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MODULE II

SPEECH COMMUNITIES

Lesson 1 Language and Dialect

Lesson 2 Language Styles and Registers

Lesson 3 Linguistic Varieties

Lesson 4 Code-mixing, Code-switching and

Diglossia

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MODULE II

SPEECH COMMUNITIES

 INTRODUCTION

This module gives an overview of the different speech communities, the

variations in language and the concepts on the different linguistic repertoire.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

After studying the module, the student is expected to be able to:

1. Explain the status of variations in a language, - dialects, regional dialect,

social dialect and idiolect, as well as the social equivalent of such
variation
2. Differentiate styles and registers, vernacular languages and standard
languages
3. Understand the concept of lingua franca, pidgin and creole and codes
4. Explain what is diglossia, code-mixing and code-switching; and
5. Gather data from their own speech and that of their families and peers,
of how individual speakers switch among varieties.

 DIRECTIONS/ MODULE ORGANIZER

There are four lessons in the module. Read each lesson carefully then answer
the exercises/activities to find out how much you have benefited from it. Work on
these exercises carefully and submit your output to your instructor.

In case you encounter difficulty, discuss this with your instructor during the
virtual meeting. If not, contact your instructor.

Good luck! Happy reading and learning!

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Lesson 1

 Language and Dialect

Introduction

People use language to signal their membership of particular groups and to

construct different aspects of their social identity. Social status, gender, age,
ethnicity and the kinds of social network that people belong to turn out to be
important dimensions of identity in many communities.

No two people speak exactly the same. If the person has a distinctive regional
accent, then their regional origins will be evident even from a short utterance. There
are infinite sources of variation in speech. A sound spectrograph, a machine which
represents the sound waves of speech in visual form, shows that even a single vowel
may be pronounced in hundreds of minutely different ways, most of which listeners
do not even register. Some features of speech, however, are shared by groups, and
become important because they differentiate one group from another. Just as
different languages often serve a unifying and separating function for their speakers,
so do speech characteristics within languages. The pronunciation, grammar and
vocabulary of Scottish speakers of English is in some respects quite distinct from
that of people from England.

Speech community refers to a group of people who share a set of norms, rules
and expectations regarding the use of language.

Language variations refer to the regional, social or contextual differences in

the ways that a particular language is used. Some important terminologies when it
comes to speech community and language variations are dialect, idiolect, sociolect
and language variety.

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Language and Society

Every society has a native language. Each society consists of a speech

community that includes people with a variety of social orientations based on their
status, in groups they perform, in a variety of roles. One of the basic language coins
is the difference between the nature of the groups contained in the structure of a
society. This language coin is called a sociolect or social dialect.
In this relationship, every person in society has his or her own way of using
his or her language. It is called idiolect. This is the fruit of the family from which he
came from, to the group where he lives, the place where he lives, and the world in
which he lives.
Another type of language coin is the so-called register. It relates to the use
of formal or informal style, in accordance with the topic discussed, the listeners,
the occasion, etc.
Sociolect, dialect, and register are types of language coins in a society. This
makes it easier for different forms of a language based on the following: to the
person who speaks, to the person who speaks or listens, on occasions or
circumstances, in place, and in the context that means to indicate.

Language

Language is a rich vehicle for communication. We use it to convey wishes and

commands, to tell truths and lies, to influence our hearers and to vent our emotions.
We also use it to formulate ideas which could probably never arise if we had no
language in which to embody them. In its basic nature, it is a utility, an instrument,
a tool of the business of living.
One of the key properties of language is cultural transmission. Language is
a means by which humans are able to teach the upcoming generation all that they
have learnt to date.

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Characteristics of Language

1. Language is systematic – explicit and formal accounts of the systems of

language on several possible levels, mostly phonological, syntactic and
semantic.
2. Language is a set of arbitrary symbols – the symbolic nature of language, the
relationship between language and reality, the philosophy of language, the
history of language.
3. Those symbols are primarily vocal, but may also be visual – phonetics,
phonology, writing systems, kinesics, proxemics, and other paralinguistic
features of language.
4. The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer - semantics,
language and cognition, psycholinguistics.
5. Language is used for communication – speaker-hearer interaction, sentence
processing.
6. Language operates in a speech community or culture – dialectology,
sociolinguistics, language and culture, bilingualism, second language
acquisition
7. Language is essentially human, although possibly not limited to humans –
human language and non-human communication, the physiology of language.
8. Language is acquired by all people in much the same way; language and
language learning both have universal characteristics – language acquisition

Dialect

The term dialect is a regional or social variety of a language distinguished by

pronunciation, grammar or vocabulary. It is a variety of speech differing from the
standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists. For
example, Cockney is a dialect of English. Every person speaks a dialect of his or her
native language. The study of dialect is known as dialectology. It is the language
considered as part of a larger family of languages or a linguistic branch.

