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0 UNIT 1
- Sociolinguistics: It is the study of language in relation to social factors,
including # of regional, class, occupational dialect, gender #, and
bilingualism.( Song ngữ)=> Social factors
- Relationship between language and society => Definition
- Used for: + help us understand why we speak differently in various social
contexts
+ Help us uncover the social relationships in community in other
words
- Social factors: Gender, Race, Culture

SUMMARY: These examples illustrate the range of linguistic variation

which can be observed in different speech communities. People may use
different pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, or styles of a language for
# purposes. They may use # dialects of a languages according to the
situation in which they are speaking.

SOCIAL FACTORS

SOCIAL DIMENTIONS:
1. A social distance scale concerned with participant relationships
2. A status scale concerned with participant relationship
3. A formality scale relating to the setting or type of interaction
 4. 2 functional scale relating to the purposes or topic of interaction

CHAPTER 2:
Choosing variety or code
What is your linguistic repertoire?
* Variety is a set of linguistic forms used under specific social circumstances
(mother tongue, dialect, language learned at school,…)
* The linguistic repertoire is the set of skills and knowledge a person has of one
or more languages, as well as their different varieties.
* Domain: the typical interactions between typical participants
* Diglossia: a situation when we have 2 varieties of the same language existing
side by side throughout the community.
- 2 distinct varieties of the same language are used in the community, with one
regarded as a high (or H) variety and the other a low (or L) variety.
- Each variety is used for quite distinct functions; H and L complement each
other.
- No one uses the H variety in everyday conversation.
* Polyglossia: a situation where a community regularly uses more than three
languages.
* Code-switching: shifting from one code (language) to another. People switch
languages in a single situation, within a single conversation.
- Directive function: to include or exclude other people from the conversation.
- Affective function: to express some parts of identity. (ex 13, 16)
- Referential function: if someone is unable to express an idea easily in one
language, switch to other language to do easily.
* Metaphorical switching happens when the switch happens due to non-explicit
reasons, e.g. to show identity and group membership.
* Lexical borrowing happens when there is a lack of vocabulary in a language.
* Intersentential switching: The language switches for entire sentences or
clauses. (có thể bỏ được)
* Intra-sentential switching: The speaker switches languages within a clause or
sentence boundary. (không bỏ được)

CHAPTER 3:
 Language shift: It happens when the language of the MAJORITY
displaces the MINORITY mother tongue language over time in migrant
communities or in communities under military occupation.
=> When language shift occurs, it shifts most of the time towards the
language of the dominant group and the result could be the eradication of
the local language.
Language Death/Loss:
+ When: When all the people who speak a language die, the language dies
with them
+ With the spread of a majority group language into more and more
domains, the number of contexts in which individuals use the ethnic
language diminishes.
+ The language usually retreats until it is used only at home, and finally it is
restricted to such personal activities as counting, praying and dreaming.
# Language shift and language death:
Language shift: The process by which one language displaces another in
the linguistic repertoire of a community.
Language death: When a language is not longer spoken naturally
anywhere in the world.
FACTORS LEAD TO LANGUAGE SHIFT
A.Economic, social and political factors:
1. The domaint language is associated with social status and prestige
2. Obtaining work is the obvious economic reason for learning
another language
3. The pressure of institutional domains such as schools and the
media
B. Demographic factors:
1. Language shift is faster in urban areas than rural ones
2. Intermarriage between groups can accelerate language shift
C. Attitudes and values
Language shift is slower among communities where the minority
language is highly valued. Therefore when the language is seen as an important
symbol of ethnic identity, it is generally maintained longer, and visa versa.
Pride in their ethnic identity and their language contribute to language
maintenance.
How can a minority language be maintained?
 ● A language can be maintained and preserved, when it is highly valued as
an important symbol of ethnic identity for the minority group.
● If families from a minority group live near each other and see each other
frequently, their interactions will help to maintain the language
● For emigrants from a minority group, the frequency of contact with the
homeland can contribute to language maintenance
● Intermarriage within the same minority group is helpful to maintain the
native language
● Ensuring that the minority group language is used at formal settings such
as schools or worship places will increase language maintenance
● Institutional support from domains such as education, law,
administration, religion and the media can make a difference between the
success and failure of maintaining a minority group language
Language Revival
● It happens when a community becomes aware that its language is
in danger of disappearing and takes steps to revive it.
● It is the attempt of the interested parties (individuals, cultures,
governments) to recover the spoken use of the language.
● The process is also referred to as Language Revitalization
CHAPTER 4
Vernacular
● has not been standardized does not have official status.
● usually the first language learned by people in
● multilingual language communities
● used for a narrow range of informal functions

