FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY AKURE

A TERM PAPER SUBMITTED

BY

OWOLABI OLAYINKA FELIX

MATRIC NUMBER: ANA/18/7726

ON

THE RECENT ADVANCES IN PROTEIN AND LIPID METABOLISM

COURSE: BIOCHEMISTRY (BCH212)

LECTURE IN CHARGE: DR ADEFEGA

27th July 26, 2021

OUTLINE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 METABOLISM

1.2 TYPES/CLASS OF METABOLISM

2.0 PROTEIN METABOLISM

2.1 WHAT ARE PROTEINS

2.2 GENERAL MECHANISM OF METABOLISM

2.3 MODERN ADVANCES OF PROTEIN METABOLISM

3.0 LIPIDS METABOLISM

3.1 WHAT ARE LIPID

3.2 GENERAL MECHANISM OF METABOLISM

3.3 MODERN ADVANCES OF LIPID METABOLISM

4.0 CONCLUSION

5.0 REFERENCES
1.0 INTRODUCTION

From the basic knowledge of science, it’s been established that the organization of the body

commenced form the biomolecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organ, system and organism as a

whole. Metabolism is a cogent body process. Organisms also undergo metabolism. Metabolic

reactions and processes are involved in food digestion, respiration, circulatory and also the immune

system (Fani, 2012). All metabolic reaction surely will be catalyzed. And catalysts responsible for

the rate of metabolic reaction are called enzymes (Judge & Dodd, 2020).

Enzymes are important in every metabolic reaction in the body. Examples of enzymes include

transferases, hydrolases, and oxidoreductases.

Metabolic reactions occurred different based on the class of food involved. Classes of food include

carbohydrate, proteins, vitamins, minerals and lipids. Protein and lipid advances in metabolic

reaction are discussed in this term paper (Etwaroo et al., 2019). `

1.1. METABOLISM

Metabolism is a term that is used to describe all chemical reaction involved in maintaining the

living state of the cells and the organism (Judge & Dodd, 2020). Metabolism is closely linked to

nutrition and the availability of nutrient. Bioenergetics is a term that describes the biochemical or

metabolic pathways by which the cell ultimately obtains energy. Energy formation is one of the

vital components of metabolism (Keating & El-Osta, 2015).

1.2. TYPES OF METABOLISM

There are two types of metabolism or metabolic process

1) Catabolism

2) Anabolism

Catabolism is defined as the metabolic breakdown of molecules to obtain energy. The result of

catabolism is the production energy. Examples of catabolic reactions are respiration.

Anabolism on the other hand is the building up of molecules in the body system. Anabolism tends

to accumulate energy. Example of anabolic reaction is photosynthesis.

2.0 PROTEIN METABOLISM

Protein is a substance that has amino acids, compounds and carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and

sometimes sulphur and is found in many foods.

Most common protein examples are Amylase, lipase, pepsin, keratin, myosin, tubulin, actin etc

2.1 GENERAL MECHANISM OF METABOLISM

The body can use sugar, amino acids, and fatty acids as energy sources when needed. These

compounds are absorbed into the blood, which carries them to the cells .After they enter the cells,

other enzymes act to speed up or regulate the chemical reactions involved with "metabolizing"

these compounds (Judge & Dodd, 2020). During these processes, the energy from these compounds

can be released for use by the body or stored in body tissues, especially the liver, muscles, and body

fat (Kennedy, 1957). Metabolism is a balancing act involving two forms of activities which are:

 Anabolism: building up body tissues and energy stores

 Catabolism: breaking down of body tissues and energy is used up.

Anabolism is all about building and storing. It supports the growth of new body cells, the

maintenance of body tissues, and the storage of energy for future use. In anabolism, small

molecules change into larger, more complex molecules of carbohydrates, protein, and fat.

Catabolism is the process that produces the energy needed for all activity in the cells. Cells break

down large molecules (mostly carbs and fats) to release energy. This provides fuel for anabolism,
heats the body, and enables the muscles to contract and the body to move. As complex substances

are break down into more simple substances, the body releases the waste products through the skin,

kidneys, lungs, and intestines.

2.2 MODERN ADVANCES OF PROTEIN METABOLISM

Beyond being a source of essential amino acids and promoting protein synthesis, protein

metabolism plays a crucial role. Several amino acids have been shown to exert

hypocholesterolemic activities in animal studies. Studies in humans show that not only the free

amino acids, but also the bioactive peptides encrypted in proteins and released during digestion

impact lipid metabolism (El Khoury & Anderson, 2013).

Acetyl-CoA carboxylase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Increases in hepatic b-oxidation

and ketogenesis by dietary proteins have also been reported (Altamirano et al., 2013). The

promotion of hepatic amino acid catabolism, which as an energy-requiring process increases

hepatic lipid oxidation and the stimulation of glucagon secretion, which promotes hepatic

ketogenesis were suggested as the underlying mechanisms (El Khoury & Anderson, 2013).

Reduced production and accelerated clearance of chylomicrons through stimulation of lipoprotein

lipase (LPL) also occur with increased intakes of proteins. In addition, the hydrophobic nature of

dietary proteins delays the digestion and absorption kinetics of triglyceride rich chylomicrons (El

Khoury & Anderson, 2013). A summary of the recent studies describing the role of quantity and

composition of proteins in lipid metabolism published in the last 5 years is presented (Mandrioli et

al., 2020).
3.0 LIPID METABOLISM

Lipid metabolism involves the synthesis of the structural and functional lipids that are characteristic

of individual tissues and the degradation of lipids to satisfy the metabolic needs of the body

(e.g., energy production).