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Dialect is the language coin based on its nature that is commonly used in
people in a region or area. For example, The Tagalog of Batangas, Marinduque, Metro
Manila, and Baler differs from the spoken and a few terminology. If the Manila people
live in Mindanao, they will have different language. Therefore, they are called the
dialect of the language.
The dialect is formed if speakers of a language are separated because of
location or social reasons and thus they have no relationship. The language is
changing and this change has a system. If any changes occurred in the center or in
any region in a group are unlikely to be passed, that group's speech would likely be
different.
A city, provincial or regional can be formed by people with different
languages. For example, in the Province of Davao there is Cebuano, Davaweño,
Tagalog, Newbo, Mamanwa, Manobo, Mandela, and Mansaka. They need a
communication language so they can understand. This language was refunded lingua
franca. Cebuano is the lingua franca not only in Davao, if not throughout Mindanao
and Visayas.

A dialect is a variety of language that is characteristic

of a particular group of the language’s speakers.

LANGUAGE DIALECT
Language is prestigious Dialect is not prestigious
Language is often taken as the standard Dialect is thought to be non-standard
Language has recognized grammar Dialect does not have this recognition
rules, dictionary, etc.
Standard language is often termed as Dialect does not have this function
the main language and it is used in many
places
Language can unite a nation by Dialect can create differences within a
separating it from other nations nation

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Regional Dialect – a variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a

country.
Example: American English, British English
Regional Dialects
/ka:r/ (pronunciation) /ka:/ (pronunciation)
Gas (lexis) Petrol (lexis)
American
English

English
Dove (morphology) Dived (morphology)

British
I don’t have a book (syntax) I haven’t a book (syntax)

Sociolect

Social dialects or sociolects are varieties of language used by groups. It is

defined according to social class, education, age and gender. Social class and
education are important factors to determine social variety or dialect. They differ
in form and pronunciation. The upper class who are usually more educated tend to
use more complicated forms while the lower class tend to simplify their way of
speaking. Age and gender are also factors that can determine language variety and
dialect. The elderly may speak a bit different from the younger ones. Female
speakers tend to use more sophisticated language and they discuss their personal
feelings and experiences. Male speakers tend to use simple ways of speaking and
they prefer non-personal topics such as sports and news.
Sociolect is the language coin based on the speaker's status or the board in
which he belongs. It is important to note that it is linked to social grouping shown in
society. It refers to socioeconomic status --poor or rich, uneducated or professional,
manager or janitor, college or criminal; on gender – female, glass; at age; ethnic
group -- Visayas, Tagalog, Muslims, Tingguian, And Boli; in religion, and other social
factors that society values.
For example, let's look at the children's vocabulary today that adults are
certainly not used by adults: yosi, dedma, promdi, sked, org, syota, penetration,
pranking, sosi, bongacious. And why is the plunge "c.r" to students and "powder
rooms" or "ladies' lounge for sosi? The grass is food for cow, but with drug addicts it

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is marijuana. Money can be called data, atik, or bedrawn. Her girlfriend is a syota
or jowa.
Most youth vocabulary listed above is called slang. It indicts an informal
language coin with modern terminology consisting of a few groups in society based
on their agreed context for its use. Sometimes, instead of building a new word, they
are changing their meaning: ube (color > P100); victorious (snake > traitor); youha
(madre > woman who rarely appears at home). The slang is used as a sign whether
or not someone belongs to the group. It expresses the creativity of those who make
it.
The language used by gays is for their group only. They have no intention of
using it for not being with them. It is "secret," or argot, that outsiders should
understand. But others are outstretched and used in "mainstream" --such as
badstream, chickens, tsunamits, jeproks, bagets, chickens, chika, jowa, syota,
eclampsy, and pigs.

As a result of the study of Camencita F. Montenegro (1982) on 200 students

at the University of Santo Tomas (19-24), she proved that there was a difference
between using the language of women and men. One of these is the more fresh use
of women in borrowing words and positive adjectives than men. Women usually use
borrowed words and they thought it had a prestige. It shows that gender has to do
with the use of the language.

Social Dialect – a variety of language characteristic of a social background or status.

Example: Upper class people and lower class people in Bangladesh speak a
different variety of Bangla.

