a motivation. However, intense and
prolonged stress impairs normal functioning of the individual and
may lead to stress disorders.

The two types of stress disorders are –

Acute Stress Disorder (ASD):
If a person (aged 6 years and above) has experienced extremely
stressful situations like death of a loved one, serious disease or
injury, sexual abuse, natural disasters, etc., then he/she may
experience ASD.

The symptoms of ASD include –

 emotional numbness and instability

 nightmares and sleep distturbances
 insomnia, lack of concentration, irritability and guilt feelings
 depression

Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):

If symptoms of ASD continue for more than one month with the
same intensity, the person is diagnosed with PTSD.

A person who has suffered trauma generally goes through three

stages viz.-

 Shock stage – the individual is in shock, i.e., extremely

disturbed.
 Suggestible stage – he/she may seek guidance from others
and may either accept these suggestions unquestioningly or
may get extra sensitive.
 Recovery stage – the person shows signs of recovery.
However, some persons still show signs of mental illness i.e.,
PTSD.

The symptoms of PTSD include –

 nightmares, flashbacks, severe anxiety

 hypervigilance and avoidance of situations that bring back
the trauma
 irritability, social isolation
 survivor’s guilt.
Substance-Related And Addictive Disorders:
Addictive disorders refer to the physical and psychological
inability to stop consuming some substance or indulging in some
activity although it is harmful. This includes dependence on
drugs, nicotine, alcohol, etc., or activities like gambling, eating,
gaming, etc. Drug addiction refers to an inability to control the
use of alcohol, nicotine, narcotics, marijuana, medications, etc.

Symptoms of addiction are –

 Excessive consumption of drugs or alcohol and inability to

reduce the dosage.
 In case the person tries to stop the drug use, then
withdrawal symptoms occur which include sweating,
tremors, muscle pain, goosebumps, etc.
 Physical and psychological dependence may lead to drug
abuse or overdose of the addictive substance and even
cause the death of the person.
 The person’s physical, emotional, social and financial well-
being breakdown. Alcoholics
Anonymous (AA), Narcotics Anonymous (NA) are
organizations that help addicts to overcome dependence.

Schizophrenia:
The term ‘Schizophrenia’ is derived from Greek words Schizein (to
split) and phren (mind). It was coined in 1911 by a Swiss
psychologist, Paul Eugene Bleuler. Thus, the literal meaning of the
word ‘schizophrenia’ is split mind. It is a psychotic disorder.

According to DSM-5 the two types of symptoms for schizophrenia

are:

 Positive symptoms,
 Negative symptoms.

Positive symptoms are an excess addition to normal thoughts or

behaviour of the period. Such symptoms are –

 hallucinations – mainly auditory and visual hallucination

 delusions – mainly of grandeur, reference and persecution
 disorganized thought and speech
 bizarre body movements and disorganized behaviour
 incongruent affect.
Negative symptoms are deficits of normal emotional responses or
of thought processes. They lead to low level of functioning and
may not improve much even with treatment.

This includes –

 emotional blunting – diminished emotional expression

 anhedonia – inability to experience deep positive emotions
 alogia – diminished speed
 asociality – lack of desire to form relationships
 avolition – lack of motivation
 apathy.

Sometimes, a schizophrenic exhibits positive as well as negative

symptoms.

Treating Psychological Disorders:

Signs that help to identify individuals who require expert
(professional) help in mental health are called ‘red flags’.
Symptoms, if present, in any person should satisfy three
requirements

1. it should be present for a considerably long period of time

2. symptom has become more severe than before
3. it has created problems in the person’s life.

The signals indicating a need for professional help are:

 inability to concentrate or to sleep well.

 severe confusion and memory loss.
 intense and uncontrollable negative feelings.
 self-neglect or even self-harm.
 loss of interest in friends/ family/ activities.
 odd statements or strange use of words.

Treatment strategies range form pharmacotherapy (administering

drugs) to psychotherapy such as Rational Emotive Behaviour
Therapy, Interpersonal Therapy, Group/Family Therapy, etc.
Mental heath professionals are qualified to decide the plan of
treatment.

Glossary:
→ Anxiety – A state in which the feelings of an individual
experience of uneasiness and worry and tends to anticipate that
there will be danger or failure in the future.

→ Delusion – A false belief that is strongly held by an individual

even in the presence of contradictory evidence

→ Depression – A state of experiencing sadness, pessimism, loss

of interest in activities that previously were enjoyable along with
physical, cognitive and behavioural changes.

→ Distress – A negative emotional state indicating worry.

→ DSM-5 – The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical

Manual of Mental Disorders-5 was published by the American
Psychiatric Association in 2013: it is a widely used manual on the
definition and classification of mental disorders.

→ Dysfunction – Any impairment or disturbance leading to

abnormality in behaviours or functioning.

→ Hallucination – It is a false visual/auditory perception that

occurs in the absence of appropriate stimuli.

→ ICD- 11 – The International Classification of Diseases and

Related Health Problems issued by the World Health Organisation
(WHO) consisting of a manual on the definition and classification
of mental disorders.

→ Mental Health – It is a state of mind that is characterised by

emotional well being, good adjustment and ability to cope with
the demands and stresses of daily living.

→ Stigma – A negative social attitude which is associated with

individuals diagnosed with a mental disorder and often leads to
social disapproval, discrimination and exclusion of that individual
in society.

→ Alcoholics Anonymous – It is an international, nonprofessional,

self-supporting, mutual aid fellowship started by Bill Wilson and
Bob Smith in 1935 in the USA. Its stated purpose is to enable its
members to stop drinking and stay sober. It has a 12 step
programme to help stop alcohol abuse and recover from
alcoholism.
Ch5
History of Emotions:
The word emotion is derived from the Latin word ‘remover, which
means to stir up or to move An emotion refers to an involuntary,
aroused state of an organism involving physical, cognitive, and
behavioural components.