Most common lipid examples are phospholipids, glycolipids, sphingolipids, cholesterol,

prostaglandins, etc

3.1 GENERAL MECHANISM OF METABOLISM

To obtain energy from fat, triglycerides must first be broken down by hydrolysis into their two

principal components, fatty acids and glycerol. This process, called lipolysis, takes place in the

cytoplasm. The resulting fatty acids are oxidized by β-oxidation into acetyl CoA, which is used by

the Krebs cycle. The glycerol that is released from triglycerides after lipolysis directly enters the

glycolysis pathway as DHAP. Because one triglyceride molecule yields three fatty acid molecules

with as much as 16 or more carbons in each one, fat molecules yield more energy than

carbohydrates and are an important source of energy for the human body. Triglycerides yield more

than twice the energy per unit mass when compared to carbohydrates and proteins. Therefore, when

glucose levels are low, triglycerides can be converted into acetyl CoA molecules and used to

generate ATP through aerobic respiration.

The breakdown of fatty acids, called fatty acid oxidation or beta (β)-oxidation, begins in the

cytoplasm, where fatty acids are converted into fatty acyl CoA molecules. This fatty acyl CoA

combines with carnitine to create a fatty acyl crinite molecule, which helps to transport the fatty

acid across the mitochondrial membrane. Once inside the mitochondrial matrix, the fatty acyl

carnitine molecule is converted back into fatty acyl CoA and then into acetyl CoA. The newly

formed acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle and is used to produce ATP in the same way as acetyl

CoA derived from pyruvate.

3.2 MODERN ADVANCES OF LIPID METABOLISM

Fat composition may be a factor modulating the lipid responses to increased protein consumption.

In overweight or obese men, protein was substituted for carbohydrates by adding red meat to

provide 31% energy carbohydrate and 31% protein (Kamanna et al., 2013). The diets also provided

38% fat energy, with either 15 or 8% as saturated fat by exchanging it for monounsaturated fat.

Fasting plasma triglyceride concentrations decreased irrespective of the saturated fat intake

compared to baseline diet (50% energy carbohydrate, 13% protein and 38% fat with 15% as

saturated fat) over 3 weeks. However, saturated fat level in the meat diet modulated the responses

of other lipoproteins to dietary proteins. Fasting concentrations of total and LDL cholesterol

decreased with the meat diet with low compared to high saturated fat content and to the baseline

diet (Zeng et al., 2018). Furthermore, fasting plasma VLDL concentrations were also lowered.

However, the possibility that these responses were caused by the higher monounsaturated fat rather

than the reduced saturated fat intake cannot be ruled out. These findings highlight the possibility

that subsets of population consuming high amounts of both saturated fat and proteins may be at

increased risk of coronary heart disease (Bian et al., 2021).

Carbohydrate composition of the diet, because of its well known role in fat synthesis, would be

also expected to influence lipid responses to proteins, but only one study has examined this effect.

When incorporated into a 26% high fructose diet over 6 days, increasing protein intake from 11 to

21% energy enhanced fructose meal-induced postprandial triglyceridemia in healthy men. Although
this indicates that higher intakes of protein enhanced fructose-induced hepatic de novo lipogenesis

in diets with three-fold the average fructose content (8% of energy), it cannot be concluded that

carbohydrate composition is a factor modifying the effect of protein ingestion on lipids in usual

diets (Jenkins, 1993).

CONCLUSION

It well established that dietary proteins influence lipid metabolism. But the number of protein

examined in this connection. A role for dietary proteins in lipid metabolism has been identified in

animal and humans, differing with their quantity and composition. More researches are still on for

further advances.

REFERENCES

Altamirano, C., Berrios, J., Vergara, M., & Becerra, S. (2013). Advances in improving mammalian

cells metabolism for recombinant protein production. In Electronic Journal of Biotechnology.

https://doi.org/10.2225/vol16-issue3-fulltext-2

Bian, X., Liu, R., Meng, Y., Xing, D., Xu, D., & Lu, Z. (2021). Lipid metabolism and cancer. In

Journal of Experimental Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1084/JEM.20201606

El Khoury, D., & Anderson, G. H. (2013). Recent advances in dietary proteins and lipid

metabolism. In Current Opinion in Lipidology.

https://doi.org/10.1097/MOL.0b013e3283613bb7

Etwaroo, D. H., Goburdhun, D., & Ruggoo, A. (2019). Classes of food additives in food products
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Fani, R. (2012). The Origin and Evolution of Metabolic Pathways: Why and How did Primordial

Cells Construct Metabolic Routes? Evolution: Education and Outreach, 5(3), 367–381.

https://doi.org/10.1007/s12052-012-0439-5

Jenkins, T. (1993). Advances in ruminant lipid metabolism. J Dairy Sci.

Judge, A., & Dodd, M. S. (2020). Metabolism. In Essays in Biochemistry.

https://doi.org/10.1042/EBC20190041

Kamanna, V. S., Ganji, S. H., & Kashyap, M. L. (2013). Recent advances in niacin and lipid

metabolism. In Current Opinion in Lipidology.

https://doi.org/10.1097/MOL.0b013e3283613a68

Keating, S. T., & El-Osta, A. (2015). Epigenetics and metabolism. In Circulation Research.

https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.303936

Kennedy, E. P. (1957). Metabolism of lipides. Annual Review of Biochemistry, 26(1), 119–148.

Mandrioli, J., Mediani, L., Alberti, S., & Carra, S. (2020). ALS and FTD: Where RNA metabolism

meets protein quality control. In Seminars in Cell and Developmental Biology.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.06.003

Zeng, Y., Ren, K., Zhu, X., Zheng, Z., & Yi, G. (2018). Long Noncoding RNAs: Advances in Lipid

Metabolism. Advances in Clinical Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acc.2018.07.001