Plant Propagation and Nursery Management

Plant Propagation and
Nursery Management
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COURSE CURRICULUM & SYLLABUS
2. Plant Propagation and Nursery Management (HPH 200) 2(1+1)
Propagation: Need and potentialities for plant multiplication,

sexual and asexual methods of propagation, advantages and
disadvantages. Seed dormancy (scarification & stratification)
internal and external factors, nursery techniques, apomixes –
mono-embrony, polyembrony, chimera & bud sport. Propagation
Structures: Mist chamber, humidifiers, greenhouses, glasshouses,
cold frames, hot beds, poly-houses, nursery (tools and
implements), use of growth regulators in seed and vegetative
propagation, methods and techniques of cutting, layering, grafting
and budding physiological & biochemical basis of rooting, factors
influencing rooting of cuttings and layering, graft in
compatibility. Anatomical studies of bud union, selection and
maintenance of mother trees, collection of scion wood stick,
scion-stock relationship, and their influences, bud wood
certification, techniques of propagation through specialized
organs, corm, runners, suckers. Micrografting, hardening of
plants in nurseries. Nursery registration act. Insect/pest/disease
control in nursery.
Practical: Media for propagation of plants in nursery beds, pot and
mist chamber. Preparation of nursery beds and sowing of seeds.
Raising of rootstock. Seed treatments for breaking dormancy
and inducing vigorous seedling growth. Preparation of plant
material for potting. Hardening plants in the nursery.
Practicing different types of cuttings, layering, graftings and
buddings including opacity and grafting, etc. Use of mist
chamber in propagation and hardening of plants. Preparation of
plant growth regulators for seed germination and vegetative
propagation. Visit to a tissue culture laboratory. Digging,
labelling and packing of fruit plants. Maintenance of
nursery records. Use of different types of nursery tools and
implements for general nursery and virus tested plant material
in the nursery. Cost of establishment of a mist chamber,
greenhouse, glasshouse, polyhouse and their maintenance. Top
grafting, bridge grafting and nursery management. Nutrient
and plant protection
Lecture-1
Propagation-need and potentialities, sexual and asexual methods
of propagation and their advantages and disadvantages
Learning Objective
 Importance of plant propagation
 Modes of plant propagation
 Merits and demerits of different modes of propagation
Introduction
This progress in plant improvement would have been of little significance, without
methods whereby improved forms could have been maintained in cultivation.
Most cultivated plants either would have lost or reverted to less desirable forms
unless they are propagated under controlled conditions that perceive the unique
characteristic which make them useful. Plant propagation means multiplication of
plants with the aim to achieve increase in number and preserve the essential
characteristics of the mother plant. It is essentially of two types:
A. Sexual Propagation
B. Asexual Propagation
Sexual Propagation
 Sexual reproduction refers to multiplication of plants by seeds. Seeds are
formed
after successful pollination and fertilization (Fig.1.1) by the union of male and
female
gametes.
 Meiosis division takes place in the course of fusion and the chromosome
numbers
are reduced to half, which after fertilization becomes normal.
 The plants raised through seed are called seedling plants.
 Propagation of plants by seeds offers many advantages however several have
disadvantages too.
 Sexual propagation involves careful management of germination conditions and
facilities and knowledge of the requirements of individual kind of seeds.
Success of seed propagation depends upon fulfilling the following

conditions:
1. Using seed of proper genetic characteristics to produce the cultivar

or species, of provenance desired. This can be accomplished by
obtaining seed from a reliable source or dealer.
2. Using good quality seeds which germinate rapidly and vigorously to
withstand possible adverse environmental conditions in the seed bed
and provide a high percentage of usable seedlings.
3. Manipulating the seed dormancy by applying pre-germination
treatments or
proper timing of planting.
4. Providing proper environment for seed germination i.e., supplying
sufficient water, proper temperature, adequate oxygen and either light
or darkness (depending upon kind of seed) to the seeds and resulting
seedlings until they are well established.
Advantages
Sexual method of propagation has several advantages, like
 Propagation by seeds is simple and easy.
 Seed propagation is only mean of diversity particularly in the selection of chance
seedlings.
 Seedling plants are long lived, productive and have greater tolerance to adverse
soil and climatic conditions and diseases.
 Seed propagation makes feasible to propagate plants like papaya and coconut in
which asexual means of propagation is not common.
 Hybrids can only be developed by sexual means.
 Sexual propagation offers opportunities of polyembryony (citrus, mango or
jamun) and apomixis (Malus sikkimensis, Malus hupehensis, Malus sargentii),
which produces true- to - type plants.
 Seed is the source for production of rootstocks for asexual propagation
 Seeds, if stored properly can be kept for longer duration /period for future use
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Disadvantages
Sexual method of propagation has some disadvantages, like
 Seedling plants are not true to type to the mother plants due to heterozygous
natureof fruit plants.
 Seedling plants have long juvenile phase (6-10 years) and hence flowering and
fruiting commences very late in them.
 Sexually raised plants are generally tall and spreading type and thus are
cumbersome for carrying out various management practices like pruning,
spraying, harvesting etc.
 Seeds of many fruits are to be sown immediately after extraction from the fruits
as they lose their viability very soon e.g. cashew nut, jamun, jackfruit, citrus,
mango and papaya.
 The beneficial influences of rootstocks on scion variety cannot be exploited in
sexual propagation.
 Seedling plants usually produce fruits inferior quality.
B. Asexual Propagation
 It is independent of sexual propagation process as there is no involvement of
sex organs.
 It takes place due to mitotic division. Mitotic division continues in shoot tip, root
tip and cambium.
 When some portion of plant is wounded, mitotic division takes place.
 Under mitotic division, chromosomes divide longitudinally to form two daughter
cells. This forms the basis of asexual propagation.
 The plants raised through asexual process are identical to mother plants.
Cutting, division, layering, budding and grafting are main techniques of asexual
propagation.
Advantages
Propagation by asexual means has several advantages over sexual means, like
 Asexually propagated plants are true to type to their mother plants.
 Asexually propagated plants have short juvenile phase and bear flowers and
fruits in the early age (3-4 years) than seedling plants.
 The vegetatively propagated plants are smaller in stature and hence
management operations like spraying, pruning and harvesting etc. become easy.
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 Plants in which seed setting does not take place (e.g. pineapple and banana),
asexual propagation serves as a substitute for sexual propagation.
 Using asexual methods, desirable characters of a mother plant can be
perpetuated/ multiplied easily.
 The benefits of rootstocks and scion are usually exploited through asexual
propagation.
 Repairing of damaged portion of plant is possible through asexual propagation
as in case of bridge grafting.
 It is possible to convert a non-productive local variety into productive improved
variety by using asexual methods.
 It is possible to grow several varieties on one plant or change variety of existing
plant by top working
Disadvantages
 Asexual propagated plants have shorter life-span.
 Asexual propagation restricts diversity.
 Sometimes asexual propagation disseminates diseases e.g. Tristeza virus in
citrus.
 Technical skill is required.
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Lecture-2
Seed Dormancy: Causes and Types
Introduction
Dormancy is a condition where seeds will not germinate even when the
environmental conditions such as water, temperature and air are favourable for
germination.
 It is observed that seeds of some fruit plants (mango, citrus) germinate
immediately after extraction from the fruit under favourable conditions of
moisture, temperature and aeration.
 However, in others (apple, pear, cherry) germination does not take place even
under favourable conditions. This phenomenon is called as „dormancy‟.
 This is an important survival mechanism for some species because these species
do not germinate unless adverse climatic conditions end.
 In some species, chilling temperature for certain period helps in the termination
of dormancy. Often dormancy is due to several factors and may persist indefinitely
unless certain specific treatments are given.
Types of dormancy: Different types of dormancy include
1. Exogenous Dormancy
 This type of dormancy is imposed by factors outside the embryo.
 In exogenous dormancy, the tissues enclosing the embryo can affect germination
by inhibiting water uptake, providing mechanical resistance to embryo expansion
and radicle emergence, modifying gaseous exchange (limit oxygen to embryo),
preventing leaching of inhibitor from the embryo and supplying inhibitor to the
embryo. It is of three types:
a) Physical dormancy (seed coat dormancy): Seed coat or seed covering may
become hard, fibrous or mucilaginous (adhesives gum) during dehydration
and ripening as a result they become impermeable to water and gases, which
prevents the physiological processes initiating germination This type of
dormancy is very common in drupe fruits i.e. olive, peach, plum, apricot,
cherry etc. (hardened endocarp), walnut and pecan nut (surrounding shell).
In various plant families, such as, Leguminosae, the outer seed coat gets
hardened and becomes suberized and impervious to water.
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b) Mechanical dormancy: In some fruits seed covering restricts radicle growth, resulting
in dormancy of seeds. Some seed covering structures, such as shells of walnut, pits
of stone fruits and stones of olive are too strong to allow the dormant embryo to
expand during germination. The water may be absorbed but the difficulty arises in
the cementing material as in walnut. Germination in such seeds does not occur
until and unless the seed coats are softened either by creating moist and warm
conditions during storage or by microbial activity.
c) Chemical dormancy: In seeds of some fruits chemicals that accumulate in fruit
and seed covering tissues during development and remain with the seed after
harvest. It is quite common in fleshy fruits or fruits whose seeds remain in juice as
in citrus, cucurbits, stone fruits, pear, grapes and tomatoes. Some of the substances
associated with inhibition are various phenols, coumarin and abscisic acid. These
substances can strongly inhibit seed germination.
2. Endogenous dormancy
This type of dormancy is imposed by rudimentary or undeveloped embryo at
the time of ripening or maturity. This can be of different types such as
morphological, physiological, double dormancy and secondary dormancy.
A. Morphological dormancy (Rudimentary and linear embryo): Dormancy
occurs in some seeds in which the embryo is not fully developed at the time of
seed dissemination. Such seeds do not germinate, if planted immediately after
harvesting. Plants with rudimentary embryos produce seeds with little more than a
pro-embryo embedded in a massive endosperm at the time of fruit maturation.
Enlargement of the embryo occurs after the seeds have imbibed water but, before
germination begins.Formation of rudimentary embryo is common in various plant
families such as Ranunculaceae (Ranunculus), Papavaraceae (poppy). Some plants
of temperate zone like holly and snowberry have also rudimentary embryos.
B. Physiological dormancy
a) Non-deep physiological dormancy: After ripening time is required for seeds in
dry storage to lose dormancy. This type of dormancy is often transitory and
disappears during dry storage. Temperate fruits such as apple, pear, cherry, peach,
plum and apricot, cultivated cereals, vegetables and flower crops, have this type of
physiological dormancy which may last for one to six months and disappears with
dry storage.
b) Photo dormancy: Seeds that either require light or dark condition to
germinate are termed as photo-dormant seeds. It is due to photo-chemically
reactive pigment called phytochrome widely present in some plants. When
imbibed seeds are exposed to red
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light (660-760 nm), the phytochrome changes to red form (Pfr), thereby substituting
the germination process. However, when seeds are exposed to far-red light (760-
800), Pfr is changed to Pf which inhibits germination process.
c) Thermo dormancy: Some seeds have specific temperature requirement for
their germination, otherwise they remain dormant. Such seeds are called as thermo
dormant .For example seeds of lettuce, celery and pansy do not germinate if the
temperature is below 25o C. Physiological dormancy is of 3 types:
I) Intermediate physiological dormancy: The seeds of some species require a
specific period of one-to-three months of chilling, while in an imbibed and aerated
state, commonly called as moist chilling. For example, most of temperate fruit
seeds require moist chilling to overcome seed dormancy. This requirement led to
the standardization of world famous, horticultural practice of stratification. In this
process, the seeds are placed between layers of moist sand in boxes and exposed to
chilling temperatures (2 to 70C) for the period varying from 3-6 months to
overcome dormancy.
II) Deep physiological dormancy: Seeds, which usually require a relatively long
(>8weeks) period of moist chilling stratification to relieve dormancy as in peach.
III) Epicotyl dormancy: Seeds having separate dormancy conditions for the
radicle hypocotyl and epicotyl, is called as epicotyl dormancy e.g. Lilium,
Hepatica antiloba and trillium.
C. Double dormancy
 In some species, seeds have dormancy due to hard seed coats and dormant
embryos.
 For instance, some tree legumes seed coats are impervious and at the same time
their embryo are also dormant.
 Such seeds require two years for breaking of dormancy in nature. In the first
spring, the microorganisms act upon the seed making it weak and soft and then
embryo dormancy is broken by chilling temperature in the winter next year.
 Combination of two or more types of dormancy is known as „double dormancy‟.
It can be morpho-physiological i.e. combination of under developed embryo and
physiological dormancy or exo-endodormancy i.e. combination of exogenous and
endogenous dormancy conditions i.e. hard seed coat (physical plus intermediate
physiological dormancy).
D. Secondary dormancy
Secondary dormancy is due to germination conditions. It is a further
adaptation to prevent germination of an imbibed seed if other environmental
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conditions are not favorable. These conditions can include unfavorably high or low
temperature, prolonged darkness and water stress. It is of two types:
I) Thermo dormancy: High temperature induced dormancy.
II) Conditional dormancy: Change in ability to germinate related to time of the
year.
Advantages
1. Permitting germination only when environmental conditions favour seedling
survival as in fruit plants of temperate region.
2. Helpful in creation of a “seed bank”
3. Dormancy can also synchronize germination to a particular time of the year.
4. Seed disposal can be facilitated by specialized dormancy conditions. For
example
modification of seed covering through digestive tract of a bird or other animals.
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Lecture-3
Seed Dormancy: Methods of breaking seed dormancy
Learning objectives
 To know about techniques for breaking different types of dormancy
Several methods are used for breaking seed dormancy of horticultural crops. These
are briefly described hereunder:
1. Softening seed coat and other seed coverings: This helps in better absorption
of water and gases, which ultimately leads to better germination of the seeds. This
can be achieved by scarification.
a) Scarification: Scarification is the process of breaking, scratching, mechanically
altering or softening the seed covering to make it permeable to water and gases.
Three types of treatments are commonly used as scarification treatments. These
include mechanical, chemical and hot water treatments.
i) Mechanical scarification
 It is simple and effective if suitable equipment is available.
 Chipping hard seed coat by rubbing with sand paper, cutting with a file or
cracking with a hammer are simple methods useful for small amount of relatively
large seeds.
 For large scale, mechanical scarifiers are used. Seeds can be tumbled in drums
lined with sand paper or in concrete mixers containing coarse sand or gravel. The
sand gravel should be of a different size than the seed to facilitate subsequent
separation.
 Scarification should not proceed to the point at which the seeds are injured and
inner parts of seed are exposed.
ii) Acid scarification
 Dry seeds are placed in containers and covered with concentrated Sulphuric
acid (H2SO4) or HCl in the ratio of one part of seed to two parts of acid.
 The amount of seed treated at any time should be restricted to not more than
10kg to avoid uncontrollable heating.
 The containers should be of glass, earthenware or wood, non- metal or plastic.
The mixture should be stirred cautiously at intervals during the treatment to
produce uniform results.
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 The time may vary from 10 minutes to 6 hours depending upon the species.
 With thick-coated seeds that require long periods, the process of scarification
may be judged by drawing out samples at intervals and checking the thickness
of the seed coat. When it becomes paper thin, the treatment should be
terminated immediately.
 At the end of the treatment period, the acid is poured off and the seeds are
washed to remove the acid.
 The acid treated seeds can either be planted immediately when wet or dried and
stored for later planting. Large seeds of most legume species, brinjal and tomatoes
are reported to respond simple sulphuric acid treatment.
iii) Hot water scarification