It is described as a combination of bodily arousal, e.g., increased

heart rate, thoughts, and feelings, i.e. emotional tone, and
expressive behaviour, i.e., facial expression.

The main theories of emotions are –

James-Lange theory:
It was one of the earliest theories to explain emotion According to
William James and Carl Lange, physiological arousal instigates the
experience of emotion.

It proposes that each specific emotion is attached to a different

pattern of physiological arousal. For e.g., we feel sad because we
cry. The sequence of events in emotional experience is Emotion
Stimulus →Physiological Response Pattern → Affective Experience.

Cannon-Bard theory:
According to Walter Cannon and Philip Bard, we may experience
the same physiological arousal but emotions can be different, for
e.g., we don’t cry only when we are sad but we also cry when we
are angry or extremely happy.

We experience physiological arousal and feelings at the same

time and independently. For e.g., seeing a man with a gun
prompts the feeling of fear as well as a racing heartbeat.

Schachter and Singer’s Two Factor theory:

According to Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer, emotion is
based on two factors, i.e., physiological arousal and cognitive
label, for e.g., an environmental stimulus (growling dog) elicits a
physiological response (increased heart rate). We cognitively
label this response (fear).

Facial Feedback hypothesis:

According to the facial feedback hypothesis, our facial
expressions provide feedback to our brain about our emotions.
Facial expressions are the result of our emotions but also capable
of Influencing emotions.

Basic Emotions:
There are two primary emotions, viz. happiness and sadness.
These emotions transform as our experiences change, for e.g.,
sadness can transform to grief or shame.

Some characteristics of emotions are –

1. Emotions may be positive, e.g., joy or negative, e.g., anger.

2. Emotions may occur for a brief period or may be long-
lasting.
3. Emotions may be important for our survival, e.g., fear or for
our psychological well-being, e.g., love.
Emotions differ in intensity in expression, for e.g.,
annoyance-anger-rage.
4. Complex emotions (higher cognitive level emotions) result
from the combination of basic emotions, for e.g., surprise
and sadness lead to disappointment.

According to Paul Ekman, there are six basic (universal) types of

emotions, i.e., happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust.

 Happiness – It is the basic positive emotion that is

associated with psychological well-being.
 Sadness – It is characterized by related feelings of
hopelessness, disappointment, etc.
  Anger – It is a powerful, negative emotion which includes
hostility, frustration, etc.
 Fear – It is closely related to our survival from the
evolutionary perspective. It is in response to some threat.
 Surprise – It occurs in response to some unexpected event. It
may be positive or negative.
 Disgust – It is in response to some unwanted stimulus.

Physiological Changes During Emotions:

Physiological changes refer to automatic reactions that take place
in our body in response to some stimulus, for e.g. if you saw a
snake, the brain at the cognitive level perceived the stimulus as
dangerous. This leads to physiological arousals such as dilated
pupils, increased heart rate, increased pulse rate and sweating.

At the emotional level, you experience fear. The Autonomic

Nervous System and glandular system signal the pituitary gland
which activates the adrenal glands to secrete the cortisol
hormone that triggers “the fight or flight” response. At the
connection (behavioural) level there is an action plan such as
running away or calling for help, etc.
Plutchik’s Model Of Emotions:

Robert Plutchik presented the wheel of emotions.

1. there are eight basic emotions viz. joy, trust, fear, surprise,
sadness, anticipation, anger and disgust.
2. each primary emotion has its polar opposite such as fear is
opposite of anger.
3. primary emotions combine to produce complex emotions, for
e.g., love (complex) is a combination of joy and trust.
4. the intensity of emotions increases as we move toward the
centre and decreases as we move outward. For e.g.,
apprehension (weak) →fear (basic) →terror (strongest). This
model is important from the perspective of emotional
literacy, i.e., understanding emotional levels, complexity and
change as well as appropriate emotional labelling.

Emotional Well-being:
Emotional well-being is not easily observable. It can be measured
on how rationally a person handles both positive and negative
emotions so he/she can lead a productive, healthy life.
Techniques to achieve emotional well-being are helpful at three
levels viz. physical, emotional, and social.
  Physical level, i.e., well-balanced diet, exercise.
 Emotional level, i.e., practice mindfulness, raising levels of
motivation and optimism.
 Social level, i.e., engaging in prosocial behaviour,
meaningful relationships.

The benefits of emotional after well-being give a long dash

Persons who have high emotional well-being experience benefits
such as-

 better able to deal with stress

 better self-regulation
 increased productivity in tasks undertaken
 increased creativity and openness to new experiences
 life satisfaction due to meaningful activities and
relationships.

Emotional Abuse:
Emotional abuse is any kind of abuse that is emotional rather
than physical in nature. It occurs when one person subjects or
exposes another person to intentionally harmful behaviour that
may result in anxiety, depression, and psychological trauma for
the victim.

The types of emotional abuse may be-

 verbal abuse such as blaming, insulting, labeling,

threatening, swearing, etc.
 non-verbal abuse such as ignoring, rejection, bullying,
spying, etc.

Dealing with emotional abuse:

 Accept that emotional abuse is not because of you, i.e.,

don’t justify the actions of the abuser.
 Respond assertively to the abuser but seek distance from
him/her.
 Give yourself time to heal.
 Prioritize your self-care, e.g., eating right, exercise, etc.
 Mobilize support from family and friends. If needed, seek
professional help.
Managing Emotions:
Managing of emotions is an important life skill. Managing
emotions can be defined as, ‘the ability to be open to feelings and
modulate them in oneself and in others, so as to promote
personal understanding and growth.

Sometimes, our emotions hijack our thinking due to which we act

impulsively. This is because the limbic system (emotional section)
developed before the prefrontal cortex (thinking part) and is
hence, an extremely strong part of the brain. Emotional
management is an art as it is a form of expression as well as a
science as it is a skill that needs to be learned and practiced.