3 components of the meaning:

● An uncodified or unstandardized variety
● The way it is required - in the home, as a first variety
● Used for circumscribed (limited) functions
Standard language
● The one which is written, and which has undergone some degree of
regularization or codification
● Recognised as a prestigious variety or code by a community
● Used for H functions alongside a diversity of L varieties.
 ● Used in the country which have so many dialect or the country which use
multilingual nations.

Lingua Francas
● Called "trade language" or "bridge language”
● A language for communication between two people whose first languages
differ.
● A means of the communication between different linguistic groups in a
multilingual nation and used habitually by people whose mother tongues
are different in order to facilitate communication between them.
● Ex: English is a Lingua Franca in Thailand when the import or export
goods to other countries
Pidgins
● Has no native speakers
 ● A means of communication between people who don't have a
common language→a pidgin is no one's native language
● Arise when two groups with different languages are communicating in a
situation where there is third dominant language.

What kind of linguistic structure does a pidgin language have?

● Pidgin languages are created from the combined efforts of people who
speak different languages.
● All languages involved may contribute to the sounds, the vocabulary, and
the grammatical features. They tend to simplify structure and a small
vocabulary
Attitudes to Pidgins
● Pidgin languages don't have high status or prestige

3 main features of Pidgins

● Used in restricted domains and functions.
● Have a simplified structure.
● Have low prestige and receive negative attitudes
Creoles
● A pidgin which has acquired native speakers.
● Creoles are learned by children as their first language and used in a wide
range of domains.
Functions of Creoles
● A pidgin which has expanded in structure and vocabulary to express the
range of meanings and serve the range of functions of first language
Attitudes to Creoles
● Though outsider attitudes to creoles are often as negative as their attitudes
to pidgins, this is not always the case for those who speak the language
Differences between pidgin & creole
PIDGIN CREOLE
● Have no native speakers. ● Have native speakers
● Are the result of extended ● Develop from pidgins, they are
contact between groups with no learnt a a first language by a
language in common. they are large marker of speakers
used mostly for trade
● Have simple grammatical ● Are more complex in structure,
 structures they also express a wide range
of meanings
● Are not used for group ● May take on national and
identification. official actions

CHAPTER 5:
National Languages and language planning
1. National Language:
● The language of the political, cultural and social unit
● It is generally developed and used as a symbol of national unity
● Its functions are to identify the nation and unite its people
Ex: Gurany is Paragual
2. Official language:
● Used for government business
● Its function is primarily utilitarian rather than symbolic
* Official status and Minority Languages
● Because of its colonial history as well as its value as a world language
and international lingua franca, English is an official language in many
countries throughout the world such as Pakistan, Fiji,...
● But English is not legally an official language of England, the USA, or
New Zealand. Because in these countries, it has not been considered
necessary to legislate that the language of the majority is an official
language.
*What price a national language?
● The development of a single national language is a way of symbolizing
the unity of a nation. For example: English in England, French in France,
Japanese in Japan.
● The development of a national language has often played an important
part due to a distinct national identity, and to secure independence from
colonial rule.
Comparison:

Parameters of National Language Official Language

comparison
Type of a language First speech of a nation, Second language
spoken by community decided by government
Nature of informal formal
communication
Meaning Entitles the commnity, Entitles the sovereignty
history & culture and presence of the
Judiciary
Do the language The default official Cannot be a national
interconnect with each language language without legal
other proceedings
Change in the language Is robust and cannot be Can be changed through
changed with time official delegation

Planning for a national official language

The linguist’s role in language planning
● Language planning is defined most simply as deliberate language
change
Language academies, Individuals can be language
committees and commissions planners, mainly sociolinguists
are interested in language and lexicographers
planning.