 Drop the seeds into 4-5 times their volume of hot water with temperature
ranging from 77 to 100oC.
 The heat source is immediately removed, and the seeds soaked in the gradually
cooking water for 12 to 24 hours. Following this the unswollen seeds may be
separated from the swollen seeds by suitable screens.
 The seed should be sown immediately after hot water treatment.
iv) Warm moist scarification

 The seeds are placed in moist warm medium for many months to soften the seed
coat and other seed coverings through microbial activity. This treatment is
highly beneficial in seeds having double seed dormancy.
 The hard seeds are planted in summer or early fall when the soil temperature is
still higher, that usually facilitates germination.
 For instance the stone fruit including cherry, plum ,apricot and peaches) show
increased germination if planted early enough in the summer or fall to provide
one to two months of warm temperature prior to the onset of chilling.
b. Stratification
 Stratification is a method of handling dormant seed in which the imbibed seeds
are subjected to a period of chilling to after ripen the embryo in alternate layers of
sand or soil for a specific period. It is also known as moist chilling.
 However, temperate species displaying epicotyl dormancy (like fringed tree) or
under developed embryo (like hollies) a warm stratification of several months
followed by a moist chilling stratification is required.
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 Several tropical and subtropical species (like palms) require a period of warm
stratification prior to germination to allow the embryo to continue development
after fruit drop.
 The seeds can be sown after fruit drop. The seeds can be sown immediately after
stratification in the field.
 Seeds with a hard endocarp, such as Prunus spp. (the stone fruit including cherry,
plum, apricot and peaches) show increased germination if planted early in the
summer or fall to provide one to two months of warm temperature prior to the
onset of chilling.
i) Outdoor stratification
 If refrigerated storage facilities are not available, outdoor stratification may be
done either by storing seeds in open field conditions in deep pits or in raised
beds enclosed on wooden frames.
 However it is likely that seeds are destroyed in outdoors by excessive rains,
freezing, drying, or by rodents. Seeds are placed in alternate layers of sand to
provide and low temperature and proper aeration in the stratification pit. The top
is covered with Sphagnum moss to maintain moisture level.
 The pit or tray is irrigated at regular intervals to maintain appropriate moisture
status.
ii) Refrigerated stratification
 An alternative to outdoor field stratification is refrigerated stratification.
 It is useful for small seed lots or valuable seeds that require special handling.
 Dry seeds should be fully imbibed with water prior to refrigerated stratification.
Twelve to twenty four hours of soaking at warm temperature may be sufficient
for seeds without hard seed coats.
 After soaking, seeds are usually placed in a convenient size box in alternate
layers of well washed sand, peat moss or vermiculite(Plate 3.3).
 A good medium is a mixture of one part of coarse sand to one part of peat,
moistened and allowed to stand for 24 hours before use. Seeds are placed in
alternate layers of sand or medium.
 The usual stratification temperature is 4-7oC. At higher temperature seeds sprout
prematurity and low temperature delays sprouting.
 The medium should be remoistened. The stratified seed is separated from the
medium prior to sowing in nursery beds.
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 The stratification of seeds results in quick and uniform germination and
therefore the seed should be subjected to stratification invariably under all
conditions.
Table 3.1. Effect of seed stratification period on per cent germination of