Anger Management:
Anger is a common emotion that everybody experiences in life
from time to time. Anger is a normal response to some real or
perceived threat. It is a protective emotion that helps us to
defend ourselves against physical or psychological harm.

However, anger may also be unwanted, irrational, and

destructive. When we experience anger, our amygdala goes into
action and overrides the cerebral cortex which is in control of
thinking and evaluation.

Triggers of Anger refer to any event that signals the brain to

activate the body’s anger system. The triggers of anger maybe

 verbal, for e.g., being blamed, disrespected, or abused

 nonverbal, for e.g., being ignored unappreciated, or
rejected,
 physical such as physical threats, sexual/ physical assault,
etc.

There are three factors involved in the experience of anger: A

trigger (causes of anger) → individual’s personality → particular
interpretation of that situation.

As the experience of anger is subjective, it can be controlled too.

If we understand the triggers of anger, we can anticipate potential
anger episodes and provide an intentional/ acceptable response.

Anger management is an intervention programme to prevent

anger from turning into a habit or obstacle. It enables the person
to create an awareness of and responsibility for his/her emotions.
This involves two aspects

1. managing one’s own anger

2. learning to respond effectively to anger in others.

The 3 R’s in anger management are Relax, Reassess and

Respond:
Relaxation – Relaxation, and connection with the inner self
enhances thinking and concentration and helps to respond rather
than react impulsively.

Reassess – helps to revisit the situation objectively. It involves

 taking complete responsibility for your emotion

 developing empathy for the person you perceive has
wronged you
 conduct a reality check e.g., is your anger justified given the
facts of what happened.

Respond – This involves using anger as a motivation to change. It

includes

 consulting a trustworthy person to get another perspective

 engage in talks with the other party in a calm manner
 active listening and assertive speaking
 cage your rage i.e. establish boundaries and moderate your
anger.

Glossary:

→ Anger – A basic emotion expressing dislike or displeasure.

→ Emotions – A complex response pattern that involves

physiological arousal, expression of behaviors, and conscious
experience.

→ Emotional abuse – It is a non-physical form of abuse in which an

individual purposely subjects another to behaviors such as
intimidation, isolation humiliation, rejection, and verbal abuse.

→ Emotional well-being – It is an overall positive state of one’s

emotions.

→ Trigger – An event or stimuli that cause a reaction

Ch4

Introduction:
Cognitive processes are those processes by which we become
aware of and understand the world around us. It includes
processes like sensation, attention, perception, learning, memory,
thinking, reasoning, problem-solving, etc.

Attention:
Attention is the selective process by which we focus on only a few
stimuli from among the various stimuli that are present in our
environment.

According to Norman Munn, “Attention is the mental process of

bringing few stimuli into the centre of awareness out of the many
stimuli present”.

Attention is influenced by objective factors such as intensity, size,

movement, etc., of stimuli as well as subjective factors like
interest, mindset, etc.

Aspects Of Attention:
Span of attention – It is the total number of stimuli that we can
become clearly aware of in a single glance. Span of attention is
limited, i.e., 7 to 8 items only. Factors like age, intelligence,
motivation, practice, etc., affect the span of attention.

Distraction of attention – The drifting of attention from a specific

stimulus to another stimulus is called distraction of attention. This
is due to external factors such as intensity, novelty, movement,
etc., of stimuli or internal factors like physical state, lack of
interest, mental set, etc.

Division of attention – It is not possible to divide attention to two

tasks simultaneously. We can perform two tasks at the same time
only if both tasks are too simple or mechanical. If we try to pay
attention to two tasks at the same time it may result in decreased
efficiency and more confusion.

Fluctuation of attention – It is difficult to attend to a single

stimulus for a long period of time. Our attention may shift from
the original stimulus to another stimulus for a fraction of time and
then comes back to the original stimulus. This may be due to
factors like fatigue, decreased interest, etc.
Perception:
Perception = the sensation + assigning meaning to the sensation.
In understanding our world, sensation occurs first, followed by
attention and finally perception of stimuli based on past
experience. Perception is defined as “the process of assigning
meaning to information received about the environment based on
the past experiences.”

Phenomena associated with Perception:

Top-down processing and Bottom-up processing – When we utilize
top-down processing, our ability to understand information is
influenced by the context in which it appears. Bottom-up
processing is a process that starts with an incoming stimulus and
works upwards until a representation of the object is formed in
our brain.

Laws of perceptual organization – Our brain has the tendency to

organize our sensations as a meaningful whole. Max Wertheimer
first explained this tendency in the form of laws of perceptual
organization.

Some laws of perceptual organization are as follows:

Law of proximity – Stimuli that are near to each other are
perceived as together, rather
than stimuli that are far away from each other.

In the above figure, we perceive pairs of dots in each line because

the dots which are near to each other are perceived together. So
instead of perceiving a line of 8 dots, generally a line of four pairs
of dots is perceived.

Law of similarity – Stimuli that are similar to each other are

perceived together than stimuli that are distinct from each other.
In the above figure, we perceive 4 alternate vertical lines each of
circles and crosses as similar stimuli are perceived together.
Generally, we do not perceive 4 horizontal lines each having
circles and crosses in alternate sequence.

Law of continuity – There is a tendency to perceive a stimulus in

continuation according to its established direction.

In this figure, a straight vertical line and a straight horizontal line

are perceived together as a letter ‘L’ and a cutting line is
perceived separately as a line following the smoothest path.
Generally, we do not perceive here four different lines going in
different directions.

Law of closure – There is a tendency to fill in the gaps in an

incomplete stimulus so as to perceive it as a meaningful figure.

In the above figure, we fill in the gaps and perceive it as a triangle

and square. Generally, we do not perceive here the three or four
separate lines going in different directions.

Thinking:
Thinking is the mental activity that uses various cognitive
elements and processes that involves the manipulation of
information.