Regional Dialect Social Dialect

Difference in use of language due to Difference in use of language due to
geographical discrepancies social class discrepancies
Geographical barriers Social barriers
Distance is an important factor Distance is not an important factor

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The distinction is clear cut The distinction is not clear cut

Not easily influenced by external Can be easily influenced by external
factors factors

Idiolect
Idiolect is a personal dialect of each individual speaker of a language. Nobody
speak a perfect language, everybody speak an idiolect. Voice quality, physical state
and social factors contribute to the identifying features in an individual’s speech.
It is a variety of language within a single speaker. It is a language variety
specific to a situation or context. Changes in situational context lead to “style
shifting”( pronunciation and grammar). There are no single-type speakers. People
style-shift by adjusting their:
 Pronunciation (example: runnin’ vs. running
 Word choice
 Grammar (sentence length and complexity)

LEARNING ACTIVITY

Answer the following questions briefly.

1. What is the difference between language and dialect?
2. What are the dialects that we have here in Region 1?
3. Give a brief description of the dialects used in Region 1.
4. What is the dialect that you speak?

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 REFERENCES

Holmes, J., (2013). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 4th Edition. New York:

Routledge.

Schmitt, N., (2010). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics 2nd Edition. London:

Hodder Education.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 5th Edition. Australia:

Blackwell Publishing.

Rubrico, JG U. (n.d) .http://www.languagelinks.org/onlinepapers/wika2.html#w_4

Languagelinks.org | Linggwistiks Para sa mga Mag-aaral ng AGHAM PANLIPUNAN 1

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Lesson 2

 Language Styles and Registers

Introduction

In a monolingual and multilingual speech community, some languages

together with their variations become parts of language varieties in the community.
We can say that that styles and registers are considered as language varieties.

Language Styles

The term style refers to a language variety that can be seen in the spoken
language or written language. It is divided based on speech or speaking situation
into formal or informal styles. Spoken language is related to the situation of use and
it can be formal or informal. In the written language, the difference can be seen in
business letters and the letters to friends. We can speak very formally or very
informally.
Our choice of the styles is governed by circumstances. Ceremonial occasions
almost require very formal speech; public lectures are somewhat less formal; casual
conversation is quite informal; and conversation between intimates on matters of
little importance may be extremely informal and casual.
We may try to relate the level of formality chosen to a number of factors:
1) The kind of occasion – depends on the physical setting
Example: in a party with friends we behave differently as compare to the
classroom

2) The social class, age and education that exist between the participants
Example: lower class and less educated people tend to simplify the way of
speaking while upper class and higher educated people tend to use
complicated forms.

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3) The particular task that is involved

Example: writing or speaking

4) The emotional involvement of one or more of the participants.

Style…
 A social identity for individuals
 The choice of words used by a specific group of people when they speak
 A set of linguistic variants with specific social meanings. In this context, social
meanings can include group membership, personal attributes or beliefs.

Classification of Style Types of Style

 Formal – associated with the
On the media of communication conventions expected of
 Spoken standard English. Formal
 Written language is signaled by
On the basis of register complex, complete
 Business style sentences, impersonality,
avoidance of colloquial or
 Scientific style
slang vocabulary and a
 News style
consistent preference for
 Advertising style
learned words.
 Informal – characterized by a
Levels of Style
simpler grammatical
 Frozen/static
structure (loosely-connected
 Formal
sentences and phrases,
 Consultative
personal evaluation and a
 Casual
colloquial or slang
 intimate vocabulary

Registers

Language has different forms based on the type and topic of discussion, to
audiences or speaking, on occasion. This coin is called register.
The word register is a variety of language or a level of usage, as determined
by degree of formality and choice of vocabulary, pronunciation and syntax,

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according to the communicative purpose, social context and social status of the
user. It also talks on the set of meanings that can easily become identified with
particular groups. Different occupations and activities have a variety of registers
that are not typically identified with any speech community but is tied to
communicative situation.
The physical setting of an event may call for the use of a different variety of
language even when the same general purpose is being served and when the same
participants are involved. The register of speech delivered in a conference for
linguists has a variation of registers for accountants, psychologists, engineers,
teachers, lawyers among others. The variation of registers has a greater emphasis
on the broader social context. Although, we accept that a speech at home is also
speech community or a social situation, speech-at-home may be different from
speech-with-friends or speech-with-strangers.
One type of register is related to formal or informal speech. Your language
tone is formally formal if you are talking to someone older than you, have a higher
calling than you, have power, or you don't know too well. Usually, language is also
formally used in writing and literature. The language remained formal in the church,
ceremonies, in speeches at the important celebrations, the courts, and on other
occasions that included honourable listeners. Informal registers are often used on
occasions attended by friends, by conversation between couples, writing comics or
letters to a friend or family member.
We use different language registers for different types of writing just as we
speak differently to different people. One person may control a number of registers.
Sociolinguistics are the link between the language and the social aspects of a society.
It looks at why someone uses that kind of language or language coin if he or she talks
to someone on an occasion and why does his conversation mode differ if conditions
are different.
It also indicts the kind of person who speaks -for example, what his job is,
what his social status is, where he came from, etc. Therefore, by our use of the
language we recognize our identity, the group in which we are engaged, and the
roles we play.