important temperate fruits
Kind of fruit Stratification

iii) Leaching of inhibitors: It is established fact that some inhibitors and phenolic
compounds are present in seed coverings of many species, which inhibit
germination.Therefore, soaking of seeds in the running water for 12-24 hours or
placing them in water for few hours help in leaching off the inhibitors and phenolic
compounds, which help in easy seed germination.
iv) Pre-chilling: In seeds of certain plant species, dormancy can be overcome by
prechilling treatment. In this treatment, the imbibed or soaked seeds are kept at a
temperature of 5-100C for 5-7 days before sowing. After that seed can be sown in
the field immediately.
v) Pre-drying: This is also a useful practice in some seeds to overcome seed
dormancy. In this treatment, the dry seeds are subjected to a temperature of 37-
400C for 5-7 days prior to sowing. After this, seed can be sown in the field.
vi) Seed priming: Seed priming refers to the procedures followed to overcome
dormancy in freshly harvested fruits. Most widely used seed priming procedures
are osmo- conditioning, infusion and fluid drilling.
 In osmo-conditioning, the seeds are placed in shallow layer in a container
having 20- 30 per cent solution of polyglycol (PEG). The seeds are then incubated
at 15-200C for 7-21 days, depending upon seed size and plant species.
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 Different hormones and fungicides can also be added to protect the seeds from
pathogens. After this, the seeds are washed and dried at 250C and are stored until
use.
 In infusion, the hormones, fungicides or insecticides and antidotes are infused
into dormant seeds through organic solutions. In this process the seeds are placed
in acetone or dichloromethane solution containing chemicals to be used for 1-4
hours.
 Afterwards, the solvent is allowed to evaporate and seeds are dried slowly in
vacuum desiccators for 1-2 hours. The seeds absorb the infused chemical directly
into the embryo when soaked in water.
 In fluid drilling, the seeds are suspended in a special type of gel before sowing.
Now-a- days different types of gels are available in the market but sodium alginate,
guar gum and synthetic clay are most widely used in fluid drilling.
vii) Treatment with chemicals: Some compounds other than hormones are also
used to break dormancy but their role is not clear. Thiourea is one example known
to stimulate germination in some kinds of dormant seeds. The seeds are soaked in
0.5 – 3 per cent solution of thiourea for 3-5 minutes. Afterwards seeds are rinsed
with water and are sown in the field. Similarly, potassium nitrate and sodium
hypochlorite also stimulate seed germination in many plant species.
viii) Hormonal treatment
 Among various hormones, GA3 is commercially used for breaking seed
dormancy in different types of seeds. The concentration of GA3 depends upon
the kind of seed but generally a concentration of 200-500 ppm is most widely
used.
 Cytokinin is another group of hormones used for breaking physiological
dormancy and stimulating germination in seeds of many species. Kinetin and
BA(6-benzyle aminopurine) are commercial preparations of cytokinin used
for breaking seed dormancy. Soaking seeds in 100 ppm solution of kinetin for
3-5 minutes is highly effective concentration for overcoming seed dormancy
of many species. Etheral also stimulates germination in seeds of some species.
Table 3.2. Recommended concentrations of growth hormones in temperate
fruits for increasing seed germination
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Hormonal changes during stratification:
A triphasic change in endogenous hormones is many seeds is depicted in Fig.3.1.
A reduction of ABA
Increased synthesis of cytokinin and gibberellins
Reduction in hormone synthesis in preparation for germination.
 In general, gibberellins promote germination in dormant seeds, while ABA
inhibits
germination.
 Pre-sowing treatments with certain seeds not only reduce the stratification
requirement and improve the seed germination but also enhances seedling growth
in a number of temperate fruits.
Role of hormones in seed dormancy:
Plant hormones affect seed germinations and dormancy by affecting different parts
of the seed. Embryo dormancy is characterized by a high ABA/GA ratio, whereas
the seed has a high ABA sensitivity and low GA sensitivity. To release the seed
from this type of dormancy and initiate seed germination, an alteration in hormone
biosynthesis and degradation towards a low ABA/GA ratio, along with a decrease
in ABA sensitivity and an increase in GA sensitivity needs to occur.
 Plant regulators can be used to break or prolong the dormancy. Sprouting of
potato
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tubers and onion bulbs is a common phenomenon in storage.
 Pre-harvest spray of maleic hydrazide (MH) at 2000 ppm applied 15 days before
actual date of harvest prolongs dormancy in the above storage organs by inhibiting
the sprouting.
 In fruit trees of apple, plums and figs, early flowering is induced by spraying
Dinitro orthocresol at 0.1 % in oil emulsion.
 Seed treatment of tomato with GA at 1 00 ppm breaks the dormancy and
increases the percentage of germination.
 ABA controls embryo dormancy, and GA enhances embryo germination. Seed
coat dormancy involves the mechanical restriction of the seed coat, this along with
a low embryo growth potential, effectively produces seed dormancy.
 GA releases this dormancy by increasing the embryo growth potential, and/or
weakening the seed coat so the radical of the seedling can break through the seed
coat.
Different types of seed coats can be made up of living or dead cells and both types
can be influenced by hormones; those composed of living cells are acted upon after
seed formation while the seed coats composed of dead cells can be influenced by
hormones during the formation of the seed coat.
 ABA affects testa or seed coat growth characteristics, including thickness, and
effects the GA-mediated embryo growth potential. These conditions and effects
occur during the formation of the seed, often in response to environmental
conditions. Hormones also mediate endosperm dormancy.
 Endosperm in most seeds is composed of living tissue that can actively respond
to hormones generated by the embryo. The endosperm often acts as a barrier to
seed germination, playing a part in seed coat dormancy or in the germination
process.
 Living cells respond to and also affect the ABA/GA ratio, and mediate cellular
sensitivity; GA thus increases the embryo growth potential and can promote
endosperm weakening. GA also affects both ABA-independent and ABA-
inhibiting processes within the endosperm.
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Lecture-4
Polyembryony, apomixis, chimeras and bud- sports
Learning objective
 To get acquainted with polyembryony, apomixis, chimeras and bud- sports
 Horticultural significance of polyembryony, apomixis, chimeras and bud- sports
Polyembryony
Polyembryony means that more than one embryo develops within a single seed. It
is also known as adventitious embryony (Nucellar embryony or Nucellar budding).
 Polyembryony can develop from several distinct causes. Specific cells in the
nucellus or sometimes with integument have embryos. Genetically, these embryos
have the same genotype as the parental plant and are apomictic.
 Adventitious embryony occurs in many plant species but is most common in
citrus and mango. In these species, both zygotic and apomictic embryos are
produced. In other species (e.g. Opuntia), no pollination or fertilization is needed.
 Polyembryony is common in mango and citrus. In trifoliate orange (Poincirus
trifoliata) several seedlings arise from one seed.
 Of these seedlings, one seedling, usually the weakest may be sexual, and the
others arise apomictically from cells in the nucellus, which are diploid copies of
the mother plant.
Horticultural significance of polyembryony
Nucellar seedlings in citrus are completely free from viruses, because the embryo
sac and adjoining tissues are impregnated at flowering time with some unknown
powerful substances which kills all the viruses. For immediate requirement of
planting material, development of nucellar lines is the quickest and easiest method.
The major possible horticultural applications of polyembryony are:
 Nucellar seedlings are true-to-type seedlings
 Such seedlings are genetically uniform and can be used as virus free
rootstocks
 More vigorous seedlings – continuous vegetative propagation leads to decline
in vigour in citrus
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 Development of virus free seedlings and bud wood
 Significance in breeding programme
Apomixis
In some species of plants, an embryo develops from the diploid cells of the seed
and not as a result of fertilization between ovule and pollen. This type of
reproduction is known as apomixis and the seedlings produced in this manner are
known as apomicts.
 Apomictic seedlings are identical to mother plant and similar to plants raised by
other vegetative means, because such plants have the same genetic make-up as that
of the mother plant.
 Such seedlings are completely free from viruses. Plants that produces only
apomictic embryo and are known as obligate apomicts and those which produce
both apomictic and sexual seedlings are called facultative apomicts.
Types of Apomixis: Maheshwari (1950) classified apomixis into four groups:
1. Recurrent Apomixis: In this type of apomixis, the embryo develops from the
diploid egg cell or from the diploid cells of the embryo sac without fertilization. As
a result, the egg has normal diploid number of chromosomes, just like the mother
plant (Fig.4.1).The species, where recurrent apomixis commonly occur are,
Parthenium, Rubus, Malus, Allium , Rudbeckia, Poa, Taraxacum ,etc.
2. Non-Recurrent Apomixis: In this case, the embryo develops either from the
haploid egg cell or from some other haploid cells of the embryo sac. In this case,
haploid plants are produced, which contain only one set of chromosome of the
mother plant. Hence, the haploid plants are sterile in nature and cannot be
normally perpetuated into the next generation. Non-recurrent apomixis occurs
only in a few species such as Solanum nigrum, Lilium spp. etc.
3. Nucellar Embryony or Adventitious Embryony: In this type of apomixes, the
embryos arise from diploid sporophytic cells outside the embryo sac i.e. cells of
the nucellus, integuments etc. This type of apomixis is quite common in citrus and
certain varieties of mango, where fertilization occurs normally and sexual plus a
number of apomictic (nucellar) embryos develop.
4. Vegetative apomixis or bulbils: In some species of plants, such as Allium ,
Agave, Poa etc., the flowers in an inflorescence are replaced by bulbils or
vegetative buds, which sprout, while still on the mother plant and turn into new
daughter plants.
Page 19
Advantages
 Assured reproduction in the absence of pollinators, such as in extreme
environments
 Maternal energy not wasted in unfit offspring (cost of meiosis)
 Some apomictic plants (but not all) avoid the male energy cost of producing
pollen
Disadvantages
 Can't control accumulation of deleterious genetic mutations
 Usually restricted to narrow ecological niches Lack ability to adapt to changing
environments
Clone
The term clone may be defined as a group of genetically uniform individuals,
derived originally from a sexually produced individual or from mutations and
maintained exclusively by asexual means from one ancestor.
 The common examples are Bartlett pear, Delicious apples, Sultana grapes and
Dashehari mango.
 The goal of vegetative propagation is to reproduce progeny plants identical in
genotype to a single plant. The biological process is known as cloning and the
resulting population of plants is called a clone.
 The uniformity of individual plants, within a clonal population is a major
advantage of clonal cultivars of fruit and nut crops.
 Clonal propagation helps in fixing genotypes, uniformity of population,
facilitates propagation and reduces juvenile phase, combine more than one
genotype into single plant (grafting) and control phases of development.
 If environmental conditions are favourable and the clone is managed properly, its
trueness-to-type can be maintained for hundreds of years.
Genetic variations in a clone
Mutation
Mutation is a single-step genetic change or sudden heritable change within cells of
a clone. In general, these changes take place spontaneously, in the plants regular
but rare intervals.
 A mutation is a genetic change involving some part of the DNA molecule.
Genetic mutations result from structural changes in the nuclear DNA of the
chromosome in the nucleus. DNA also occurs in mitochondria and chloroplasts
and defects here can produce genetic changes.
Page 20
 Chromosomal changes may be due to chance rearrangement of the four bases in
the DNA molecule (point mutation) rearrangement of different parts of the
chromosomes (deletion, duplication, translocations and inversions), addition or
subtraction of
individual chromosome (aneuploidy), or the multiplication of entire set of

chromosome (polyploidy).
 The rate of mutation can be increased by treatment with specific mutagenic
agents e.g. X-ray, gamma rays and certain chemicals.
Bud- sports or bud mutations
When mutation occur and suddenly appear as a chance in the branch of a plant, is
called bud sport or bud mutations, because they appear to have originated within
a single bud.
 Detection of a new mutant within a clone may require a series of vegetative
propagated generations and multiple propagations from many buds of the same
plant.
 Many „sports‟ have become commercial cultivars. Mutations may affect fruit
(colour, shape, time of maturity), tree structure (spur type), time of bloom, and as a
host of other traits. Sometimes these mutants have highly useful horticultural traits
and have given rise to important new cultivars („Ruby Red‟ grapefruit, red
coloured sports of apple and pear.)
 On the other hand, mutations may be undesirable and give rise to misshapen
fruits, low production and susceptibility to diseases.
Chimeras
When a mutation occurs within a single cell of a clone, it initially produces an
„island
„of mutant cells within a growing point of a stem. The plant becomes a, mixture
of two different genotypes. This structural arrangement is known as chimeras.
 It is the most important kind of genetic variant within clones typified by various
kinds of variation. The name chimera was historically given to certain unique
clonal variants now known to have arisen as graft chimeras.
 Chimeras develop because of the unique architecture of the apical meristem and
the strategic location of the mutation in a dividing cell near the apex of the apical
meristem.
 The three important types of chimeras are based upon the distribution patterns of
mutated and non-mutated cells.
Page 21
 Buds arising at different positions on a sectorial chimera may produce shoots
consisting of mutated and non-mutated cells, entirely of mutated cells or entirely of
non- mutated cells or sectorial (rarely), mericlinal or periclinal chimeras as
described herewith.
Periclinal chimera: The mutated tissues occupy layers of cells that completely
surround an inner core of non mutated tissue. For examples in many red colored
fruit cultivars in apple (Plate 4.2), the red pigment is located only in the epidermal
layers whereas the cells of the inner tissue have alleles for green or yellow colour.
Similarly, some black berry (Rubus spp.) cultivars are thorn less; because the cells
making up the epidermis do not have this allele. Periclinal chimeras are relatively
stable if propagated stem or grafting.
Mericlinal chimera: This combination is similar to the periclinal expect that
the cells carrying the mutant gene occupy only a part of the outer cell layer. In case
of a red mutant on a yellow delicious fruit, the surface of the fruit may have
longitudinal streaks or sectors of red on an otherwise yellow surface (Plate 4.3).
This type is unstable and tends to change into periclinal chimeras, revert to the
non-mutated form, or continue to produce mericlinal shoots.
Sectorial chimera: The mutated cells in this combination occupy an entire
sector of the stem including all layers of the shoot apex. Sectorial chimeras appear
if the mutation occurs in roots and very early stages of embryos where the cells of
the growing point do not occur in layers. In general, this type is unstable and tends
to revert to mericlinal and periclinal chimeras.
Graft Chimera: In horticulture, a graft-chimera may arise in grafting at the
point of contact between rootstock and scion and will have properties intermediate
to those of its parents. A graft-chimera is not a true hybrid but a mixture of cells,
each with the genotype of one of its parents is a chimera. Hence, the once widely
used term "graft-hybrid" is not descriptive; it is now frowned upon. In practice
graft-chimaeras are not noted for their stability and may easily revert back to one
of the parents.
Page 22
Lecture No.5
Abscisic acid, Ethylene and other growth retardants
Abscisic Acid (ABA)