The main concerns of language planners

1. Language Codification
2. Vocabulary Expansion

CHAPTER 6
Regional Dialects:
● Each region is characterized bt its regional variety.
● This linguistic variation may be phonological, lexical, or syntactic
● A geographical area is then generally associated with a certain accent,
vocabulary, and perhaps also grammar
● The boundary between a regional variety and another is usually indicated
by geographical distance and natural barriers like mountains, rivers, and
forests
There are 3 categories of regional variation:
○ International varieties
○ Intra-national or intra-continental variation
○ Cross-continental variation: dialect chains
Social variation
● Each social variety reflects the speech of a given social class.
● Social varieties involve characteristic differences in pronunciation,
vocabulary, grammar.
● Socio-economic factors play a crucial role since the variety one speaks
reveals one’s social.
Social dialects
● Social dialect is a variety of language that reflects a particular class or
group according to factors: education, occupation, income level…
● Factors: Social class, education, caste, gender, religion, profession,
age, occupation, place of residence, racial origin, cultural background.
Example of social dialects:
Upper class speaker Non upper speaker
Sitting room Lounge
Lavatory Toilet
Sofa Settee

COMPARISON
Social Dialects Regional Dialects
Difference in use of language due to Different in use of language due to
social class discrepancies geographical discrepancies
Social Barriers Geographical Barriers

Distance is not an important factor Distance is an important factor

The distinction is not clear-cut The distinction is clear-cut
Can be easily influenced by external Not easily influenced by external
factors factors

Caste dialects
● People can be grouped together on the basis of similar social and
economic factors. Their language generally reflects these groupings- they
use different social dialects.
● A person’s dialect is an indication of their social background
● XUẤT HIÊN Ở INDIA
 CHAPTER 7

Women and men are different in speech

Reason: different in social and cultural, power dynamics that can be changed.
Expression: The linguistic forms used by women and men contrast - to
different degrees - in all speech communities.
Men Women
More directive More linguistically polite and
expressive
Use more simple words Used more gestures and words of
feelings
More likely to speak abstractly More zeroed in on details
Gender-exclusive speech (không phân biệt giới tính)
- There are speech varieties used by men and women in some societies
→ Women and men do not speak in exactly the same way as each
other in any community.
- An extreme example: Amazonian Indians: men must marry outside their
own tribe.
→ the men and women in the community speak different languages.
Social Status and power differences
Very hierarchical societies
E.g: in Bengali societies( apparently) wives are not permitted to use their
husbands’ names as they (the wives) are supposed to be subordinate.
Gender-exclusive speech forms reflect gender- exclusive social roles
E.g: Women and men have different responsibilities, and everyone in the
community knows what they are.
Gender preferential speech
● Instead of using completely different forms of language in highly
structure communities, men and women in urban communities use
different quantities or frequencies of the same forms.
● In Western societies, where women’s and men’s social roles overlap, the
speech forms they use also overlap.
WOMEN: use more -ing: Swimming, Dancing, Typing
MEN: use more -in: Swimmin, Dancin, Typin
Gender and social class
 - Women tend to use more standard forms than men. Men use more of the
vernacular forms.
- Linguistic features which differ in the speech of women and men in
western communities are usually features which also distinguish the
speech of people from different social classes.
What are some alternative explanations for females’ use of more
standard forms than men?

Women Men
More status-conscious
More aware of the way they speak
reflect their social class background
Use more grammatical standard Use more vernacular forms because
they carry macho connotations of
masculinity and toughness -> many
women might not want to use such
forms.
Society tends to expect better
behavior from women than men
Society expects women to speak
more correctly and standardly than
men, especially when they are serving
as models for children.
People who are subordinate must be
polite. Women as a subordinate group
must avoid offending men.

What are speech differences between women and men in terms of age-
graded features?

Pitch of the voice

- The pitch of women’s and men’s voice differences develop at

puberty
- Exception: some women’s natural speaking pitch is deeper
 than that of some men.
Speech Rate
- Women generally tend to speak at a faster rate than men, although
this difference may diminish with age.
Swear word vocab

- Teenagers use swear words more often

- Adult men restrict swearing largely to all-male setting
- Females reduce swearing in all setting as they move into adulthood
Slang
Slang is a linguistic prerogative of young people which means they are free to
make phrases that are separate from the general public.