The core elements of thinking are –

  Mental representation – It is a coded internal sensation that
is acquired by direct experiences through the sense organs
or by indirect experiences such as narrations, pictures, etc.
 Concepts – They form the basis for all cognitive processes,
acting as building blocks by connecting with each other to
form more complex concepts.
 Schema – It is an internal representation that organizes
knowledge about related concepts and relationships among
them.
 Language – Mental representations, concept and schema are
represented by language, for e.g., the word ‘cat’ is a symbol
for a ‘cat’.

Types Of Thinking:

Problem Solving:
Problem-solving is a type of thinking, i.e., the process of finding
solutions to problems encountered
in life.

It includes the following steps.

 Defining the problem – We need to identify and define the

problem correctly.
 Generating alternative solutions – The person searches for
possible solutions to the problem.
 Selecting a solution – The person selects what he considers
to be the most effective solution.
 Implementing the solution and follow up on the solution –
The person tries out the selected solution and evaluates the
outcome i.e. whether it has helped to solve the problem.

Creative Thinking:
Creative thinking is characterised by the ability to perceive the
world in new ways, to find hidden
patterns, etc.

The four stages in creative thinking are –

1. Preparation – It involves formulating the problem and

gathering information about it.
2. Incubation – If the person does not get the required results,
he/she may focus on things unrelated to that problem. The
 period helps to work out the problem without consciously
thinking about it.
3. Illumination – After incubation, suddenly the correct solution
appears to the person, due to which he/she experiences
excitement.
4. Verification – The new solution may sometimes need to be
evaluated again and again.

Learning:
Learning is defined as “a relatively permanent change in
behaviour that occurs due to experience
or practice”.

The characteristics of learning are :

 It involves some relatively permanent change in behaviour.

 The change in behaviour is due to experience or practice.
 Change in behaviour may be in knowledge, e.g. a new
concept, or in skills, e.g. learning to ride a cycle, or in
muscular movements.
 Learning is an inferred process.

Processes of Learning:
Learning by Classical Conditioning:
Classical conditioning was first explained by Ivan Pavlov. It is
learning by forming associations and by stimulus substitution. In
daily life, we learn many things this way, for e.g., a child is given
an injection by the doctor and begins to cry in pain. He soon
makes the connection between ‘doctor’, ‘injection’ and ‘pain’ and
begins crying as soon as he is taken to a doctor.

Learning by Operant Conditioning:

Learning by operant conditioning was first explained by B. F.
Skinner. He said that learning takes place to gain positive
consequences or to avoid negative consequences.

Learning by Cognitive Processes:

Edward Tolman explained that learning may take place using
cognitive processes like problem-solving, reasoning, etc., and not
only due to forming of connections (as explained by classical
conditioning) or due to the consequences of behaviour (as
explained by classical conditioning).

Learning by assimilation and accommodation:

Jean Piaget explains that we learn by forming and refining our
concepts on the basis of ‘ similarities and differences between
new and existing information.

Learning by observation:
According to Albert Bandura, we learn by observation, imitation of
the behaviour of others, etc. This occurs in respect to skills, for
e.g., eating with a fork/spoon as well as in our thinking, decision
making, etc.

Glossary:

→ Attention – Sustained concentration on specific stimulus.

→ Concept – A mental representation or idea that represents a

category.

→ Learning – The ability to acquire knowledge or skills, or any

relatively permanent changes in one’s behaviour as a result of
experience or practice.

→ Mental Representation – An internal representation of

information.

→ Perception – The process by which we recognise, organise and

interpret of sensory information.

→ Schema – An organised framework of knowledge based on past

experiences and memory and helps in perception and
interpretation of new information in terms of existing knowledge.

→ Thinking – It is a cognitive process which involves mental

representation and manipulation of information.
Ch3

Meaning Of Personality:
The word personality is derived from the Latin word ‘persona’
which was used to refer to masks worn by actors during a stage
performance, Thus, the meaning of personality was interpreted as
‘projected behaviour’ of an individual.

According to Gordon Allport, “Personality is the dynamic

organization within the individual of those psychophysical
systems that determines his unique adjustments to the
environment.”
Factors Affecting Personality:
Personality is shaped by biological factors like heredity and
endocrine glands and by psychosocial factors like family, peer
groups, school and culture.

Heredity – It implies the genetic inheritance of an individual.

Heredity affects the physical characteristics, such as height,
physique, etc. It also influences the self-concept which in turn
influences personality.

Endocrine glands – Personality is shaped by endocrine glands like

pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, gonads, etc. Over secretion
or under secretion of hormones produced by these glands can
adversely affect our personality.

Family – As the first agency of socialization, the family exerts a

strong influence on personality. Aspects of family such as family
structure, atmosphere, and relationships, family interactions and ‘
childrearing practices influence personality, for e.g., if parents
show rejection or overprotection, etc., towards the child, it may
leads to low self-esteem and adverse effects on the personality.

Peer group – It refers to individuals of the same age group, e.g.,

classmates or sharing the same interests, e.g., members of a
sports club. Influence of the peer group is most noticed in
adolescence since it serves as a reference group.

The influence of peer group on the person may be positive such

as developing healthy gender attitudes, skills of communication,
etc., or it may be negative e.g., developing aggressive
tendencies, prejudices, etc.

School – Various aspects of school such as teaching-learning

process, academic and co-curricular facilities, role of the teachers,
school location, management and discipline, etc., influence the
child’s personality, for e.g., teachers who are well qualified,
creative, build a rapport with the students, tend to motivate
students and help to develop a good personality.

Mass media – It includes print media such as newspapers, audio-

visual media such as T.V., and new media such as Internet, etc.
Media is a source of information, education, entertainment and
even socialization. It has a considerable effect on our value
system, behaviour patterns and personality. However, excessive
dependence on media may lead to egocentrism, poor academic
performance, sleep disturbance, etc.