In 1963, a substance strongly antagonistic to growth was isolated by Addicott from
young cotton fruits and named Abscisin II. Later on, this name was changed to Abscisic acid
(ABA). The chemical name of abscisic acid is 3-methyl 5-1‟ (1‟-hydroxy, 4-oxy-2‟, 6‟, 6‟-
trimethyl2-cyclohexane-1-yl) –cis, trans-2,4-penta-dienoic acid.
Warning et al. (1963, 64) pointed out the presence of a substance in birch leaves (Betula
pubescens, a deciduous plant) which inhibited growth and induced dormancy of buds and,
therefore, named it „dormin‟. But, very soon as a result of the work of Cornforth et al
(1965), it was found to be identical with abscisic acid.
Abscisic acid is a 15-C sesquiterpene compound (molecular formula C 15H12O4)
composed of three isoprene residues and having a cyclohexane ring with keto and one
hydroxyl group and a side chain with a terminal carboxylic group in its structure.ABA
resembles terminal portion of some carotenoids such as violaxanthin and neoxanthin and
appears to be a breakdown product of such carotenoids.Any change in its molecular structure
results in loss of activity. ABA occurs in cis and trans isomeric forms that are decided by
orientation of –COOH group around 2 nd carbon atom in the molecule. Almost all naturally
occurring ABA in plants exist in cis form that is biologically active and the name abscisic
usually refers to this form. Trans-ABA is inactive form but can be interconvertible with cis
ABA.
Physiological role
1. Stomatal regulation
The role of ABA in causing stomatal closure in plants undergoing water-stress is now
widely recognized. It has been suggested by various workers that in response to the water-
stress, the permeability of the chloroplast membranes of mesophyll cells to ABA is greatly
increased. As a result, the ABA synthesized and stored in mesophyll chloroplasts diffuses out
into the cytoplasm. It then moves from one mesophyll cell to another through plasmodesmata
and finally reaches the guard cells where it causes closing of stomata. Fresh biosynthesis of
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ABA continues in mesophyll chloroplasts during periods of water stress. When water
potential of the plant is restored (i.e., increased), the movement of ABA into the guard cells is
arrested. ABA disappears from the guard cells a little later. The application of exogenous
ABA causes closing of stomata by inhibiting the ATP-mediated H /K+ ion+s exchange pumps
in guard cells.
2. Leaf abscission
ABA is known to produce abscission layers at the base of the leaf petiole where dead
cells are formed. ABA production increases in senescing leaves once the photosynthetic
activity of the leaves decreases below the compensation point.
3. Seed and bud dormancy
Seeds and buds remain dormant to ward off unfavourable seasonal and soil conditions
for germination and growth respectively. Presence of ABA in such seeds and buds provides
dormancy to these structures. Once favourable conditions are available, ABA gets denatured
or overcome by production of growth promoting hormones such as GA or IAA.
4. Other Functions
Process of tuberization, fruit ripening, increasing the resistance of temperate zone plants
to frost injury, inhibition of GA-induced synthesis of _-amylase in aleurone layers of
germinating barley, inhibition of precocious germination and vivipary and increase in root:
shoot ratio at low water potentials.
Biosynthesis of ABA in plants
Extensive studies done by researchers with ABA deficient mutant of tomato,
Arabidopsis and other plants have clearly shown that ABA is synthesized in higher plants not
from simple terpenoid precursors directly through 15-C farnesyl diphosphate (FPP), but
indirectly through carotenoid pathway as breakdown product of 40-C xanthophylls such
as violaxanthin or neoxanthin.
Occurrence and distribution of ABA in plants
Within the plant, ABA has been detected in all major organs or living tissues from root
caps to apical buds such as roots, stems, buds, leaves, fruits and seeds and also in phloem and
xylem sap and in nectar. ABA is synthesized in all types of cells that contain chloroplasts or
other plastids. It occurs predominantly in mature green leaves. Most plant tissues contain
ABA in concentration of 20-100 ng per g fresh weight, but higher conc. of 10 _g and 20 _g
per g fresh weight have been reported in avocado fruit pulp and dormant buds of cocklebur
(Xanthium spp.) respectively. The concentration of ABA in specific plant tissues varies
greatly at different developmental stages or in response to environmental conditions especially
water stress. For instance, in developing seeds ABA conc. may increase 100 fold within a few
days and decline as the seed matures. Similarly, under water stressed conditions, ABA level
may increase 50 fold in the leaves within a few hours and declines to normal when plant water
potential is restored. The concentration of ABA in plant tissue is regulated by (i) its synthesis,
(ii) degradation, (iii) compartmentation and (iv) transport.In plant, ABA predominantly
occurs in its free form but it may also occur in conjugated form as glycoside with some
simple sugar molecule such as glucose forming ABA-_-D-glucosyl ester. ABA is biologically
inactive in its conjugated or bound form.
Ethylene
Neljubow in 1901 identified ethylene in laboratory air from illuminating coal gas which
caused typical symptoms in etiolated pea seedlings grown in dark in the lab, viz., (i) inhibition
of stem elongation, (ii) stimulation of radial swelling of stems and (iii) horizontal growth of
stems with respect to gravity. These symptoms were later termed as „triple response‟ and
were not observed in etiolated pea seedlings grown in normal air free from coal gas.
Gane (1934) clearly established that ethylene is actually a natural product of ripening
fruits and is responsible for hastening ripening process. Meanwhile, several other
experimenters found evidence of ethylene being produced not only by ripening fruits but also
by flowers, seeds, leaves and even roots and having profound regulatory activity in plants.
The importance of ethylene as hormonal regulator of physiological processes was realized
only after the advent of gas chromatography (GC) and its use in ethylene research, (Burg
and Thimann, 1959, 60). Soon, this was followed by an avalanche of experimental research
work on ethylene and finally ethylene emerged as an accepted natural plant growth
hormone (Pratt and Goeschal, 1969).
Chemical nature
Ethylene (C 2H4)with a molecule weight of 28 is a well known and simplest olefin gas
and has the following structural formula.
Ethylene is flammable and highly voltaic substance that readily undergoes oxidation to
produce ethylene oxide. In many plant tissues, ethylene can be fully oxidized to CO thr2ough
ethylene oxide. It is colourless, lighter than air at room temperature and under physiological
conditions and is sparingly soluble in water. Ethylene is readily absorbed by potassium
permanganate (KMnO )4.The latter is frequently used to remove excess ethylene from the
storage changers.
Physiological role
1. Fruit Ripening
One of the most pronounced effects of ethylene is in ripening of fruits and therefore, ethylene
is also known as fruit ripening hormone.
Different types of fruits react differently with exogenous application of ethylene. In

climacteric fruits such as apples, bananas, tomatoes etc., exposure of mature fruits to ethylene
result in respiration climacteric (marked increase in respiration rate during initiation of
ripening) followed by additional production of ethylene leading to hastening of ripening
process. Additional production of ethylene by ripening fruits is autocatalytic. But, in non-
climacteric fruits such as citrus fruits and grapes, ethylene treatment does not cause
respiration climacteric and additional ethylene production and the rate of ripening process
remains unaffected.
2. Plumular Hook Formation
In etiolated dicot seedlings, the plumular tip (i.e., shoot apex) is usually bent like a hook.
This hook shape is advantageous to seedling for penetration through the soil, protecting the
tender apical growing point from being injured.
The plumular hook formation and its maintenance in etiolated (dark grown) seedling are due
to formation of ethylene in that region which causes asymmetric or unequal growth on the
two sides of plumular tip. Ethylene causes more rapid elongation of outer side of plumular tip
than on its inner side. When the seedling is exposed to white light, formation of ethylene
decreases, the inner side of the hook also elongates rapidly equalizing the growth on two sides
and the hook opens.
Red light is more effective in opening of plumular hook. This effect is reversed by exposing
the seedling to far-red- light. This red/far-red reversibility is indicative of the role of the
pigment phytochrome in it.
When etiolated seedlings are exposed to light in presence of ethylene, the plumular hook
fails to open. On the other hand, if seedlings are grown in dark along with an ethylene
absorbent such as KM nO t4he plumular hook opens.
3. Triple Response
Ethylene causes „triple response‟ of etiolated seedling such as in pea which consists of
(i) inhibition of stem elongation, (ii) stimulation of radial swelling of stems and (iii)
horizontal growth of stems with respect to gravity (i.e., diageotropism)
4. Formation of Adventitious Roots and Root Hairs
Ethylene induces formation of adventitious roots in plants from different plant parts such
as leaf, stem, peduncle and even other roots. In many plants especially Arabidopsis, ethylene
treatment promotes initiation of root hairs.
5. Inhibition of Root Growth
Ethylene is known to inhibit linear growth of roots of dicotyledonous plants.
6. Leaf Epinasty
When the upper side (adaxial side) of the petiole of the leaf grows faster than the lower
side (abaxial side), the leaf curves downward. This is called as epinasty. Ethylene causes leaf
epinasty in tomato and other dicot plants such as potato, pea and sunflower. Young leaves are
more sensitive than the older leaves. However, monocots do not exhibit this response.
Higher concentration of auxin, stress conditions such as salt stress, water-logging and
pathogen infection also induce leaf epinasty indirectly through increased ethylene formation.
In tomato and other plants, water-logging creates anaerobic condition around the roots
resulting in accumulation of ACC (1-amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid) (the
immediate precursor of ethylene formation) in roots. ACC is then translocated to shoots along
with transpiration stream where it is converted into ethylene in presence of oxygen and induces
leaf epinasty.
7. Flowering
Ethylene is known to inhibit flowering in plants. However, in pineapple and its allies
(Family Bromeliaceae) and also in mango, it induces flowering. Ethylene is used commercially
to synchronize flowering and fruit set in pineapple.
Plumbogo indica (Short Day Plant) can be made to flower even under non-inductive
long days with the application of ethylene.
8. Sex Expression
In monoecious species (with separate male and female flowers on the same plant)
especially some cucurbits like, cucumber, pumpkin, squash and melon, ethylene strongly
promotes formation of female flowers thereby suppressing the number of male flowers
considerably.
9. Senescence
Ethylene enhances senescence of leaves and flowers in plants. During senescence,

concentration of endogenous ethylene increase with decrease in concentration of cytokinins
and it is now generally held that a balance of these two phytohormones controls senescence.
Freshly cut carnation flowers when held in water in a conical flask, loose colour of their
petals and wither (i.e., senescence) within a few days. But, if the cut carnations are held in
conical flask containing silver thiosulphate solution, they remain fresh for many weeks. This
is because silver thiosulphate is potent inhibitior of ethylene action. Role of ethylene in
enhancing senescence has now been confirmed by studies with transgenic plants also.
10. Abscission of leaves
Ethylene promotes abscission of leaves in plants. Older leaves are more sensitive than
the younger ones. Fumigating the wild type birch tree (Betula pendula) with 50 ppm ethylene
results in rapid defoliation of the tree within few days.
The relative concentration of auxin on two sides of the abscission layer has regulatory
influence on the production of ethylene that stimulates leaf abscission. At the time of
abscission, concentration of auxin in laminar region decreases with simultaneous increase in
ethylene production. This also increases sensitivity of cells of abscission zone to ethylene
which now synthesize cell wall degrading enzymes such as cellulases and pectinases. Activity
of these enzymes results in cell wall loosening and cells separation ultimately leading to leaf
abscission.
11. Breaking Dormancy of Seeds and Buds
Ethylene is known to break dormancy and initiate germination of seeds. Seed

dormancy is overcome in strawberry, apple and other plants by treatment with ethylene. Non-
dormant varieties of seeds produce more ethylene than those of dormant varieties.
In many plants, rate of seed germination is increased by ethylene and a close correlation
has been found between ethylene formation and seed germination in peanuts (Arachis
hypogaea). In many plants, dormancy of buds can also be broken by ethylene treatment.
Sometimes, potato tubers are exposed to ethylene in order to sprout the dormant buds.
Biosynthesis of ethylene
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Ethylene is known to be synthesized in plant tissues from the amino acid methionine. A non-
protein amino acid, ACC is an important intermediate and also immediate precursor of
ethylene biosynthesis. The two carbons of ethylene molecule are derived from carbon no.3 and
4 of methionine. Whole process of ethylene bio-synthesis is a three steps pathway and is
aerobic:
 First Step: In the first step, an adenosine group (i.e.adenine+ribose) is transferred to

methionine by ATP to form S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), This reaction is catalysed
by the enzyme SAM-synthetase (methionine adenosyl transferase).
 Second Step: In the second step, SAM is cleaved to form 1-aminocyclopropane-1-
carboxylic acid (ACC) and 5‟-methylthioadenosine (MTA) by the enzyme ACC-
synthase.
Synthesis of ACC is rate limiting step in ethylene biosynthesis in plant tissues.