CHAPTER 8
Ethnicity
● A grouping people who indentify with each other on the basis of shared
attributes ( culture, language and history) that distinguish them from other
groups
Signal:
● Conversation
● Food, religion, dress and a distinctive speech style
African American Vernacular English ( AAVE)
- The omission of the verb “BE” - ko dùng tobe
- Multiple negation (nhiều hệ phủ định)
- Consonant cluster simplification
Black British English
- Linguistic feature (slangs)
- Pronounciation, stress, intonation
- Grammatical features ( plural form, tense)
Linguistic features
Slang words:
Lick -> hit
Kenge -> weak, puny
Other features : pronunciation, stress, intonation
Then -> [den]
Thin-> [tin]
Grammatical features: Plural forms don’t have s on the end. Tenses aren’t
marked by suffixes on verbs
Walk / jump are used rather than walks/ jumps/ walked/ jumped
=> ko chia thì
Maori English
- Use present tense with s
- Omit “have/has”
New Englishes
- Come from post- colonial societies
- The term “ New Englishes” is most often used to describe varieties which
have developed in post- colonial societies where the colonial powers
have been displaced, but the legacy of English remains. A few examples
of new Englishes are Fiji English, HongKong English, Singapore
English, Indian English and the English used in the Philippines.
SOCIAL NETWORK 🥰
Definition: Social network is the pattern of informal relationships people are
involved in on a regular basis.
Types of social network:
Density: refers to whether members of a person’s network are in touch with
each other.
Plexity: is a measure of the range of different types of transaction people are
involved in with different individuals.
- Uniplex: mối quan hệ duy nhất - cô/học sinh - is relationship where the
link with the other person is in only one area
- Multiplex: nhiều mối quan hệ -> ví dụ: trên trường là cô trò nhưng về nhà
là anh chị em họ hoặc ba mẹ - involve interactions with others along
several dimensions.

CHAPTER 9
What is speaker innovation?
- Language itself changes at that speakers and writers change the way they
use the language.
- Speaker innovation is about the people who choose to change the
language.
 - Speakers innovate, sometimes spontaneously, but more often by imitating
speakers from other communities. If their innovations are adopted by
others and diffuse through their local community and beyond into other
communities, then linguistic change is the result.

Talk of language change, like the discussion between the young people at the
beginning of this section, often treats language as an entity independent of its
speakers and writers. In reality, it is not so much that language itself changes as
that speakers and writers change the way they use the language. Speaker
innovation is a more accurate description than language change.

Change from above

● Are changes which people are aware of. These are changes where people
are conscious of their social significance as desirable or prestige
features of speech.
● Refers to the source of the change. In the sense, above refers to the fact
that a feature is generally spreading downwards through the social
groups in a speech community.

Change from below

● Are often changes in the pronunciation of vowels, are changes below
people’s level of conscious awareness.
● Refers to a change which spreads from lower social groups upwards
through to higher social groups. Such changes may or may not be above
the level of conscious awareness.
How do language changes spread?
Group to group:
● The wave metaphor is suitable to visualize or understand the spread of
language change from one group to another.
● From the group A that have some dialect, then group A join with B, so it
will make a change in both group. Then next C will join in set, that will
make an adoption from A and B language.
Style to style:
● The change is from one style to another, from one individual to another
within a social group, and subsequently from one social group to another.
● The change gradually spreads from style to style and from group to
group, till almost everyone uses the new form in all their speech styles.
 ● Younger people adopt new forms more quickly than old people.
When a change is a prestigious one, it usually starts at the top of the
speech community, in the most formal style of the highest social group of
the community.
Ex: The spread of the post vocalic /r/ in New York

Word to word - lexical diffusion

- Sound change can also spread from one word to another. It spreads
through different words one by one. This is called lexical diffusion.
When a sound change begins all words with the same sound change one
by one, not at the same time. Although they started off with the same
vowel, they ended up with identical different vowel.
Ex: In Belfast, a vowel change affected the vowel in the word “pull” before
“put”, and “put” changed before “should”.

How do we study language change?

Apparent-time studies of language change

Apparent-time sociolinguistics surveys different generations of a population at
one point in time.
Different between the speech of older people and younger people are interpreted
as indications of changes in progress. Younger speakers tend to use more of the
newer or innovative forms and the older speakers use more of the older,
conservative forms, the ones they adopted in their own teenage years.

Language change in real time.

Real-time sociolinguistics is a sociolinguistic research method concerned with
observing linguistic variation and change in progress in collecting data from a
speech community at multiple points in a given period.