Cultural factors – Culture refers to the customs, values and social

behaviour of a particular society. Every culture has its own set of
beliefs, norms, expectations, etc., which influence the thoughts,
feelings and behaviour of its members.

Perspectives Of Studying Personality:

Perspective Assumption Main Psycholo

Early childhood experiences and the
(1) Psychoanalytic unconscious mind play a role in Sigmund Freud
personality development.
Free will and psychological growth are Carl Rogers, Abrah
(2) Humanistic
important in personality development. Maslow
Every individual possesses an unique Gordon Allport, Ray
(3) Trait
set of traits that determine personality. Cattell
Every individual has an unique
William Sheldon
personality type based on his/her
(4) Type
physique, temperament and mental
characteristics.
Cognitive Observational learning and
(5) Social cognitive processes play a role in Albert Bandura
personality development.

Carl Jung’s Theory of Personality:

Carl Jung classified individuals into introverts and extroverts,
based on the characteristics exhibited by them.

Characteristics of introverts are :

 they tend to look within themselves for stimulation

 they are shy, reserved, avoid social interactions
 they choose careers and hobbies that do not involve much
social contact
 they may be sensitive to criticism.

Characteristics of extroverts are:

 they depend on external stimulation and evaluate

themselves based on impressions of others
  they tend to be outgoing, cheerful, optimistic
 they choose careers and hobbies that bring them in contact
with others
 they tend to be enthusiastic, and full of energy.

NOTE: In real life, most individuals tend to exhibit a blend of traits

of introverts and extroverts, i.e., ambiverts.

Allport’s Theory of Personality:

A trait is a relatively enduring and consistent way of thinking,
feeling and acting. It is some distinctive characteristic of the
person that leads him/her to behave in more or less consistent
ways across situations and over a period of time.
Allport categorised traits as :

Cardinal Traits – It is a single trait that dominates the individual’s

personality. Every action of the person can be traced to the
influence of this trait, for e.g., in case of Gandhiji honesty was the
cardinal trait, in case of Napoleon it was ambition.

Central Traits – These traits are ‘core’ or ‘basic’ characteristics

that form the building blocks of personality. There are about 5-10
traits such as sensitivity, sociability, diligence, etc., that can best
describe an individual’s personality.

Secondary Traits – These traits play a minor role in personality as

they appear only in specific situations or under specific
circumstances. They are sometimes related to preferences or
attitudes.

Five-factor Model of Personality (OCEAN):

The Big Five Theory, based on the trait perspective was proposed
by Robert McCrae and Paul Costa.
The five broad trait factors are –

Openness to Experience – People who are open to experience are

intellectually curious, imaginative, appreciative of art, sensitive to
beauty. They sometimes tend to think and act in nonconforming,
adventurous ways.

Conscientiousness – It concerns the way in which people control,

regulate and direct their impulses. People high in
conscientiousness are hardworking, disciplined, responsible,
dependable, etc., while those low on conscientiousness tend to be
careless, unorganised, spontaneous, undisciplined, etc.

Extroversion – People high on this trait are assertive, talkative,

sociable, enthusiastic, etc., while those low on extroversion tend
to be shy, reserved, avoid social interactions, etc.

Agreeableness – It refers to the ability of a person to get along

with others and show a concern for social harmony. People high
on this trait tend to be friendly, cooperative, generous and believe
that people are basically decent and trustworthy.

Neuroticism – It refers to a tendency to experience negative

emotions such as anger, anxiety or depression more intensely
and for longer periods than most people. Those who score high on
neuroticism tend to be irritable, fearful, emotionally unstable and
interpret ordinary situations as threatening and hopeless.

Measurement Of Personality:
Personality can be assessed using techniques such as Self Report
Measures (Inventories), Behavioural Analysis Techniques and
Projective Techniques.

Behavioural Analysis Techniques:

Behavioural analysis (techniques) such as Interview and
Observation can provide information about an individual’s
personality in a variety of situations.

Interview – It is a process in which the interviewer collects

information about the personality of an interviewee by asking
him/her specific questions. The main types of interview depending
on the purpose of assessment are Structured interview and
unstructured interview

Structured interview – The number, type and sequence of

questions to be asked in the interview are pre-determined. The
answers expected are also specific. This type of interview is used
where exact quantification is required, for e.g., industrial
psychologists use structured interviews to select employees for a
job.

Unstructured interview – The type and sequence of questions to

be asked by the interviewer are not pre-determined. Detailed
answers can be given and scoring is often subjective. It is
employed by clinical psychologists, counsellors, etc.

Observation – The types of observation include Naturalistic

observation, Laboratory observation, Participant observation,
Non-participant observation, etc. This method is useful only when
there is a trained observer, clear objectives and adequate
guidelines to carry out the observations.

Self-Report Measures (Inventories):

The individual provides information about his/her personality by
responding to statements questions on the inventory, for e.g.,
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), Cattell’s 16
Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PFQ), etc. Responses are
scored in quantitative terms and interpreted on the basis of
norms that are developed for the test.

Projective Techniques:
Projective techniques emerged from the psychoanalytic
perspective. The individual responds freely to relatively
unstructured or ambiguous stimuli/material. It is assumed that
individuals project their own personality onto these stimuli, often
revealing personal conflicts, coping styles, etc. Projective
techniques cannot be scored in an objective manner.

They use various materials like ink-blots, ambiguous pictures,

incomplete sentences, word associations, etc. Main projective
techniques include Rorschach’s Ink-Blot Tests, Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT), Sentence Completion Test, etc.

Glossary:

→ Cardinal traits – In Allport’s theory of personality it refers to a

trait that is so powerful and pervasive that almost every act of the
individual is influenced by and can be traced back to it.

→ Central traits – In Allport’s theory of personality it refers to

relatively general characteristics of an individual that apply to
most circumstances.