Exogenously supplied ACC greatly enhance production of ethylene in plant tissues.
 Third Step: In the third and last step of ethylene biosynthesis, ACC is oxidized by the
enzyme ACC-oxidase (previously called ethylene forming enzyme i.e, EFE) to form
ethylene. Two molecules, in each of HCN and H O
2 are eliminated.
ACC oxidase activity can be rate limiting step in ethylene biosynthesis in plant
tissues which show high rate of ethylene production such as ripening fruit.The enzyme
2+
ACC oxidase requires ferrous iron (Fe ) and ascorbate as cofactors.ACC can be
conjugated to give N-malonyl ACC and thus, may play an important role is regulation of
ethylene biosynthesis.
Factors Stimulating Ethylene Biosynthesis

Ethylene biosynthesis is known to be stimulated by a number of factors such as IAA,
cytokinins, fruit ripening, stress conditions (drought, flooding, chilling exposure to ozone
etc.) and mechanical wounding. In all these cases, ethylene biosynthesis is stimulated by
induction of ACC synthase. In climacteric fruits, ethylene itself promotes biosynthesis of
ethylene by autocatalysis.
Growth Retardants
The plant hormones or regulators, which inhibit or retard growth and development of
plants are called as growth retardants. The major growth regulators used are as follows:
1. Maleic hydrazide
Role
 Inhibition of seed germination

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 Prolonged bud dormancy
 Prevents flowering in short day plants
 Prevents sprouting of onions and potatoes during storage
2. Jasmonic acid
 Jasmonic acid (JA), is a cyclopentanone derivatives synthesized from linolenic acid via
the octadecanoic pathway. It acts as a growth inhibitor and seems to participate in leaf
senescence and in the defense mechanism against fungi.
 Jasmonate derivatives induce the accumulation of so-called jasmonate-induced-

proteins that were found in all plant species tested. Their accumulation can also be
caused by desiccation or ABA effects.
 Jasmonate-induced-proteins are lacking in roots, in bleached leaves, and in leaves of

chlorophyll-deficient Hordeum vulgare mutants.
 They exist in etiolated leaves, though Jasmonates do not only regulate the transcription
of these proteins, they do also influence the rate of translation of different groups of
mRNA.
 They do, for example, decrease the production rate of several essential housekeeping
proteins. Just like ABA, jasmonates also inhibit premature germination of the oil-
containing seeds of Brassica and Linum. After germination, they do induce the synthesis
of the seed storage proteins Napin and Cruciferin as well as that of several more
elaiosome-associated proteins.
Influence in fruit culture
 n-Propyl dihydrojasmonate (PDJ) treatment at 91 days after full bloom (DAFB)

decreased endogenous ABA and its metabolite but increased ethylene concentration and
hence increased fruit ripening of mangoes (Kondog et al., 2004)
 Methyl jasmonate treatments increased ethylene production at the climacteric stage and
was more pronounced at a higher concentration (10 M)-3of applied methyl jasmonate.
Skin colour of ripe fruit was significantly improved with exogenous application of
methyl jasmonate (10 -M
3
). Methyl jasmonate treatments also increased the concentration
of fatty acids as well as total aroma volatiles, monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, aromatics,
norisoprenoid, alcohols and esters in the pulp of fruit. However, exogenous application
of methyl jasmonate tended to reduce production of n-tetradecane, especially on day 5
-3
and 7 of ripening. In general, exogenous application of methyl jasmonate (10 M)
significantly promoted biosynthesis of ethylene, fatty acids and ripening and aroma
volatile compounds during fruit ripening. Our experimental results suggest that methyl
jasmonte is involved in early steps in the modulation of mango fruit ripening (Lalel et
al., 2003).
 Raspberries treated with MJ had higher soluble solids content, total sugars, fructose,
glucose, sucrose and lower titratable acids (TAs), malic acid and citric acid than
untreated fruit. MJ also significantly enhanced the content of flavonoids and the
antioxidant capacities in the fruit (Wang et al., 2005).
3. Uniconazole
 Retards bolting in radish and flowering in pear when it is applied before floral initiation
 Control internode length elongation in raspberries
4. Paclobutrazol
Mode of action
 Suppression of growth by paclobutrazol occurs because the compound blocks three steps
in the terpenoid pathway for the production of gibberellins by binding with and
inhibiting the enzymes that catalyze the metabolic reactions
 When gibberellin production is inhibited, cell division still occurs, but the new cells do
not elongate. The result is shoots with the same numbers of leaves and internodes
compressed into a shorter length.
 Recent research has demonstrated that blocking a portion of the so-called terpenoid
pathway causes shunting of the accumulated intermediary compounds above the
blockage. The consequence is increased production of the hormone abscisic acid and the
chlorophyll component phytyl, both beneficial to tree growth and health
 Paclobutrazol treated trees have greater tolerance to environmental stresses and

resistance to fungal diseases. Morphological modifications of leaves induced by
treatment with paclobutrazol such as smaller stomatal pores, thicker leaves, and
increased number and size of surface appendages on leaves may provide physical
barriers to some fungal, bacterial and insect infections.
 Treated trees of apple have more compact crowns and somewhat smaller and darker
green leaves, but otherwise look normal. The amount of shoot growth reduction ranges
from a low of 10% to a high of 90%, with average growth reduction being 40-60% when
recommended dose rates are applied. As a consequence of the reduced growth in height,
there is a parallel reduction in biomass removed when trees eventually require trimming
 Increased concentration of paclobutrazol (1000ppm) suppressed the root length and

increased the root diameter of Assam lemon. Paclobutrazol-treated plants showed better
survival at the nursery stage than control.(Singh et al., 2000)
 Paclobutrazol increased root:shoot ratio

 Paclobutrazol applications stimulate flowering 2 months after the application, or 2
months earlier than natural flowering. The application increases fruit production by as
much as 73 -142 %.
 Trees treated with paclobutrazol generally have leaves with a rich green color suggesting
high chlorophyll content. There are two possible explanations for this response. One is
that the leaves of both treated and untreated trees contain the same number of cells, but
because the cells in leaves of treated trees are smaller, the chlorophyll is more
concentrated in the reduced cell volume. Paclobutrazol treatment, which blocks the
production of gibberellins, results in a shunting of the intermediate compounds from
gibberellin synthesis to the production of more leaves.
 Treatment with paclobutrazol promotes the production of abscisic acid - cause stomates
to close, reducing water loss from leaves through transpiration.
Growth regulators are mainly used as foliar spray, dipping cuttings and fruit bunches
(grapes) and soil application is not commonly followed.

Questions
1. Which of the following is considered as naturally occurring growth inhibitor in plants?
a. IAA b. ABA c.GA1 d. all of above
Ans: b. ABA
2. Abscisic acid (ABA) is not involved in,
a. Stomatal closure in water stressed plants
b. Fruit ripening and dormancy of seeds and buds
c. Senescence
d. Cell elongation
Ans: d. Cell elongation
3. Which of the following is not an antigibberellin or growth retardant?

a. Phosfon D b. Cycocel c. Amo-1618 d. Benzyl adenine
Ans: d. Benzyl adenine

4. Antigibberellins such as cycocel (CCC) find extensive use in
a. food industry b. breweries c. floriculture industry d. none of the above
Ans: c. floriculture industry

5. Minimum lag time for auxin-induced growth is,
a. 10 minutes b. 15 minutes c. 20 minutes d. 30 minutes
Ans: a. 10 minutes
6. Most frequently occurring organic acids in fruit cells are,
a. malic acid b. citric acid c. both a and b d. tartaric acid
Ans: c. both a and b

7. Immediate precursor of ethylene biosynthesis in plants is,
a. Methionine
b. S-Adenosyl methionine
c. 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)

d. None of these
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8. Which one of the following is not an inhibitor of ethylene biosynthesis?
a. AVG b.AOA c. Co2+ d. None of these
Ans: d. None of these

9. A potent inhibitor of ethylene action is,
a. silver ions b. Cobalt ions c. Manganese ions d. None of
these
Ans: a. silver ions

10. ABA is a,
a. Sesquiterpene b. Diterpene c. Triterpene d. Tetraterpene
Ans: a. Sesquiterpene
11. Naturally occurring, biologically active ABA in plants exists in,
a. Trans form b. Cis form c. Both a & b d. None of these
Ans: b. Cis form

12. The primary hormones causing abscission of leaves is,
a. ABA b. IAA c. Ethylene d. Cytokinin
Ans: a. ABA
13. ABA is synthesized in plants,
a. directly from simple terpenoid precursors
b. indirectly through carotenoid breakdown
c. through shikimic acid pathway
d. none of these
Ans: b. indirectly through carotenoid breakdown

14. ABA is inactivated in plant cells by converting into,
a. phaseic acid b. dihydrophaseic acid
c. ABA-glycosyl ester d. all of these
Ans: d. all of these

15. ABA occurs in plants predominantly in,
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14 mesbbly.cocm
. Mature green leaves d. Flowers Page 36
Ans: c. Mature green leaves
Lecture No.6
Mechanisms of Abscission and Senescence of leaves
Abscission of leaves
Detachment of the older (rather senescent) leaves or leaf fall is a common phenomenon in
plants and is called as abscission of leaves. Abscission is quite distinctive in deciduous trees and
shrubs of temperate regions in autumn when all the leaves of such plants fall at about the same
time giving the plants a naked appearance, the new leaves developing in the subsequent spring.
In evergreen plants there is gradual abscission of leaves, the older leaves fall while new leaves
are developed continuously throughout the year. In most of the herbaceous species, however the
leaves are not shed even after they die and in many cases are retained in withered dry condition
even after the whole shoot is dead. Leaf abscission takes place at the base of the petiole which
is internally marked by a distinct zone of few layers of thin-walled cells arranged transversally
across the petiolar base. This zone is called as the abscission zone or abscission layer. The cells
of the abscission layer separate from each other due to the dissolution.
Mechanism of abscission:
The young leaves remain attached to the stem and do not abscise till they become old.
However, if the blade or lamina portion of a young leaf is cut, the debladed petiolar stump soon
abscises. In case auxin (IAA) in lanolin paste is applied to the cut end of petiole of such a young
leaf the abscission of the petiolar stump is greatly suppressed. The intact young leaf does not
abscise because its lamina portion contains auxin synthesized by it. These experiments have led
to the belief that auxin has controlling influence in the abscission of leaves. This belief is further
strengthened by the fact that endogenous auxin concentration in leaves falls considerably at the
time of normal abscission.
In yet another experiment, it has been found that if auxin is applied to the distal side
(blade side) of the abscission zone of the debladed petiole of young leaf, the abscission of the
petiolar stump is prevented. On the other hand, if the auxin is applied to the proximal side (stem
side) of the abscission zone of the debladed petiole, abscission is accelerated.
Normally, the auxin level of the stem side of the abscission zone is probably maintained
due to basipetal transport of auxin from the stem tip while the source of the auxin on the blade
side of the abscission zone is the blade or lamina of leaf itself. The above-mentioned experiments
have led to the establishment of auxin gradient hypothesis according to which it is not the
presence or absence of auxin but relative concentration of auxin on stem side of the abscission
zone or nearly equal concentration of auxin on both its sides will promote abscission while
higher concentration of auxin on the blade side of the abscission zone will retard abscission.
The mechanism by which auxin controls abscission is not clearly understood. Besides
auxin, other growth hormones especially ethylene may also play important role in abscission.
Recent researches have now shown that the relative concentration of auxin on two sides
of the abscission layer has regulatory influence on the production of ethylene that stimulates
leaf abscission. At the time of abscission, concentration of auxin in the laminar region decreases
with simultaneous increase in ethylene production. This also increases sensitivity of cells of
abscission zone to ethylene which now synthesize cell wall degrading enzymes such as
cellulases and pectinases. Activity of these enzymes results in cell wall loosening and cells
separation ultimately leading to leaf abscission.
Senescence in plants
The plants or their organs like all other living organisms have a certain span of life during
which they develop, grow, attain maturity and after some time die. But prior to death, distinctive
but natural deteriorative processes that naturally terminate their functional life are collectively
called as senescence and the plants or plant organs at this stage are called as senescent. These
deteriorative processes may terminate in death either gradually or abruptly depending upon the
plant. Senescence is a normal energy dependent developmental process which is controlled
by plant‟s own genetic programme and the death of the plant or plant part consequent to
senescence is called as programmed cell death (PCD).
Senescence is not confined only to whole plant. It may be limited to a particular plant
organ such as leaf and flowers or cells such as phloem and xylem or cell-organelles such as
chloroplasts and mitochondria etc.
Senescence is closely associated with the phenomenon of aging and both are sometimes
considered as the same by many workers. But according to Medawar (1957), the term senescence
should be used to refer to natural changes towards termination of life while aging to refer to
changes in time without reference to the natural development of death.
Leopold (1961) has recognized 4 types of senescence patterns in whole plant which are
as follows:
1. Overall Senescence. This type of senescence occurs in annuals where whole of
the plant is affected and dies.
2. Top Senescence. This is represented by perennial herbs where senescence occurs
only in the above ground parts, the root system and underground system
remaining viable.
3. Deciduous Senescence. This type of senescence is less drastic and takes place in
woody deciduous plants. Here senescence occurs in all the leaves simultaneously
but the bulk of the stem and root system remains alive.
4. Progressive Senescence. This is characterized by gradual progression of
senescence and death of leaves from the base upwards as the plant grows.
(The senescence of the entire plant after a single reproductive cycle is also
known as monocarpic senescence)
Senescence can best be studied in leaves or similar other organs of plants
e.g. cotyledons, sepals, petals etc. or cell organelles like isolated chloroplasts.
 Senescing cells and tissues are metabolically very active and an ordered series of
cytological and biochemical events occur during senescence.
 Senescence is characterized by increased respiration, declining photosynthesis