Reasons for language change?

Social class and language change:
Members of the group with high (upper) social status tend to introduce changers
into a speech community from neighboring communities which have greater
status and prestige in their eyes.

Gender and language change

Women are the innovators, leading a linguistic change, and sometimes men.
Women tend to be associated with changes towards both prestige and
vernacular norms, whereas men more often introduce vernacular changes.

Interaction and language change

Age and language change

CHAPTER 10

1. What affects speaker’s style?

- Style is language variation which reflects changes in the situational
factors such as addressee, setting, task or topic.

* Addressee: in SO who is receiving the message (listener)

a) Age of addressee:
When addressing people of different ages, the speaker generally talks
differently. Some features in speaking and writing to children:
+ Using short and simple structures, simple vocab
+ Using We rather than You to refer to the addressee
+ Using the sing-song intonation which characterizes baby-talk.
b) Social background of addressee:
People talk differently to the higher class and to the lower class.
Example/; Textbook page 258,259
2. Speech convergence
- The effects in communication where the listener can catch the message
delivered by the speaker. ( on the same wavelength)
- A connected communication
- No missed communication
3. Speech divergence
- The effects in communication where the listener cannot catch the
message delivered by the speaker
- Not connected communication
- Causes missed communication
4. How- accomodate?
- The way speakers matched the language with the capability to whom
listener
 EX: Ở Sing/ India -> variation language -> choose a language that is
comfortable to use/ when communicating with its addresses
*Hypercorrection:
- A hypercorrection is the incorrect use or pronunciation of a word based
on the perception that the hypercorrection is more prestigious, formal, or
appropriate
100% ra thi
*Register:
● Is a variety of language used for a particular purpose or in social
situations.

CHAPTER 11

1. Functions of speech: 6 functions

1.Expressive: express the speaker's feelings.
Ex: I’m feeling great today.

2. Directive: attempt to get sb to do sth

Ex:“ Clear the table”

3. Referential: provide information

Ex: Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam

4. Metalinguistic: comment on language itself, we use a language to

explain. In simpler words, it would be when a language is used to talk
about the language.
Ex: The term ”function” is a feminine noun./’hegemony’ is not a
common word.

5. Poetic: Focus on aesthetic features of language.

Ex: a poem, an ear-catching motto, a rhyme Peter Piper Picked a Peck of
Pickled Pepper

6. Phatic: express solidarity and empathy with others. This function is

used for social communication.
Ex: “Hi, How are you?”
In letters: ‘Dear Sir/ Madam’
- Directive (addressee) : Concerned with getting people to do things
 + Imperative (direct) - Sit down
+ Interrogative (indirect) - Won’t you sit down?
+ Declarative (indirect) - I’d like you to sit down
In general, the interrogatives and declarative are more polite than the
imperatives.
2. Factors that affect people to use directives:
*The social distance between participants
People who are close friends or intimates use more imperatives.
*The relative status
Teachers can use direct expressions of their meaning because of their high
status.
*The formality of the context
Formality and status may be very relevant in choosing an appropriate directive
form.
*Gender
Women use less imperative and interrogative forms than men.

3. Politeness:
*Politeness involves:
- The feeling to others
- The social value of society
- Formality
*2 types of politeness
Positive politeness Negative politeness
Solidarity oriented Pays people respect and avoids intruding
on them.
Emphasize shared attitudes and Involves expressing oneself appropriately
values in terms of social distance and regulating
status differences.
Use title and last name to your superiors
and older people that you don’t know
 CHAPTER 12
I/Features of women’s language
Women’s speech reflects their subordinate status
Features of ‘women language’:

=> those features were used more often by women than by men, and used
to express uncertainly and lack of confidence

Features which may serve as:

Hedging devices
Lexical hedges
Tag questions
Question intonation
Superpolite forms
Euphemisms
-> signal lack of confidence/ reducing the strength of the utterance
Boosting devices
Intensifiers
Emphatic stress
 -> signal persuade their addressee to take them seriously/ intensify the
strength of the utterance
-> Women use more hedging and boosting devices than men. However, these
devices do not always express uncertainty
II/Lakoff’s linguistic features as politeness devices.
- ) Tag question
- Express
+ uncertainty
+ doubt
- Functions:
+ Facilitative or positive politeness devices
+ Soften or directive or criticism
● Women used more tags than men
● Women and men used tags for different functions
● Women put more emphasis than men on polite or affective functions
using them as facilitative politeness devices.
● Men used for tags for uncertainty.