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Registers (functional varieties)

 The term originated from Thomas Bertram Reid in 1956

 It became common in the 1960s and was introduced by a group of linguists
who wanted to distinguish between variations in language according to
the user and variations according to use.
 Its focus is on the way language is used in particular situations. It is used
to describe specific vocabulary associated with different occupational
group (language of doctors, language of engineers, language of lawyers,
language of agriculturists)

Register has something to do with:

a. Formal or informal use of language
b. Theme or subject of discourse
c. The occasion
d. Status or social roles of the participants

Example:
Student to his classmates: “Nasa probinsya ang erpat at ermat ko”

Student to his teacher: “Nasa probinsya ang tatay at nanay ko.”

Language Registers or Styles

There are five language registers or styles. Each level has an appropriate use
that is determined by differing situations. It would certainly be inappropriate to use
language and vocabulary reserve for a boyfriend or girlfriend when speaking in the
classroom. Thus, the appropriate language register or style depends upon the
audience (who), the topic (what), purpose (why) and location (where).
Take note that, you must control the use of language registers in order to
enjoy success in every aspect and situation you encounter.
A. STATIC OR FROZEN REGISTER. This style of communications rarely or never
changes. It is “frozen” in time and content.

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Examples: printed unchanging language such as Bible quotations which often

contains archaisms; Panunumpa sa Watawat; the Lord’s Prayer, the Preamble

B. FORMAL REGISTER. This language is used in formal settings and is one-way in

nature. The use of this language usually follows a commonly accepted format.
It is usually impersonal and formal. A common format for this register are
speeches.

Examples: sermons, rhetorical speeches, pronouncements made by judges

C. CONSULTATIVE REGISTER. This is a standard form of communication. Users

engage in a mutually accepted structure of communication. It is formal, and
societal expectations accompany the users of this speech. This is for
professional discourse. It is a two-way participation and background
information is provided.

Examples: when strangers meet, communications between a superior and a

subordinate, doctor and patient, lawyer and client, lawyer and judge,
teacher and student, counselor and client.

D. CASUAL REGISTER. This is informal language used by peers and friends. Slang,
vulgarities and colloquialisms are normal. This is “group” language. One must
be a member to engage in this register.

Examples: buddies, teammates, chats, emails, and blogs and letters to

friends

E. INTIMATE REGISTER. This communication is private. It is reserved for close

family members or intimate people. Private vocabulary is used.

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Examples: husband and wife, boyfriend and girlfriend, siblings, parents and
children

Variables that Determine Register

Field – the subject matter of the discourse
Tenor – the participants and their relationships
Mode – the channel of communication, (spoken or written)

 LEARNING ACTIVITY

Compose dialogues using each of the following language registers and

styles. The following criteria will be used to grade each of your dialogues:

AREAS OF ASSESSMENT
Ideas - 5

Organization – 5

Sentence Structure - 5

1. Frozen

2. Formal

3. Consultative

4. Casual

5. Intimate

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 REFERENCES

Holmes, J., (2013). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 4th Edition. New York:

Routledge.

Schmitt, N., (2010). An Introduction to Applied Linguistics 2nd Edition. London:

Hodder Education.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 5th Edition. Australia:

Blackwell Publishing.

Rubrico, JG U. (n.d) .http://www.languagelinks.org/onlinepapers/wika2.html#w_4

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Lesson 3

 Linguistic Varieties

Introduction

Over half the world’s population is bilingual and many people are
multilingual. They acquire a number of languages because they need them for
different purposes in their everyday interaction.

All languages exhibit a great deal of variation. Each language exists in a

number of varieties. Wardaugh (2006) defines it as “a specific set of linguistic items”
or “human speech patterns (sounds, words, grammatical features) which can be
associated with some external factors (geographical area or a social group).

If one thinks of ‘language’ as a phenomenon including all the languages of the

world, the term variety of language can be used to refer to different manifestations
of it. One variety of language differs from another based on the linguistic items that
it includes. So, a variety is a set of linguistic items with similar social distribution.
This definition allows us to call any of the following ‘varieties of language’: English,
French, London English, Manglish, Singlish and even Tagalog English.