and an orderly disintegration of macromolecules.
 At the cellular level, chloroplasts are the first organelles to be disintegrated.

Nuclei remain structurally and functionally intact until the last stage of
senescence. Meanwhile, other cell organelles and biomembranes also gradually
deteriorate.
 Expression of senescence down-regulated genes (SDGs) decreases. Such genes

encode proteins in photosynthesis and other biosynthetic processes. Concentration
of growth promoting hormones especially cytokines declines.
 Expression of senescence associated genes (SAGs) increase. Such genes encode

hydrolytic enzymes such as proteases, ribonucleases and lipases as well as
enzymes involved in biosynthesis of deteriorative hormones such as abscisic acid
(ABA) and ethylene.
 Some of the SAGs have secondary functions in senescence that are useful to
plant. These genes encode enzymes that are involved in conversion and
remobilization of nutrients and substrates from senescing tissues and their
reallocation to other parts of the plant that survive (i.e., not senescing).
 Brilliant Colours are developed in leaves of many plants during senescence.

 Towards the end of senescence, the cells and tissues also lose respiratory control.
Several environmental factors especially those which suppress normal plant growth also
tend to enhance the rate of senescence. These are deficiency of soil nutrients, high temperatures,
water deficit, darkness etc.
In many plants on the other hand, removal of flowers, fruits and vegetative growing points
can markedly delay the senescence of leaves. The role of externally supplied cytokinins in
delaying senescence especially in detached plant part is also well established.
Programmed Cell Death (PCD)
As mentioned earlier, senescence is controlled by plants own genetic programme and the
death of the plant or plant part consequent to senescence is called as programmed call death
(PCD). The distinct set of morphological and biochemical changes accompanying the PCD have
also been called as apoptosis (from a Greek Word meaning „falling off‟).
PCD plays an important role in normal vegetative and reproductive development in plant
and also in defense against pathogens:
 Senescence is one form of PCD. The nutrients and other substrates from senescing cells
and tissues are remobilized and reallocated to other parts of the plant that survive.
 The protoplasts of developing tracheary elements (xylem vessels and tracheids) die and
disappear at maturity to make elements functionally efficient as conduit for water
transport.
 In aquatic plants, aerenchyma is normally formed in different parts of the plant such as
roots and stems which enclose large air spaces that are created via PCD.
 In the development of unisexual flowers, primordial for both male and female flowers are
present in the earlier stages, but only one of these two completes its development while
the other aborts via PCD.

 In ovules, the megaspore mother cell divides meiotically to form four megaspores of
which only one remains functional to form the female gametophyte while the rest
degenerate. This is predetermined and genetically controlled and is an example of
programmed cell death.
 On being infected by a pathogen, the host plant cells die rapidly around the infection site
forming a necrotic lesion. This deprives the pathogen of the nutrient supply and prevents
its spread in the host plant. This is also a form of PCD that is beneficial to plant.
Lecture No. 7
Flowering: Floral development-factors affecting flowering

Initiation of flower primordial
The initiation of flower primordia is a major event in the life cycle of a plant in that it
involves a shift in the phase of development from vegetative to reproductive processes. The
significance of flower initiation has been recognized by botanists for many years. In 1918, Klebs
suggested that during the life cycle of plant it passes through several phases of development.
Before floral primordia can be initiated, the plant must complete a period of vegetative growth or
attain some minimal leaf number. When this condition is attained, the plant is said to be ripe to
flower. Ripeness-to-flower is not recognized by any external characteristics, but it can be
determined empirically by subjecting plants of varying age (From seedling emergence) to
environmental conditions known to induce flowering. In most plants ripeness – to- flower is
attained after the plant has produced several leaves. In some cereal grasses a minimum of seven
leaves must be developed before the plant is ripe to flower. On the other hand, a plant like
Pharbitis nil, the Japanese morning glory, is ripe to flower within a day after the cotyledons have
emerged. Cotyledons presumably contain enough stored food to support subsequent reproductive
development. Most common cultivated plants and weedy annuals, however, attain the ripe-to-
flower condition 2 to 3 weeks after seedling emergence when a few leaves have fully developed.
Attainment of the ripe-to-flower condition does not automatically lead to the initiation of
flower primordial. Certain environmental conditions must follow. These same environmental
conditions, if presented to a plant that is not ripe to flower, elicit no flowering response. The
importance of temperature and the promotion of reproductive development, a phenomenon
referred to as vernalization, were described by Gassner in 1918. About the same time W.W
Garner and H. A. Allard (1920) two plant physiologists with the U.S. Department of Agriculture,
found that day length, or the duration of light and dark periods within a 24 hour cycle, also
influenced the initiation of flowering.
Since the early work of Klebs, Gassner, and Garner and Allard, plant physiologists have
carried out detailed studies of the anatomical, chemical, and biochemical processes that
accompany the shift from vegetative to reproductive growth. Although much is still not known
about floral initiation, several different kinds of processes are thought the choice of appropriate
plant material and experimental techniques, to isolate individual reactions for detailed study. The
transport of the flower stimulus or the transformation of the shoot apex can be studied, for
example. In certain plants it has been possible to determine the length of time necessary to
complete some of the partial reaction.
Other aspects of reproductive development:
The change from vegetative to reproductive growth not only involves switching the shoot
apex from leaf formation to flower formation
Lecture No.8
Physiology of Flowering in plants
Photoperiodism
The plants in order to flower require a certain day length i.e., the relative length of day
and night which is called as photoperiod. The response of plants to the photoperiod expressed in
the form of flowering is called as photoperiodism.
The phenomenon of photoperiodism was first discovered by Garner and Allard (1920,
22) who observed that the Biloxi variety of Soybeans (Glycine max) and „Maryland. Mammonth
variety of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) could be made to flower only when the daily exposure to
the light was reduced below a certain critical duration and after many complex experiments
concluded that „the relative length of the day is a factor of the first importance in the growth and
development of plants‟.
Depending upon the duration of the photoperiod, they classified plants into three
categories.
http://www.tutorvista.com/content/biology/biology-iv/plant-growth-
movements/photoperiodism.php
Short Day Plants (SDP)
These plants require a relatively short day light period (usually 8-10 hours) and a
continuous dark period of about 14-16 hours for subsequent flowering. Some examples of these
plants which are also known as long-night-plants are Maryland Mammoth variety of tobacco
(Nicotiana tabacum), Biloxi variety of Soybeans (Glycine max) and Cocklebur (Xanthium
pennsylvanicum).
The Day-length Requirements for Flowering in Three Categories of Plants
 In short day plants the dark period is critical and must be continuous. If this dark period
is interrupted even with a brief exposure of red light (660-665 m µ (µm= 10 -6
mm ) wavelength), the short day plant will not flower.
Short Day Plant
16 hours dark 8 hours light
A. Short Day Plant flowers short day plant flowers
DARK LIGHT
B.Critical dark period. Short day plant does not flower interrupted by light
DARK LIGHT
C. Light period interrupted by dark
 Maximum inhibition of flowering with red light occurs at about the middle of critical dark
period.
 However, the inhibitory effect of red light can be overcome by a subsequent exposure with
far-red light (730-735 m µ (µm = 10-6 mm ) wavelength)
 Interruption of the light period with red light does not have inhibitory effect on flowering in
short day plants.
 Prolongation of the continuous dark period initiates early flowering in short day plants.
Long Day Plants (LDP)
These plants require a longer day light period (usually 14-16 hours) in a 24 hours cycle for
subsequent flowering. Some examples of these plants which are also called as short night plants
are Hyoscyamus niger (Henbane), Spinacea (spinach) Beta vulgaris (Sugar beet).
 In long day plants the light period is critical