III/ Men & women different in interrupting behaviour & conversational

feedback
- Interrupting behaviour
● In same-gender interactions, interruptions were evenly distributed
between speakers
● In cross-gender interactions, almost all the interruptions were from
males.
● Women got interrupted more than men
- Conversational feedback
● Women provide more positive feedback to the conversation partner
better than men do
IV/ Gossips
● Gossip describes the kind of relaxed in-group talk that goes on between
people in informal contexts.
● Gossip is defined as ‘idle talk’ and considered particularly characteristic
of women’s interaction.

V/ Sexist
Sexist language reflects stereotyped attitudes to women and men
(positive+negative)
- In principle, the study of sexist language in concerned with the way
language expresses both negative and positive stereotypes of both women
and men.
- In practice, research in this area has concentrated on the ways in which
language conveys negative attitudes to women
Ex: EL language discriminates against women
Women: bitch, chick, kitten, sugar, honey
Bitch (female dog)= evil woman
chick/kitten= helpless animals
Men: stud, wolf, birds.

CHAPTER 14

1.What is Pragmatics?
- Pragmatics is the study of relationship between language and context that
underlies the explanation of the meaning of language.
 - Pragmatics extends the analysis of meaning beyond grammar and word
meaning to the relationship between the participants and the background
knowledge they bring to a situation.
01.Grice’s conversational Maxims?
- Grice believed that meaningful dialogue was characterized by
cooperation and based his Cooperative Principle theory on the
assumption that participants in a conversation usually attempt to be
truthful, informative,relevant, and clear in order to facilitate successful
communication. Based on these assumptions, Grice divided his
cooperative principle into four conversational Maxims.

4 Maxims of cooperative talk?

- Quality: only say things you believe to be true
- Quantity: not too little or too much
- Manner: clear, avoid ambiguity, brief and orderly
- Relation: keep what is being discussed relevant to the topic.

Why don’t people follow the conversational maxims?

The reason people do not follow the conversational maxim is to stress
something, to cover something to save the time, to be clear, to show caring, to
be cynical, to expect something and to give solution.
People intentionally violate or flout maxims to avoid conflict and highlight
information. They also politeness, which is where pragmatism overlaps with
sociolinguistics.

What is ethnography of speaking?

Ethnography of speaking (Know as ethnography of communication because it
embraces features of non-verbal communication) is an approach to analyzing
language designed to heighten awareness of culture-bound assumptions.

Framework by Hymes.
The framework consists of 8 divisions, which contains 11 components: Genres,
Topics, Purpose or Function, Settings, Key, Participants, Message, Message
content, Act sequence, Rules for Interpretation and Norms of interpretation.
S - Scene and setting - physical location of the speech
P - Participants - people who are speaking
E - Ends- the purpose or reason of the speaking
A - Act sequence - speech acts and the order they are presented in
K - Key - the way the speaking is performed ( tone, manner, delivery)
I - Instrumentalities - the mode of communication used
N - Norms of interaction - the social rules of what is proper in conversation
G - Genre - the type of speech act or event (Gossip,Jokes, Conversations) within
the culture

Benefits of ethnography
- We learn about the discourse norms, or rather, the social and cultural
practices and beliefs of the members of a particular community or
speech community.

Interactional sociolinguitics
- It is an approach to analyzing discourse that pays attention to the clues
people use the interpret conversational interaction within its ethnographic
context.
- Paralinguistic behaviors, such as sighs or laughs, turn-taking behavior,
hesitations or pauses are detailed tools of conversation, which are also
focused on by social linguistic approach.

Contextualization cues
- Contextualization cues are tools used to indicate what the speakers meant
with their speech.
Miscommunication
- Miscommunication is a social inability to communicate properly and
adequately.
- It is a form of language barrier and can happen between two people but it
is very likely, or very common, to happen when there are to different
sociolinguistic/discourse norms.
[CA] Technically, CA is the study of recorded, naturally occurring
conversations or talk-in interactions.

Critical discourse analysis (or discourse analysis) is a research method for

studying written or spoken language in relation to its social context. It aims to
understand how language is used in real life situations.