→ Extrovert – An individual who is social, outgoing and openly

expressive prefers social interactions.

→ Introvert – An individual who is reserved, quiet and prefers

working independently.
→ Neuroticism – One of the personality factors in the Big Five
Factor Model characterised by the tendency to experience
negative emotions such as nervousness, tension and worry.

→ Interview – An assessment tool for data collection involving face

to face communication that can be used for diagnosis and in
research.

→ Trait approach – According to this perspective every individual

possess specific characteristics and patterns of behaviour that
shape personality.

→ Type approach – According to this perspective individuals are

classified into groups based on certain characteristics which
shape personality.

→ Rating Scale – An instrument in which a respondent gives a

numeric value (i.e.rates) to an object or stimulus.

→ Questionnaire – An instrument typically used in a research

study that consists of a series of questions that is used to collect
information from the participants.
→ Projective methods – They are techniques which use vague or
ambiguous stimuli which allow the individual to reveal their
personality through their unique responses.

Ch2

Meaning And Perspectives On Intelligence:

 Intelligence is the highest attribute of human beings.

Different psychologists have defined intelligence differently.
 Lewis Terman explains intelligence as, “an ability to think on
an abstract level.”
 David Wechsler defines intelligence as, “the aggregate or
global capacity of an individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally and to deal effectively with his environment.”

The two main perspectives on intelligence are –

Intelligence as a single, general ability – The classical notion of

intelligence explains it as an unitary ability and only the functions
of intelligence may take different forms. Psychologists like Alfred
Binet, David Wechsler, William Stern and Lewis Terman believed
that intelligence is a single index of cognitive abilities.
Intelligence as a set of multiple abilities – The modern view of
intelligence as explained by psychologists like Charles Spearman,
E.L. Thorndike, Howard Gardner, etc., states that multiple abilities
are involved in intelligence. They believe that distinct types of
intelligences exist.

 E. L. Thorndike – explained that intelligence consists of three

independent abilities viz. Abstract intelligence, Social
intelligence and Concrete intelligence.
 Louis Thurstone – explained that intelligence consists of
seven Primary Mental Abilities viz. verbal comprehension,
word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization,
associative memory, reasoning and perceptual speed.
 Charles Spearman – proposed the Two Factor Theory of
Intelligence i.e. General factor (g) minimum competence and
Specific factor (s) specific abilities which are required to
solve problems.
 Raymond Cattell and John Horn – The two types of
intelligence are 1) fluid intelligence – dependent on
neurological development, 2) crystallized intelligence –
function of knowledge, experience.
 Howard Gardner – Theory of Multiple Intelligence (1983) –
There are nine independent types of intelligence viz.
linguistic,logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-
kinesthetic, intrapersonal, naturalistic, existential
intelligence.

Measurement Of Intelligence:
Sir Francis Galton thought that he could determine intelligence by
measuring the size of the human skull. He administered a battery
of tests to measure variables such as head size, reaction time,
visual acuity, etc. However, these tests did not prove useful to
measure intelligence.

Raymond Cattell used the term ‘mental test’ for the first time.
Like his mentor, Sir Galton, Cattell also believed that intelligence
is best measured by sensory tasks. However, be emphasized that
test administration must be standardized.

In 1905, Alfred Binet in collaboration with Theodore Simon

published the First Scale of Intelligence. This scale was revised in
1908 and 1911. In 1916, Lewis Terman revised the scale, i.e.,
adapted few items, established new age norms etc. This came to
be called ‘Stanford Binet Test’.

In 1917, Robert Yerkes and his colleagues developed the Army

Alpha (verbal test) and Army Beta (performance test) intelligence
tests. These two tests were used to recruit soldiers during the
First World War. In 1939, during Second World War II also, to
recruit army personnel, the Army General Classification Test was
used.

In 1939, David Wechsler published the Wechsler-Bellevue

Intelligence Test. In 1955, the test was revised and then called
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS). It has a verbal scale and
performance scale.

Wechsler also developed a test to measure the intelligence of

children, i.e., Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC). In
2008, Pearson released the WAIS-IV.

Mental Age – Alfred Binet introduced the concept of Mental Age.

It is defined as the age at which the person successfully performs
on all items of the test prepared for that age level. Mental Age
need not correspond to Chronological Age. If Mental Age (MA) is
the same as Chronological Age (CA), the person has average
intelligence.

Intelligence Quotient – In 1912, William Stern introduced the

concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ). Terman refined the formula
for calculating IQ which is as stated below –
IQ = MACA × 100

Types Of Intelligence Tests

Individual tests of intelligence – Individual tests of intelligence are
tests which can be administered to a single person at a time, for
e.g., Stanford Binet Scales, WAIS, Koh’s Block Design Test, etc.
They require a trained, skilled psychologist to administer, score
and interpret the test. Individual tests are more capable of
measuring productive thinking.

Group tests of intelligence – Group tests of intelligence are tests

that can be administered to more than one person at a time, i.e.,
for mass testing, for e.g., Army Alpha and Army Beta Test, Otis
self-administration tests, etc. Group tests require less time
consuming and more economical. However, they are less capable
of measuring the creative aspect of intelligence.

Verbal tests of intelligence – Verbal tests of intelligence make use

of words and numbers to measure intelligence. Subjects respond
verbally to the test items, for e.g., WAIS, Army Alpha Test, etc.
These tests are culture-bound but are useful to measure higher
mental abilities.

Non-verbal tests of intelligence – Non-verbal tests of intelligence

do not use language to measure intelligence.

They make use of pictures, designs, objects, etc. Such tests

maybe

 Performance tests, e.g., Koh’s Block Design Test or

 Paper-pencil test e.g., Raven’s Standard Progressive
Matrices.

Non-verbal tests are culture-free and are also suitable for use with
illiterate persons, children, etc. However, they are less suitable to
measure higher mental abilities.