 A brief exposure in the dark period or the prolongation of the light period stimulates
flowering in long day plants.
Day Neutral Plants
These plants flower in all photoperiods ranging from 5 hours to 24 hours continuous
exposure. Some of the examples of these plants are tomato, cotton, sunflower, cucumber and
certain varieties of peas and tobacco. During recent years certain intermediate categories of
plants have also been recognized. They are,
Long Short Day Plants
These are short day plants but must be exposed to long days during early periods of
growth for subsequent flowering. Some of the examples of these plants are certain species of
Bryophyllum.
Short-Long Day Plants
These are long day plants but must be exposed to short days during early periods of
growth for subsequent flowering. Some of the examples of these plants are certain varieties of
wheat (Triticum) and rye (Secale).
Lecture No.9
Mid-term Examination
Lecture No.10
Photoperiodic Induction and Floral Hormone
Plants may require one or more inductive cycles for flowering. An appropriate
photoperiod in 24 hours cycle constitutes one inductive cycle. If a plant which has received
sufficient inductive cycles is subsequently placed under unfavorable photoperiods, it will still
flower. Flowering will also occur if a plant receives inductive cycles after intervals of
unfavorable photoperiods (i.e., discontinuous inductive cycles.) This persistence of
photoperiodic after effect is called photoperiodic induction.
 An increase in the number of inductive cycles results in early flowering of the plant.
For instance Xanthium (a short day plant) requires only one inductive cycle and
normally flowers after about 64-days. It can be made to flower even after 13 days if it
has received 4-8 inductive cycles. In such cases the number of flowers is also
increased.
 Continuous inductive cycles promote early flowering than discontinuous inductive
cycles. Some of the examples of plants which require more than one inductive cycle for
subsequent flowering are Biloxi soybean (SDP) -2 inductive cycles; Salvia occidentalis
(SDP)-17 inductive cycles; Plantago lanceolata (LDP) – 25 inductive cycles.
Perception of Photoperiodic Stimulus and Presence of a Floral Hormone
It is now well established that the photoperiodic stimulus is perceived by the leaves. As a
result, a floral hormone is produced in the leaves which are then translocated to the apical tip,
subsequently causing the initiation of floral primordial.
That the photoperiodic stimulus is perceived by the leaves can be shown by simple
experiments on cocklebur (Xanthium pennsylvanicum), a short day plant. Cocklebur plant will
flower if it has previously been kept under short-day conditions. If the plant is defoliated and
then kept under short day condition, it will not flower. Flowering will also occur even if all the
leaves of the plant except one leaf have been removed.
If a cocklebur plant whether intact or defoliated, is kept under long day conditions it will
not flower. But, if even one of its leaves is exposed to short day condition and the rest are under
long day photoperiods, flowering will occur.
The photoperiodic stimulus can be transmitted from one branch of the plant to another
branch. For example, if in a two branched cocklebur plant one branch is exposed to short day
and other to long day photo period, flowering occurs on both the branches. Flowering also
occurs if one branch is kept under long day conditions and other branch from which all the
leaves except one have been removed is exposed to short day condition. However, if one branch
is exposed to long photoperiod and the other has been removed is exposed to short day
condition. However, if one branch is exposed to long photoperiod and the other has been
defoliated under short day condition, flowering will not occur in any of the branches.
Nature of the Floral Hormone
The nature of floral hormone was named as florigin, which can be translocated from
leaves to the apical tips situated at other parts of the plant resulting in flowering.
Grafting experiments in cocklebur plants have even proved that the floral hormone can be
translocated from one plant to another. For example, if one branched cocklebur plant which has
been exposed to short day conditions is grafted to another cocklebur plant kept under long day
condition, flowering occurs on both the plants . Obviously the floral hormone has been
transmitted to the receptor plant through graft union. But if a cocklebur plant is grafted to
another similar plant both of which have been kept under long day conditions, flowering will
not occur on either of the two plants.
It has also been indicated that the floral hormone may be identical in short-day and long-
day plants. For example, grafting experiments between certain long-day plants and short –day
plants have shown that flowering occurs on both the plants even if one of them has been kept
under non-inductive photoperiods.
Phytochrome
It has already been seen that a brief exposure with red light during critical dark period
inhibits flowering in short-day plants and this inhibitory effect can be reversed by a subsequent
exposure with far-red light. Similarly, the prolongation of the critical light period or the
interruption of the dark period stimulates flowering in long-day plants involves the operation of
a proteinaceous pigment called as phytochrome.
 The pigment phytochrome exists in two different forms, (i) red light absorbing form
which is designated as P Rand (ii) far-red absorbing form which is designated as P FR.
 When P R form of the pigment absorbs red light (660-665 nm, it is converted into P FR
form).
 When P FR form of the pigment absorbs far-red light (730-735 nm) converted in to P R
form.
 The PFR form of the pigment gradually changes into P R form in dark.
It is considered that during the day the P FR form of the pigments is accumulated in the
plant which is inhibitory to flowering in short-day plants but is stimulatory in long-day plants.
During critical dark period in short-day plants, this form gradually changes into P R form
resulting in flowering. A brief exposure with red light will convert this form again into P FR
form thus inhibiting flowering. Reversal of the inhibitory effect of red light during critical
dark period in SDP by subsequent far-red light exposure is because the P FR form after
absorbing far-red light (730-735 nm) will again be converted back into P R form.
Prolongation of the critical light period or the interruption of the dark period by red
light in long-day plants will result in further accumulation of the P FR form of the pigment,
thus stimulating flowering in long-day plants.
The phytochrome is a soluble protein with a molecular weight of about 250 kDa. It‟s a
homodimer of two identical polypeptides each with a molecular weight of about 125 kDa.
Each polypeptide has a prosthetic group called as chromophore which is covalently linked to
the polypeptide via a sulphur atom in the cystine residue of the polypeptide. The protein part
of the phytochrome is called as apoprotein.
Apart from absorbing red and far-red light, the phytochrome also absorbs blue light. The
PR form of phytochrome is blue while P FR from is olive- green in colour. But owing to very low
concentration, this pigment is not visible in plant tissues. Phytochrome accounts for less than
0.2% of the total extractable protein in etiolated seedlings. None of the two components of
phytochrome, i.e., apoprotein and chromophore, can absorb light alone. Phytochromes have been
detected in wide range of plants in angiosperms, gymnosperms, byrophytes and algae. Dark
grown etiolated seedlings are richest sources of phytochrome where this pigment is especially
concentrated in apical meristems.
Phytochromes have directly been detected in different part of seedlings, in roots,

cotyledons, hypocotyle, epicotyls, coleoptiles, stems, petioles, leaf blades, vegetative buds, floral
receptacles, inflorescences, developing fruits and seeds. Presence of phytochrome has also been
shown indirectly in other plant materials.
Within the cells, phytochrome exists in nucleus and throughout the cytosol. The
chromophore of phytochrome is synthesized in plastids while apoprotein is synthesized on
nuclear genome. Assembly of these two components of phytochrome is autocatalytic and occurs
in cytosol.
Gibberllins and the flowering response
It is now well known that the gibberellins can induce flowering in long-day plants even
under non-inductive short days. It is also definite that the gibberellins alone do not constitute the
„florigen‟, but it is usually held that the gibberellins are in some way connected with the overall
process of flowering.
Importance of photoperiodism
The knowledge of the phenomenon of photoperiodism has been of great practical

importance in hybridization experiments. Although the floral hormone „florigen‟ has not yet
been isolated, the isolation and characterization of this hormone will be utmost economic
importance. The phenomenon of photoperiodism is an excellent example of physiological
preconditioning (or after-effect) where an external factor (i.e., the photoperiodic stimulus)
induces some physiological changes in the plant the effect of which is not immediately visible. It
lingers on in the plant and prepares the latter for a certain process (i.e., flowering) which takes
place at a considerably later stage during the life history of the plant.
Some Phytochrome mediated photoresponses in Plants

1. Photoperiodism.
2. Seed germination.
3. Elongation of leaf, petiole, stem
4. Sex expression.
5. Bud dormancy
6. Rhizome formation
7. Bulb formation
8. Leaf abscission.
9. Epinasty
10. Formation of leaf primordia
11. Flower induction
12. Formation of tracheary elements.
13. Differentiation of stomata.
14. Synthesis of anthocyanins.
15. Increase in protein systhesis.
16. Increase in RNA synthesis.
17. Changes in the rate of fat degradation.
18. Changes in the rate of degradation of reserve proteins
19. Auxin catabolism.
20. Permeability of cell membranes.
Lecture No.11
Vernalization: perception of cold stimulus, presence of floral hormone-

mechanisms of vernalization-devernalization-practical utility
Certain plants require a low temperature treatment during their earlier stages of the life
history for subsequent flowering in their later stages. This was first realized by Klippart in 1857
when he found that winter wheat could be converted to spring wheat if the seeds after slight
germination were kept at nearly freezing temperature (0-5 C). This conversion by low
temperature treatment or chilling treatment was termed as vernalization by Lysenko (1928). Due
to this, vegetative period is cut short resulting in early flowering.
The effect of cold stimulus on plant is not immediately visible. It is expressed only at a
certain later stage in the form of flowering. Thus like the photoperiodism, the phenomenon of
vernalization is an excellent example of the physiological preconditioning.
movements/flowering-hormone.php
Perception of the cold stimulus

The cold stimulus is perceived by the apical meristems and all dividing cells including
those in roots or leaves may be the potential sites of vernalization.
Presence of floral hormone
Perception of cold stimulus results in the formation of a floral hormone which is
transmitted to other parts of the plant. In certain cases the cold stimulus may even be transmitted
to another plant across a graft union. The hormone has been named vernalin by Melchers (1939).
Conditions necessary for vernalization
Age of the plant
It determines the responsiveness of the plant to cold stimulus and it differs in different
species. In case of biennial variety of henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), the plants will respond only
when they are in rosette stage and have completed at least 10 days of growth.
Appropriate low temperature and duration of the exposure
Most suitable temperature is 1-6°C. The effectiveness decreases from 0 to -4°C.
Temperature of -4°C is completely ineffective. Similarly from 7°C the response decreases.
Temperature 12°C-14°C are almost ineffective in vernalizing the plants.
Oxygen
Vernalizing is an aerobic process and requires metabolic energy. In the absence cold
treatment, it becomes completely ineffective.
Water
Sufficient amount of water is also essential. Vernalization in dry seeds is not possible.
Mechanism of vernalization
Phasic development theory
The main points in this theory advanced by Lysenko (1934) are the growth and
development of an annual seed plant consists of series of phases which must occur in some
predetermined sequence. Commencement will take place only when preceding phase is over. The
phases require different external conditions for completion like light and temperature.
Vernalization accelerates the thermophase.
Hormonal theories
First hormonal theory was proposed by Lang and Melchers (1947) is schematically shown below
D
Higher temp
Cold Normal temperature
A B C Flowering
Precursor Thermolabile
According to the scheme, precursor A is converted into a thermolabile compound B

during cold treatment. Under normal conditions, B changes into C which ultimately causes
flowering. But at higher temperature B is converted into D and flowering does not take place
(devernalization).
Devernalization
The positive effect of the low temperature treatment on the vernaliztaion of the plants can
be counteracted by subsequent high temperature treatment. This is called as devernalization. The
degree of devernalization decreases if the duration of the cold treatment has been longer.
However, the devernalized plant can again be vernalized by subsequent low temperature
treatment.
Vernalization and gibberellins
The gibberellins are known to replace the low temperature requirement in certain biennial
plants such as henbane, where the plant normally remains vegetative and retains its rosette habit
during the first growing season and after passing through the winter period flowers in the next
season. The gibberellins cause such plants to flower even during the first year.
Practical utility of vernalization
 Vernalization shortens the vegetative period of plants
 Vernalization increases the cold resistance of the plants
In colder countries like Russia, wherein the winters are severe, vernalization has been of
great importance in agriculture. By this process certain crop plants could be made to escape the
harmful effects of severe winters, thus improving the crop production. In warmer countries like
India vernalization practice has not been in use mainly because it‟s a costly process and winters
are comparatively not very serve as to harm the crop plants.
Lecture No.12
Physiological basis of training and pruning
Physiological basis of pruning
Pruning is a tool to regulate size and shape of plants to achieve desired architecture of
canopy and also reduce foliage density by removal of unproductive branches.
Commonly, trees are pruned annually in two ways. A few shoots or branches that are
considered undesirable are removed entirely without leaving any stub. This operation is known
as „thinning out‟. The other method which involves removal of terminal portion of the shoots,
branches or limb, leaving its basal portion intact, is called „heading back‟. Thinning out
involving large limbs as in old and diseased trees is called „bulk pruning‟.
These operations are carried out to divert a part of the plant energy from one part to
another. As trees grow older, they should receive relatively more of thinning out and less of
heading back. Heading back tends to make trees more compact than thinning out. If a few of the
several branches growing close together on the same parent limb are entirely removed or thinned
out, the rest of the branches would grow more vigorously. Thinning out results in lesser new
shoot growth but more new spurs and fruit bud formation than corresponding severe heading
back. Pruning is done with the following specific objectives.
i) To remove surplus branches