In sociolinguistics, language variety is a general term for any distinctive form

of language or linguistic expression.
 Hudson
a set of linguistic items with similar distribution
 Ferguson
any body of human speech patterns which sufficiently homogeneous to
be analyzed by available techniques of synchronic description and which
has a sufficiently large repertory of elements and their arrangements or
process with broad enough semantic scope to function in all normal
context of communication.

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 Wardaugh (1988: 20)

a specific set of linguistic items or human speech pattern (presumably,
sounds, words, grammatical features) which we can uniquely associate
with some external factors (presumably, a geographical area and a social
group)

Linguistic Repertoire
Linguistic repertoire refers to the variety of linguistic codes that a person has
stored and uses depending on the different environments.

Factors in Language and Code Choice in Large Speech Communities

 Certain social factors
 Who are we talking to
 Typical interaction
 Topic
 Function
 Social context of the talk

VERNACULAR LANGUAGES
Vernacular languages generally refer to a language which has not been
standardized and which does not have official status. It generally refers to the most
colloquial variety in a person’s linguistic repertoire. Vernaculars are usually the first
language learned by people in multilingual language communities, and they are
often used for a relatively narrow range of informal functions. For example, when
children are talking with their friends, they use a language that they used in their
places.

Characteristics of Vernacular Languages

 It is not codified or not standardized
 It is used to indicate that a language is used in informal everyday interactions
without implying that it is appropriate

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STANDARD LANGUAGES
A standard language is recognized as a prestigious variety or code by a
community. Generally it is written, and has undergone some degree of regularization
or codification. A standard language is most useful and widely used as an official
language or the national language.
It is an idealized variety and it has no specific region. It is a variety associated
with administrative, commercial and educational centers.
A standard language is a variety of language that is used by governments, in
the media, in schools and for international communication. There are different
standard varieties of English in the world, such as North American English, Australian
English and Indian English. Although these standard varieties differ in terms of their
pronunciation, there are few differences in grammar between them.
The development of Standard English illustrates the three essential criteria
which characterize a standard: It emerged in the 15th century and it was influential
or prestigious variety (it was used by the merchants of London), it was codified and
stabilized (the introduction of the first printing press by Caxton accelerated its
codification), and it served H functions in that it was used for communication at
court, for literature and for administration.

Country Language Official National

Iran Persian Persian Persian
Pakistan Urdu Urdu, English Urdu
USA English none English
Japan Japanese Japanese Not declared
Iraq Standard Arabic; Kurdish Standard Arabic; Kurdish
South Korea Korean Korean Korean
South Sudan English English Bari, Dinka, Luo,
Murle, Nuer, Zande
Finland Fsami, Innish, Swedish, Finnish, Swedish, Sami, Finnish and Swdish
Romani, Karelian Romani, Karelian &
Finnish Sign Language
Philippines Filipino Filipino, English Filipino
*Filipino Sign Language

National Language – the main language of a political, cultural and social unit.
It is generally developed and used as a symbol of national unity. Its functions are to
identify the nation and to unite the people.

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Official Language - the language used by the government for administrative

purposes. An official language is a language that is given a special legal status in a
particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically a country's official language
refers to the language used within its government - its courts, parliament,
administration, etc. - to run its operations and conduct its business.

In a monolingual country, the national language is the same as the official

language. In other multilingual countries, such as China, the Philippines and
Indonesia, where there are large populations speaking hundreds of different
vernaculars, a national language is not only a useful lingua franca and official
language, it also serves a symbolic unifying function for these nations.

In the Philippines, the choice of Tagalog reflected the political and economic
power of its speakers who were concentrated in the area which included the capital,
Manila. Its relabeling as Filipino was an attempt to help it gain acceptance more
widely, but resentment at the advantages it gives to a particular ethnic group is still
keenly felt. In Indonesia, by contrast, the government did not select the language
of the political and social elite, the Javanese, as the national language. Instead they
developed and standardized a variety of Malay which was widely used in Indonesia
as a trade language.

 The 1987 constitution designates Filipino, a standardized version of Tagalog, as

the national language and an official language along with English.
 On October 30, 2018, President Rodrigo Duterte signed into law Republic Act
11106, which declares Filipino Sign Language or FSL to be the Islands' official sign
language and as the Philippine government's official language in communicating
with the Filipino Deaf.
 The 1987 Constitution declares Filipino as the national language of the country.
Filipino and English are the official languages, with the recognition of the
regional languages as auxiliary official in their respective regions

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Characteristics of Standard Language

 It is the variety used by educated users and the media
 It is the variety defined in dictionaries, grammars and usage guides
 It is regarded as more correct and socially acceptable than other varieties
 It enjoys greater prestige than dialects and non-standard varieties
 It is used as a written language
 It is used in important functions in the society – in the government,
parliament, courts, bureaucracy, education, literature, trade and industry.