Application Of Intelligence Testing:

 Effective Schooling – On the basis of intelligence test scores,

teachers can classify students into intellectual categories
and devise special instructional programmes suited to their
mental development.
 Aids Mental Health Personnel – Intelligence tests are helpful
to Mental Health personnel such as psychologists etc., for
diagnosis purposes and therapy.
  Effective Parenting – Parents can provide appropriate
educational facilities to their children based on their IQ
scores.
 Career Counselling – Scores obtained on intelligence tests
help the student to select the right educational options/
courses.
 Vocational Counselling – Individuals can choose a suitable
career and achieve job satisfaction when they make a
realistic choice of vocation based on IQ scores.

New Trends In Intelligence:

Social Intelligence:
E.L. Thorndike proposed the term social intelligence. Howard
Gardner included interpersonal intelligence in the Multiple
Intelligences Theory. According to Karl Albrecht, “Social
intelligence is the ability to get along well with others and to get
them to cooperate with oneself’.

A continued pattern of nourishing behaviour indicates a high level

of social intelligence. Such persons are skilled at interacting with
and understanding people around them. They respect and
encourage others. They effectively comprehend social dynamics.

Emotional Intelligence (El):

The term emotional intelligence was used for the first time by
John Mayer and Peter Salovey. The concept of emotional
intelligence was popularized by Daniel Goleman. It is defined as
‘the ability to perceive and monitor one’s own and others
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information
to guide one’s thinking and actions.

Emotional intelligence refers to a set of cognitive abilities such as

perceiving emotions, using emotions to facilitate thought,
understanding emotions and managing (regulating) emotions.
Persons with high emotional intelligence tend to be emotionally
stable, patient, optimistic, enthusiastic and calm.

Artificial Intelligence (AI):

The term artificial intelligence was suggested by John McCarthy.
Artificial intelligence is an innovation created by human
intelligence. It is a field of study that combines computer science,
algorithms, psychology, etc. It refers to enabling software
programmes and computer systems to perform tasks that
normally require human intelligence, such as visual perception,
speech recognition, weather forecasting, language translations,
etc.

Artificial intelligence can take decisions only on the basis of

stored information and so it cannot be an alternative to human
intelligence. Artificial intelligence has immense applications in
daily life as well as to solve critical problems such as drones,
Robotic Process Automation, medical diagnosis, etc.

Glossary:

→ Artificial Intelligence – A subfield computer science enabling

software programs to run machines just like human intelligence

→ Emotional Intelligence – An individual’s ability to perceive.

assess, evaluate and regulate one’s own and other’s emotions
accurately.

→ Intelligence Quotient – The standard score of an individual’s

intelligence based on an intelligence test, It is also known as IQ.

→ Mental age – Is a measure of a child’s performance on an

intelligence test and relative to the performance of other children
of the same age on the same test.

→ Performance tests – Any test that requires the individual to

perform or do something such as completing a task or
manipulating abjects rather than respond using language.

→ Social Intelligence – An individual’s ability Lo effectively relate

to others.

→ Verbal tests – They make use of words and numbers to

measure intelligence and subjects respond verbally to the test
items.

→ Individual tests – They are tests which can be administered to a

single person at a time.

→ Group tests – They are Lists that can be administered to more

than one person at a time.
→ Intelligence – The aggregate or global capacity of an individual
to act purposefully, to think rationally and to deal effectively with
his environment.
Ch1

Introduction:
The word science is derived from the Latin word ‘Scientia’ which
means ‘knowledge’. Science is the pursuit and application of
knowledge and understanding of the natural and social world,
following a systematic methodology based on evidence.

The key features of science are:

 Empirical evidence – It refers to acquiring information

through direct observation or experiments. Scientific
knowledge is based on verifiable evidence.
 Objectivity – This refers to the ability to observe and accept
facts as they exist, setting aside all sources of expectations,
values, prejudices, etc.
 Scientific causality – Science aims to establish a cause-effect
between the variables under consideration, i.e., the effect of
the Independent Variable on the Dependent Variable.
 Systematic exploration – Science adopts a sequential
procedure for studying various phenomena. It includes
scientific steps like formulating a hypothesis, collection of
facts, scientific generalisation etc.
 Replication – Scientific knowledge can be replicated under
the same circumstances as the original experiment. This
ensures reliability of results towards establishing a scientific
theory.
 Predictability – Science involves describing and explaining
phenomena as well as to make predictions accordingly.

History Of Psychology As A Science:

  Psychology did not emerge directly as a science. It was
earlier a branch of philosophy. In 1879, at the University of
Leipzig (Germany), Wilhelm Wundt established the first
psychological laboratory. This led to psychology as a
separate scientific discipline.
 Structuralism advocated by Wundt and Titchener is regarded
as the first school of thought in psychology. Functionalism
was advocated by William James. Psychoanalysis was
proposed by Sigmund Freud.
 In the early 20th century, John Watson advocated a new
school of thought in psychology, i.e., Behaviourism. It
focused on the study of observable behaviours.
 In the later half of the 20th century, Humanistic Psychology
was advocated by Carl Rogers. It focused on the power of
free will towards self-actualization.
 American Psychologist, Ulric Neisser, is considered as the
founder of Cognitive Psychology which focuses on cognitive
processes.

School of thought Main contributors Focus

(1) Structuralism Wilhelm Wundt, Titchener Method of Introspect
(2) Functionalism William James Human Consciousnes
(3) Psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud Unconscious mind
(4) Behaviourism John Watson, Ivan Pavlov Observable behaviou
Carl Rogers, Abraham
(5) Humanistic Psychology Free will, self-actuali
Maslow
(6) Cognitivism Ulric Neisser, Jean Piaget Cognitive processes

Research Methods In Psychology:

Experimental Method – The systematic observation about a

certain problem under controlled laboratory conditions is called
an experiment.

