P-N Junction:

P-N Junction is formed when a single crystal of a pure semi-conductor is doped

with pentavalent impurity on one portion and trivalent impurity on other portion. Since the
introduction of trivalent and pentavalent impurities would create P-type and N-type regions in
crystal respectively. A sharp boundary exists between these two regions which is called a
junction and is known as p-n Junction.
Formation of P-N Junction:
Special fabrication techniques are required to form a P-N Junction. To make a
P-N Junction the n-type and p-type silicon crystal are cut into wafers. If on a wafer of n-type
silicon, an aluminum film is placed and heated to a high temperature (say 5800c), aluminum
diffuses into silicon. In this way, a p-type semi-conductor is formed on an n-type semi-
conductor. Such a formation of p-region on n-region is called p-n junction.
The P-N Junction is cut into small pieces. Each piece is enclosed in a casing with
electric connections coming out from p & n – regions.
Formation of depletion region and potential barrier in a P-n junction:
On account of difference in concentration of charge carriers in the two sections of
P-n junction, the electrons from n-region diffuse through the junction into p-region and the holes
from p-region diffuse into n-region.
When an electron from n-region diffuses into p-region, the electron falls into the
vacancy i.e. complete the covalent bond. This process is called electron-hole recombination. Due
to the migration of charge carriers across the junction- n-region of the junction will have its
electrons neutralized by holes in the p-region, leaving only ionized donor atoms (positive
charges) which bound and cannot move. Similarly, the p-region of the junction will have ionised
acceptor atoms (negative charges) which are immobile.
The accumulation of electric charges of opposite polarities in the two regions of
the junction gives rise to an electric field between these regions. The strength of electric field
across the junction increases with the migration of charge carriers across the junction. This
electric field opposes further flow of electrons from n-region to the p-region and holes from p-
region to n-region. This electric field sets a potential barrier VB at the junction which opposes
further diffusion of free charge carriers into opposite regions. In the vicinity of the junction, a
region is created which is devoid of free charge carriers and has immobile ions. This region in
which no free charge carriers are available is called a depletion region.
Due to the presence of potential barrier VB across the junction, an electron from
the n-region requires an energy evB to cross the junction. An equal amount of energy is required
to move a hole from P-region to n-region. The value of barrier potential is about 0.3V for Ge and
0.7V for Si semi-conductor diode. This barrier voltage stops the diffusion of majority charge
carriers from P to n-region and vice-versa.
In an electric circuit, the P-n junctions diode is represented as

Biasing of a P-N Junction:

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 When we apply a battery across the P-N Junctions the process is called biasing of
a P-N Junction. The P-N Junction can be biased in two ways:
(i) Forward Bias. (ii) Reverse Bias.
(i) Forward Biasing of P-N Junction :-
A P-N Junction is said to be forward biased when positive terminal of the battery
is connected to P-side & negative terminal of the battery is connected to N-side of the P-N
Junction as shown in figure.

In this case, the majority carriers, electrons in the np-region are repelled by the
negative potential due to battery and move towards the P-n junction. Similarly, majority carriers
holes in the p-region are repelled by the positive potential, towards the junction. Because of this
increased energy, some electrons and holes enter the depletion region. This decreases the
potential barrier. Therefore, width of depletion region also decreases. As a result of this more
majority carriers diffuse across the junction. Hence this causes a large current called forward
current to flow across the junction. A small increase in forward voltage results in large increase
in forward current, hence the resistance of p-n junction is low to the flow of current when
forward biased.
(ii) Reverse Biasing of P-N Junction :-
A P-N Junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of external
battery is connected to n-side and the negative terminal to p-side of the p-n junction.
The reverse biasing of p-n junction in reverse biasing is shown in following
figure:

In reverse biasing, the majority carriers i.e. holes in the P-region are attracted towards the
negative terminal of battery whereas the electrons in the n-region are attracted towards the
positive terminal of battery. Thus the majority carriers are drawn away from the P-N Junction.
Due to this depletion region becomes wider. This increases the barrier potential.
Due to the increased barrier potential, the majority charge carriers are not able to
cross the junction. Hence in reverse biasing there is no current due to the majority carriers.

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 However, a few minority carriers in the two regions of P-n junction diode cross
the junction after being accelerated by high reverse bias voltage. They constitute a current that
flows in the opposite direction. This current is called reverse current or leakage current.
Since large increase in reverse voltage shows small increase in reverse current,
hence the resistance of a P-n junction is high to the flow of current when reverse biased.
Current Voltage (I-V) Characteristics of P-N Junction diode:
When a p-n junction diode is connected in an electrical circuit, then we study the
variation of current that flows through the diode with the applied voltage across the junction
diode with a help of a graph or a curve called as V-I Characteristic of the diode.
There are two types of characteristics of a P-n Junction diode:
i. Forward Characteristics. ii. Reverse Characteristics.
i. Forward Characteristics:
These are the graphical relations between forward bias voltage applied to P-n
Junction and the forward current through the P-n Junction.
The circuit diagram used to study the forward characteristics of P-n Junction
diode is shown in following figure.