WORLD ENGLISHES
World English languages are classified into:
A. Inner Circle. Comprised of those countries who are considered ‘the
traditional bases’ of English such as the United Kingdom, United States of
America, Australia, New Zealand and Ireland
- English as a native/first language
B. Outer Circle. Comprised of countries where English is not spoken natively but
is still maintained as an important language for communication such as in
India, Malaysia, Tanzania, Philippines, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Kenya
- English as a Second Language
C. The Expanding Circle. Includes much of the world’s population- countries that
do not hold historical or governmental importance towards English but class
it as a foreign language or lingua franca such as in China, Japan, Russia,
Korea, Egypt and Indonesia.
- English as a foreign language

LINGUA FRANCA
Holmes (2013) defines lingua franca as a language used for communication
between people whose first languages differ. It is a third language that is distinct
from the native language of both parties involved in the communication. It is also
known as the “language of commerce.”

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Lingua franca is also a language used by different populations to communicate

when they do not share a common language commonly understood by many people
speaking different language.
Lingua franca was first used during the Middle Ages. It is a combination of
French and Italian that was developed by Crusaders and tradesmen in the
Mediterranean. It is also known as “Frankish tongue.”
A lingua franca is a language which is used habitually by people whose mother
tongues are different in order to facilitate communication between them. Other
terms that are used to refer to lingua francas:
 A trade language – example – Swahili in East Africa
 A contact language – example – Greek koine
 An international language – example – English
 An auxiliary language – example – Esperanto
 A mixed language – example – Mitchif in Canada

English as a Lingua Franca

 Spoken in many countries as a native language
 Spoken as a second language in other countries (India and
Philippines)
Other Languages used as Lingua Franca
Many languages throughout history served as lingua. Political and
economic power defines the use of lingua franca. The following are
considered as lingua franca: Chinese, French, Arabic, Chinook Jargon
(American Indian)

In the Philippine context…

Internally, among Filipinos, the national language, also called Filipino, is

still the language to be used.

The 1987 constitution also designates Filipino, a standardized

version of Tagalog, as the national language and an official language
in the Philippines.

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Filipino is regulated by Komisyon ng Wikang Filipino and the sole

language taught in the formal education in the entire country and
therefore serves as a lingua franca used by Filipino of various
ethnolinguistic backgrounds.

PIDGINS
Pidgins are assumed to be coming from a Chinese attempt to pronounce the
English word business during trades in the Far East. Pidgin came from the Hebrew
“pidiom” meaning “trade or exchange.” It is a combination of two Chinese
characters “pei” and “tsin” meaning “paying money.”
Historically, pidgins arose in colonial situations where the representatives of
the particular colonial power, officials, tradesmen, sailors, etc., came in contact
with natives.

What is a Pidgin?
A pidgin is a language which has no native speakers. A pidgin or contact
language is a restricted and extended language which arises with an urgency of
communication to serve specific needs between social groups that are ethnically and
linguistically different from each other. One of these groups is in a more dominant
position than the other; the less dominant group is the one which develops the
pidgin.
Pidgins develop as a means of communication between people who do not
have a common language, so a pidgin is no one’s native language, but is a contact
language. It is created from the combined efforts of people who speak different
languages. Many pidgins develop when an individual travel in a foreign country where
he or she cannot speak the language. It is regarded as a “reduced” variety of a
normal language. For example, “I done it.”, “The foreman no good.”, etc.

Characteristics of Pidgin Language

 No native speakers yet
 Spoken by millions as means of communication

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 Not used as a means of group identification

 It is a product of multilingual languages – one is a dominant language. The
dominant language is superior because of economic or social factor.
 There are two languages involved – a power struggle for dominance
 The dominant group has more vocabulary, while the less dominant group
focuses on grammar.
 Its main use or function is for trading

CONYOSPEAK: Filipino Pidgin

 These are moderate Taglish (Engalog or Filinglish) and “coñotic” Taglish.
 One theory that this Filipino pidgin language came to be is that, at
home, conyo kids are required to talk to their parents in English, and that
often means they are forbidden to talk in Tagalog.

Examples:

Yaya to young ward:

"I told you not to go to, you go to! Now, you look at!"
(I told you not to go, yet you still went! Now, see what happened!)

Another classic example of conyo talk is the following:

"Let's make tusok-tusok the fish balls."

(Let's pierce the fish balls with bamboo sticks.)

"It’s so init na; make paypay me naman o."

(It’s so hot; please fan me now.)

"You make hintay here while I make sundo my kaibigan”

(You wait here while I fetch my friend.)