The steps involved in an experiment are:

 identifying the problem,

 formulating a hypothesis,
 selecting an experimental design,
 conducting the experiment and data collection,
 data analysis,
 drawing conclusions.

The features of the experimental method are :

  it is the most objective and scientific method of studying
behaviour
 it helps to establish cause-effect relationship between two or
more variables
 the findings of an experiment are verifiable.
 The limitations of this method are :
 it may not be possible to control all intervening variables,
 it has a limited scope, i.e., there may be ethical constraints
or risk factors
 experimenter’s expectations or participant attitude may
influence the conclusions.

Survey Method – A survey is a research method used to collect

data from a pre-determined group of respondents, i.e., a sample.
It is used to obtain information about the preferences, opinions,
etc., of the ‘sample’ population making use of tools like
questionnaires, checklists, interviews, etc.

Survey method is employed by social psychologists, industrial

psychologists, etc. The researcher must ensure that the sample of
respondents is representative of the population.

Observation Method – It is a research method that is employed

in conditions where experiments may not be possible or even
necessary. Observation method is used by child psychologists and
social psychologists. It may be carried out in a natural setting, for
e.g., observing candidates waiting their turn for an interview or
may be done in controlled conditions.

It is a time-consuming, subjective method. It needs to be carried

out in a systematic manner for it to be considered as scientific.

Case Study Method – It is a qualitative research method

employed by clinical psychologists. It provides intensive,
descriptive information about an individual from multiple sources
such as family, peers, school, etc.

This helps to assess the person’s level of psychological and social

functioning. Researchers employ techniques like observation,
interviews, psychological tests, etc.

Correlation Method – A correlation refers to a statistical tool

used to measure the relationship between two or more variables.
If the change in one variable is accompanied by a change in the
other variable, this interdependence is called correlation. It is
measured by correlation coefficient which extends between -1.00
to +1.00.

The types of correlation are :

Positive correlation – Both variables either increase or decrease at
the same time, for e.g., extent of rehearsal (revision) ↑ and recall
score ↑. The value of positive correlation from 0.00 to + 1.00. It is
represented as :

Negative correlation – An increase in one variable is associated

with a decrease in the other and vice versa. The value of the
correlation is between 0.00 to -1.00, for e.g., bunking of lectures
(↑) and score in exams (↓).

Zero correlation – A change in one variable leads to no significant

change in the other variable, for e.g., height and intelligence.

Challenges In Establishing Psychology As A Science:

Many criticisms of psychology as a science have been made on

practical, philosophical and ethical grounds.

The challenges in establishing psychology as a science are :

 It is in pre paradigmatic state – According to American

philosopher, Thomas Kuhn, psychology is still in a
preparadigmatic state as it has not succeeded in producing
a cumulative body of knowledge that has a clear conceptual
core. In psychology, basic paradigms on which the whole
scientific inquiry can rest do not exist.
 Issues related to objectivity and validity – Methods used in
psychology such as introspection, surveys and
 questionnaires are subjective. Due to this, psychology lacks
two criteria of science, i.e., objectivity and validity.
 Issues related to predictability and replicability – In
psychology, it is difficult to make exact predictions as people
respond differently in different situations. Test results tend
to be more varied and hence difficult to replicate.
 Objectifying humans – According to some psychologists,
subjecting human behaviour to experimentation amounts to
objectifying human beings.

Rationality:
One of the significant aims of individuals is the attainment of
happiness. However, in the pursuit of happiness, one should not
be driven by irrational influences or compromise on social norms
and ethics. Psychology helps to improving life quality by applying
the concept of rationality in daily life.

According to Stanovich, “Rationality involves adaptive reasoning,

good judgement and good decision making.”

According to Dr. Albert Ellis, rationality helps a person to

successfully attain goals and be happy. He proposed Rational
Emotive Behavioural Therapy (REBT), which is a popular
intervention method in counselling psychology.

According to Ellis, rational people possess characteristics such as:

 Understanding both self-interest and social interest –

Rational people understand what choices help them to grow
and take responsibility for their actions. They are also
careful not to violate the rights of others.
 Self-direction – The person does not demand excessive
attention or support from others as he/she assumes the
responsibility for his/her own life.
 Tolerance – It is the willingness to accept beliefs and
behaviour patterns of others that may differ from our own
way of thinking.
 Flexibility – Rational people tend to be flexible and unbiased
in their thoughts and actions.
 Self-acceptance and self-responsibility – A rational person
accepts him/herself unconditionally as well as takes
responsibility for his/her thoughts, emotions and behaviour.

The concept of rationality can be explained as :

B (Balance) Balance between self-interest and interest of others
E (Estimate) Estimate the time, efforts, gains and losses
R (Respect) Respect oneself and others
A (Affiliate) Affiliate with others
T (Tolerate) Tolerate oneself and others
I (Integrate) Integrate personal wellbeing with social wellbeing
O (Optimize) Optimize potential fully
N (Navigate) Navigate path of success
A (Accept) Accept the limitations and overcome them
L (Live) Live life fully

Glossary:

→ Correlation Coefficient – A number which denotes the

magnitude and direction of the relationship between two
variables, it ranges between .1.00 to + 1.00.

→ Independent Variable – The variable being studied in an

experiment it may change due to manipulations of the
independent variable.

→ Hypothesis – A tentative explanation that can be tested to

determine if it is true.

→ Independent Variable – In an experiment the variable that is

systematically changed or manipulated by the experimenter in
order to study its effect on the dependent variable.

→ Interview – An assessment tool for data collection involving face

to face communication that can be used for diagnosis and in
research.

→ Participant In a research study the individual who voluntarily

participates and whose behaviour is being studied. Also called a
subject or experimental participant.

→ Questionnaire – An instrument typically used in a research

study that consists of a senes of questions that is used to collect
information from the participants.

→ Replicability – It is the possibility to replicate a research or its

findings in order to test its validity.