When the applied voltage is zero, the diode does not conduct and the diode
current is zero. The applied voltage is increased gradually and corresponding change in the
current is noted. A graph is plotted by taking voltage on the horizontal axis and the current on the
vertical axis. The forward characteristics of P-n Junction diode shows that upto certain voltage,
the diode current is very small. This is so because the applied voltage has to overcome the barrier
potential and the diode conducts poorly. Once the applied voltage is slightly greater than the
barrier potential, the diode current increases rapidly. This voltage at which the forward current
starts increasing rapidly is known as knee voltage (VK) or threshold voltage or cut off voltage. Its
value is 0.7 V for a silicon diode and 0.3 V for germanium diode. After knee voltage, the
junction diode behaves almost like a conductor.
ii. Reverse Characteristics:
These are the graphical relations between the reverse bias voltage applied to P-n
Junction and the reverse current through the P-n junction.
The circuit diagram used to study the reverse characteristics of P-n Junction diode
is shown below:

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 For a small applied potential (reverse bias), a small flows through the diode which
is due to migration of minority carriers across the P-n Junction. We increase the reverse bias
voltage and note the corresponding change in reverse current. A graph is plotted between reverse
bias and reverse current, we get the reverse characteristics as shown below:-

From the reverse characteristic curve, it is clear that below a certain voltage
known as breakdown voltage the diode current is very small and almost remains constant. This
current is called as reverse saturation current Io. It is due to the movement of minority carriers
which are thermally generated. It means that reverse bias current is temperature dependent and
does not depend upon the reverse bias voltage.
As the large reverse bias voltage is applied, large amount of covalent bonds in P
and n regions are broken. This process is known as junction breakdown. Due to this, there is
sudden rise in the reverse current. The applied reverse voltage at which reverse current in the
junction diode increases rapidly is known as breakdown voltage (VB) of a diode.
Dynamic resistance or A.C resistance of the Junction diode : It is defined as the ratio of small
change in voltage ΔV applied across the P-N Junction to the corresponding small change in
Junction current ΔI i.e.
Rd = ΔV/ ΔI
Remark:
In a diode, voltage applied is not proportional to the current flowing through it, so
diode is non-Ohmic conductor.
P-N Junction diode as a rectifier:

A rectifier is a device that converts alternating current into direct current. An electrical device
that offers a low resistance to the flow of current in one direction and very high resistance in
other direction can be used as a rectifier. The process of conversion of a.c. into d.c. is called
Rectification.
A P-N Junction diode can be used as a rectifier in two ways:
(I) Half Wave Rectifier. (II) Full Wave Rectifier.
(I) P-N Junction diode as a Half Wave Rectifier:
The rectifier which converts only one half of a.c into d.c. is called half wave
rectifier.
Principle : Its working is based on the principle that the resistance of P-N Junction becomes
low when forward biased and becomes high when reverse biased.
Circuit diagram: The following figure shows the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier.

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 A single P-n Junction diode is used as a half wave rectifier. Diode is connected to
a load resistance RL in series across which output is obtained. A.C. to be rectifier is supplied to
the circuit through a step down transformer.
Working:
During the positive half cycle of the A.C., suppose upper portion of primary coil
P is negative and lower portion is positive. Due to mutual induction, upper portion of secondary
coil S becomes positive and lower portion becomes negative. Thus P-N Junction is forward
biased. The resistance of P-N Junction diode becomes low and forward current flows through the
circuit in the clockwise direction. Thus we get output across load.
During the negative half cycle of the input A.C, suppose upper portion of primary
coil P is positive and lower portion is negative. Due to mutual induction, upper portion of
secondary coil S becomes negative and lower portion becomes positive.. The P-N Junction diode
becomes reverse biased. It offers high resistance and hence there is no flow of current and thus
we get no output across load. This process is repeated.
Thus in the output we get only half of the portion of the input signal in the form of
d.c. So this junction diode is called half wave rectifier.
(II) P-N Junction diode as a Full Wave Rectifier:
Full wave rectifier converts both halves of a.c. input signal to d.c. output.
For full wave rectification, we use two P-n Junction junctions as shown below:

Working:
During positive half cycle of the input a.c. , the junction diode D1 is forward
biased and the P-n junction diode D2 is reverse biased. Thus diode D1 conducts and the current
due to diode D1 flows through the circuit in clockwise direction.
During the negative half cycle of input a.c., the diode D1 is reverse biased and D2
is forward biased. The current due to diode D2 flows through the circuit in the same direction.
The output is obtained across the load resistance RL. Thus we observe that during both the
halves, current through RL flows in the same direction.
The output signal is unidirectional having ripple components i.e., d.c as well as
a.c components. It can be made d.c by filtering it through a filter circuit.
Ripple factor of a rectifier : it is defined as the ratio of value of a.c component to the value of
d.c component in the output signal.
i.e.

It has been found that ripple factor for half wave rectifier is 1.21 & for full wave
rectifier it is 0.48.

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