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Possible outcomes of pidgin

a. It dies out when the original reason for communication diminishes or
disappears
b. It develops to more formal roles (expanded lingua pidgin)
c. It develops into a creole

CREOLES
A creole is a pidgin which has been acquired by native speakers. Regarding its
origin, creole is an adaptation of the Castilian Spanish criollo which means “home”
and “local”, from the Portuguese word criar which means “to rear”, “to bring up”
and from the Latin creo which means “to create”.

What is a creole?
A creole is a pidgin that has become the first language of a new generation of
speakers. It is a pidgin adopted as the native language. Creole differ from pidgins,
in that creole have been nativized by children as their primary language. During the
process of nativization, the pidgin is passed on to new generations and become a
mother tongue which is acquired by their children.
Many of the languages which are called pidgins are in fact now creole
languages. They are learned by children as their first language and used in a wide
range of domains.
Chavacano or Chabacano is a group of Spanish-based creole language varieties
spoken in the Philippines. The word Chabacano is derived from Spanish, roughly
meaning "poor taste" or "vulgar", though the term itself carries no negative
connotations to contemporary speakers and has lost its original Spanish meaning.
English Chavacano (formal) Chavacano Spanish
(common/colloquial/
vulgar)
rice morisqueta kanon/arroz morisqueta/arroz

dish vianda/comida comida/ulam vianda/comida

car coche auto auto/coche

housemaid muchacho/muchacha ayudanta/ayudante muchacha(o)/

ayudante

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father papá (tata) pápang (tata) papá (padre)

mother mamá (nana) mámang (nana) mamá (madre)

slippers chancla chinelas chancla/chinelas

married de estado/de estao casado/casao casado

tornado tornado/remolino, ipo-ipo tornado/remolino

Characteristics of Creole
 It is often classified as English, French or Spanish-based
 Speech becomes faster
 Expansion of morphology and syntax
 Expansion of phonology
 Expansion of the lexicon

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Learning Activity

Essay
Give your insight on the role or relationship of the different
language/linguistic varieties in any aspect of this Corona virus pandemic.
Your essay should have an introduction, body and conclusion. In the body of
your essay, you should be emphasizing three (3) points to state your
insight/idea. The following rubric will be used to grade your essay.

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Lesson 4

 Code-mixing, Code-switching and

Diglossia

DIGLOSSIA

A rather special situation involving two distinct varieties of a language, called

diglossia, exists in some countries. In diglossia, there is a “low” variety, acquired
locally and used for everyday affairs, and a “high” or special variety, learned in
school and used for important matters.
In some societies, there is a relatively simple arrangement called diglossia
in which at least one type of social restriction on items can be expressed in terms
of large-scale ‘varieties’, rather than item by item. The term diglossia was
introduced by Charles Ferguson(1959).
Charles Ferguson defined diglossia as a relatively stable language situation in
which, in addition to the primary dialects of the language (which may include a
standard or regional standards), there is a very divergent, highly codified (often
grammatically more complex) superposed variety, the vehicle of a large and
respected body of written literature, either of an earlier period or in another speech
community, which is learned largely by formal education and is used for most written
and formal spoken purposes but is not used by any sector of the community for
ordinary conversation.
Fishman also extends the term diglossia to include any society in which two
or more varieties are used under distinct circumstances. Diglossia refers to the
societies with two distinctive codes of speech which are employed in different
situations. (Wardaugh, 2006)
Diglossia is the characteristics of a speech community – groups of people with
common rules of speaking rather than individuals. (Holmes, 2008)
In a bilingual community, two languages or dialects are used differently
according to different social situations. Janet Holmes defines diglossia as having
three crucial features:

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1. In the same language, used in the same community, there are two distinct
varieties: one is regarded as High (H) and the other Low (L)

Superposed /Standard/High Variety Regional Dialect/Vernacular/Low Variety

It is used for Literacy and Literary It is used for informal conversation and
purposes and for formal, public and daily use. (Spolsky, 2008)
official uses (Spolsky, 2008)

2. Each is used for distinct functions.

3. No one uses the high (H) in everyday conversations

The term polyglossia has been used for situation where a community regularly
use more than two languages. Diglossia or polyglossia is used to describe
complementary code use in all communities. In a multilingual situation, the code
selected are generally distinct language. In all speech communities, people use
different varieties or codes in formal as opposed to informal situations.

THE MIXTURE OF VARIETIES: CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING

CODE-SWITCHING

Code switching is the practice of unpredictably changing one’s language,

dialect or speaking style to better fit one’s environment. This is performed by a
speaker when s/he uses different varieties at different times. The term code-
switching refers to the alternation between two or more languages, dialects or
language registers in the course of discourse between people who have more than
one language in common. Typically, one of the two languages is dominant: the major
language is often called matrix language, while the minor language is the embedded
language.
In linguistics, code-switching occurs when a speaker alternates between two
or more languages or language varieties in the context of a single conversation.

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Features of Code-switching
1. Occurs within a domain or social situation
2. Relates to a particular participant
3. Signal speaker’s ethnic identity and solidarity with the addressee
4. Might be used as an interjection or linguistic tag
5. It is motivated by the identity and relationship between the participant
6. Reflects a change in social factors
7. Expresses affective rather than referential meaning
8. Expresses disapproval
9. It is not possible to predict when it will occur
10. Means of conveying approval or disagreement about previous messages
11. Occurs in utterances
12. People are often unaware of the fact that they code switch

Types of Code-switching
A. Intra-sentential Switching
- The most complex type of code switching
- It can occur within the boundaries of a clause or a sentence
B. Inter-sentential Switching
- It happens between a sentence boundaries where one clause or sentence
is in one language and the next clause or sentence is in the other.
- Inter-sentential code switching takes place within the same sentence or
between speaker turns.
- It entails fluency in both languages such that a speaker is able to follow
the rules of the two languages
C. Tag-Switching
- It is the switching of either a tag phrase, or a word, or both, from one
language to another.

Reasons for Code-switching

1. Switch to another language as a signal of group membership and a shared
ethnicity with the addressee.

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2. To express a concept or thought that is not available in one’s own language

(for convenience)
3. Speakers may borrow words simply because such linguistic units are
associated with prestige, even though there may be equivalents in the
borrowing language.
4. Switch to another language for effective function.

CODE-MIXING

The term code-mixing is variously defined in different subfields of linguistics.

Many studies of morphology or syntax use the term as a synonym for code-switching,
the alternating use by bilingual speakers of two or more different languages within
a single utterance.
Code mixing is possible in bilingual or multilingual environments. It is also a
language contact phenomenon that does not reflect the grammars of both languages
working simultaneously. Words are borrowed from one language and adapt it in
other language and it is usually without a change of topic. It often occurs within one
sentence, one element is spoken in language A and the rest in language B. Code
mixing is usually found mainly in informal interaction.

DIFFERENTIATION BETWEEN CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING

When you change language intentionally and you do it because of specific

purposes (e.g. the presence of third person that does not share the same language,
or the change of topic or situation), in other words the switch is functional, that
means you code-switch. When you insert a piece of word other than that of your
language, and you have no specific purpose or intention when doing that, that means
you code-mix.

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LEARNING ACTIVITY

Give an example of a conversation which uses code-switching and

code mixing. You should have two conversation – one which has code
switching and the other one with code mixing. Encode your activity.

 REFERENCES

Holmes, J., (2013). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 4th Edition. New York: Routledge.

Stockwell, P. (2007). Sociolinguistics: A Resource Book for Students 2nd Edition. New York:
Routledge.

Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 5th Edition. Australia: Blackwell

Publishing.

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 MODULE SUMMARY

Let us have a recapitulation of what you have studied.

In module 2, you learned about speech communities and the different

language varieties.

Lesson 1 dealt with language and dialect. It discussed the differences of

language and dialect.

Lesson 2 discussed the different language styles and registers.

Lesson 3 dealt with the different language varieties.

Finally, Lesson 4 tackled about diglossia, code-switching and code-mixing.

Congratulations! You have just studied Module II. Now, you are ready to
evaluate how much you have benefited from your reading by answering the
summative test. God bless!!

 SUMMATIVE TEST

ESSAY

Discuss the importance of the concepts of speech community and linguistic

varieties in your future career. Think of a career that you may be into someday and
that will serve as your springboard in your discussion or essay.
Your essay should have an introduction, body and conclusion. In the body of
your essay, you should be emphasizing three (3) points to state your reflection/idea.
The following rubric will be used to grade your essay.

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AREAS OF EXPERT ACCOMPLISHED CAPABLE BEGINNER

ASSESSMENT 20 points 18 points 16 14
Ideas Very Somewhat Ideas are too Ideas are
informative informative and general vague or
and presented consistent unclear
in a
consistent
manner.
Organization Strong and Organized Some No /lacks
organized (introduction, organization organization
(introduction, body and
body and conclusion)
conclusion)
Understanding Writing shows Writing shows a Writing shows Writing shows
strong clear adequate little
understanding understanding understanding understanding
Sentence Sentence Sentence Sentence No sense of
Structure structure structure is structure is sentence
enhances evident; limited; structure or
meaning; sentences sentences flow
flows mostly flow need to flow
throughout
the piece

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