ii) To open the trees – maximum sun light interception, so that the fruits will colour
more satisfactorily
iii) To train it to some desired form
iv) To remove the dead and diseased limbs,
v) To remove the water sprouts and
vi) To improve fruiting wood and to regulate production of floral buds.
vii) source sink relation
Season of pruning
Little differences are likely to result from pruning at different times during the dormant
seasons in deciduous fruit trees though in certain cases, earlier pruning causes earlier foliation in
the spring. Late pruning during dormant periods is generally not advocated as it leads to more
bleeding than earlier pruning. The exposed cut surface in certain cases may provide an excellent
opportunity for infection by some pathogens. For this reason, winter pruning is usually preferred
to spring pruning as bleeding will be excess in later period. Summer pruning may have a
dwarfing effect or an invigorating influence. A light summer pruning may aid in colouration of
fruit in certain species.
The amount of pruning or severity of pruning which is desirable for mature trees differs
in different species. The minimum amount, which is common to all, is the removal of broken or
diseased branches and those which cross against each other. Diseased branches should be
completely removed from the base of the trunk. In other cases annual pruning may be very light
in the beginning but after some years it may become necessary to prune heavily. Otherwise, the
trees may lack vegetative vigour and make very little growth. Under South Indian conditions, old
non-bearing mango trees are pruned to expose the centre portion to sunlight and also crowded
terminal shoots are thinned to one or two shoots during August-September. The pome fruits such
as apple, plum, pears and peaches are pruned every year in December, January; Jasmines are
pruned to 45 cm height from the ground level during the last week of November.
Proper pruning enhances the beauty of almost any landscape tree and shrub, while
improper pruning can ruin or greatly reduce its landscape potential. In most cases, it is better not
to prune than to do it incorrectly. In nature, plants go years with little or no pruning, but man can
ruin what nature has created. By using improper pruning methods healthy plants are often
weakened or deformed. In nature, every plant eventually is pruned in some manner. It may be a
simple matter of low branches being shaded by higher ones resulting in the formation of a collar
around the base of the branch restricting the flow of moisture and nutrients. Eventually the leaves
wither and die and the branch then drops off in a high wind or storm. Often, tender new branches
of small plants are broken off by wild animals in their quest for food. In the long run, a plant
growing naturally assumes the shape that allows it to make the best use of light in a given
location and climate. All one needs to do to appreciate a plant's ability to adapt itself to a location
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Pruning, like any other skill, requires knowing what you are doing to achieve success.
The old idea that anyone with a chain saw or a pruning saw can be a landscape pruner is far from
the truth. More trees are killed or ruined each year from improper pruning than by pests.
Remember that pruning is the removal or reduction of certain plant parts that are not required,
that are no longer effective, or that are of no use to the plant. It is done to supply additional
energy for the development of flowers, fruits, and limbs that remain on the plant. Pruning, which
has several definitions, essentially involves removing plant parts to improve the health,
landscape effect, or value of the plant. Once the objectives are determined and a few basic
principles understood, pruning primarily is a matter of common sense.
The necessity for pruning can be reduced or eliminated by selecting the proper plant for
the location. Plants that might grow too large for the site, are not entirely hardy, or become
unsightly with age should be used wisely and kept to a minimum in the landscape plan.
Advances in plant breeding and selection in the nursery industry provide a wide assortment of
plants requiring little or no pruning. However, even the most suitable landscape plants often
require some pruning.
Reasons for Pruning
 To train the plant
 To maintain plant health
 To improve the quality of flowers, fruit, foliage or stems
 To restrict growth
Plan Approach to Pruning

 Pruning should follow a definite plan. Consider the reason or purpose before cutting
begins.
 By making the pruning cuts in a certain order, the total number of cuts is reduced greatly.
The skilled pruner first removes all dead, broken, diseased or problem limbs by cutting
them at the point of origin or back to a strong lateral branch or shoot. Often, removing
this material opens the canopy sufficiently so that no further pruning is necessary.
 The next step in pruning is to make any training cuts needed. By cutting back lateral
branches, the tree or shrub is trained to develop a desired shape, to fill in an open area
caused by storm or wind damage or to keep it in bounds to fit a given area. To properly
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natural shape or growth habit when pruning unless maintaining a close watch over the
plant, for after a period of time it attempts to assume the more natural growth habit.
 Make additional corrective pruning to eliminate weak or narrow crotches and remove the
less desirable central leader where double leaders occur. After these cuts have been made,
stand back and take a look at your work. Are there any other corrective pruning cuts
necessary? If the amount of wood removed is considerable, further pruning may need to
be delayed a year or so. Remove water sprouts unless needed to fill a hole or to shade a
large limb until other branches develop.
Physiology of training and pruning
Woody plants are pruned to maintain a desired size and shape and to promote a certain
type of growth. Ornamental plants are pruned to improve the aesthetic quality of the plant, but
fruit trees are pruned to improve fruit quality by encouraging an appropriate balance between
vegetative (wood) and reproductive (fruiting) growth. Annual pruning of fruit trees always
reduces yield, but enhances fruit quality. Pruning increases fruit size because excess flower buds
are removed and pruning encourages the growth of new shoots with high-quality flower buds.
Pruning improves light penetration into the canopy, and light is required for flower-bud
development, fruit set and growth, and red color development. Pruning also makes the canopy
more open and improves pest control by allowing better spray penetration into the tree; air
movement throughout the canopy is increased, which improves drying conditions and reduces
severity of many diseases.
This publication describes why plants respond to pruning and other forms of plant
manipulation used to train trees. This information applies to all plants, but application to fruit
trees is emphasized.
Pruning fruit trees is somewhat of an art based on an understanding of plant physiology

and development. In other words, if we understand how plants grow and how they will respond
to different types of plant manipulations, we can alter vegetative growth and fruiting to obtain
trees and fruit with desirable characteristics.
A basic understanding of certain aspects of plant physiology is a prerequisite to
understanding pruning. Unlike animals, plants continue to increase in size throughout their lives.
There are only two ways plants can grow.
Primary growth is the increase in length of shoots and roots, and is responsible for increases in
canopy height and width.
Secondary growth is the increase in thickness of stems and roots.
Both types of growth require cell division followed by cell enlargement and differentiation.
Return to Table of Contents
Plant Growth
Meristems are regions of cell division and there are two types of plant meristems. An
apical meristem is located at the tip of every shoot and root (Figure 1). As cells divide in these
apical meristems, the shoots and roots elongate as cells are piled one on another. Behind the
region of cell division is a region of cell differentiation, where cells enlarge and differentiate into
various tissues. In the axil of each leaf is a small apical meristem called an axillary meristem that
forms an axillary bud, which usually remains dormant until well after the subtending leaf is fully
developed. An axillary bud may remain dormant or develop into a lateral branch or a flower.
Figure 1. Longitudinal section of shoot tip shows an apical meristem, successively older leaf
primordia and axillary bud primordia.
http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/422/422-025/L_IMG_figure1.jpg
There are two distinct layers of meristematic tissue within the stem or root responsible for
secondary growth, the vascular cambium and the cork cambium (Figure 2). The vascular
cambium is a cylinder of specialized cells, usually five to ten cells thick, running the length of
the plant, including the roots, and is responsible for the radial growth of plant parts. Phloem cells
are produced to the outside of the cambium and xylem cells are produced to the inside of the
cambium. Downward transport of sugars, nutrients, and hormones from the top of the tree to the
roots occurs in the phloem tissue. Xylem cells are tube shaped, become hollow and die to form a
pipe-like system through which water, hormones and mineral nutrients move from the roots to
the top of the tree. Most of the radial growth of woody plants is due to activity of the vascular
cambium, but a small amount results from activity in another lateral meristem, the cork
cambium, located outside the vascular cambium. The cork cambium (phellogen) together with
the cork cells, constitute the periderm: a protective layer of suberized dead cork cells forming the
bark. Suberization is the impregnation of cell walls of cork tissue with a fatty substance called
suberin. Each season new layers of cells are produced and appear as growth rings when viewed
in cross-section. Over time, the xylem cells at the center of the trunk or limb are crushed and
become nonfunctional as transport pipes, but they do provide structural support to hold the plant
upright. While grafting it is important to line up the cambiums of the scion and the rootstock to
ensure a successful graft union.
Figure 2. Longitudinal cross-section of a tree trunk shows the vascular and cork cambiums.
Buds
Buds are important to the vegetative and reproductive growth of trees. Fruit tree training
and, to a lesser extent, pruning primarily involves bud manipulation. Buds are actually
undeveloped shoots. When a vegetative bud is sliced longitudinally during the winter and
viewed under magnification, the apical meristem at the tip, leaf primordial (developing leaves),
axillary meristems, developing axillary buds, and procambial tissue (tissue that will develop into
the cambium) are all visible.
Buds on fruit trees usually have about seven leaves and initial shoot elongation in the
spring results from cell expansion. During late June and July some of the shoot apices will flatten
out and develop into flower buds. Flower buds are actually modified shoots and the various
flower tissues (petals, stigmas, anthers, etc.) are actually modified leaves. Although the process
of switching from vegetative to reproductive buds is not fully understood, hormones that can be
influenced by environmental factors, stresses, and plant nutrition control the process.
There are several things we can do to influence whether or not a bud becomes a flower
bud or remains vegetative. In general, factors that favor rapid growth, such as high nitrogen
levels in the shoot tissues, inhibit the development of flower buds. Applying growth-promoting
plant growth regulators such as gibberellins usually inhibits flower-bud induction, whereas
ethylene may promote flower-bud development. Mild stresses such as shoot bending and water
stress may also promote flower-bud development.
Producing annual crops of high-quality fruit requires a balance between reproductive and
vegetative growth. Fruit producers use various techniques, including pruning, branch bending,
and plant growth-regulator sprays, to manipulate tree growth and flowering. Often these
techniques affect bud dormancy, so knowledge of buds and bud dormancy is essential if we are
to understand how pruning influences tree growth. It is also important to be able to identify the
different types of buds on a tree, especially to distinguish between flower and vegetative buds.
Buds may be classified based on location, contents, or activity.
Classification by content Several types of buds commonly develop on fruit trees.

Vegetative buds only develop into leafy vegetative shoots. Flower buds produce only flowers.
Stone fruit trees (peach, nectarine, apricot, plum, and cherry) produce vegetative buds and flower
buds. Apple and pear trees produce vegetative and mixed buds. Both leafy shoots and flowers
emerge from mixed buds.
i. Classification by location
Terminal buds are located at the tip of a shoot. On stone fruit trees terminal buds are
vegetative buds. Terminal buds on apple and pear trees are usually vegetative; however, some
varieties such as Rome Beauty produce mixed buds terminally and are referred to as tip bearers
or terminal bearers. Most mixed buds on apple and pear trees are formed terminally on short, less
than sixinch, shoots that terminate with a rosette of leaves. These short shoots are called spurs.
Lateral buds form in the axils of leaves and are often referred to as lateral buds or axillary buds.
On stone-fruit trees, lateral buds may be either vegetative or flower. Nodes on one-year-old
shoots may have one to three buds, some of which may be flower buds and others vegetative
buds. Flower buds are larger with tips that are relatively round, whereas vegetative buds are
small, narrow, and pointed. In the case of apple and pear trees, lateral buds on the previous
season's growth are usually vegetative. However, lateral buds on some varieties, especially on
the dwarfing rootstocks, may be mixed buds.
ii. Classification by arrangement on the stem
The bud arrangement influences the arrangement of a fruit tree's branches and thus the
tree's shape and how easy it is to manage. A node is the joint on a stem where a leaf is or was
attached (Figure 3). Axillary buds are located in the axis above where a leaf is attached to the
stem. In apples there is usually only one leaf per node, whereas three leaves often arise from a
node on peach shoots. When a leaf falls in the autumn, a leaf scar remains just below the axillary
bud (Figure 3). Buds are opposite when there are two at the same node but on opposite sides of
the stem. Forsythia is an example of a plant with opposite buds. Buds are alternate when there is
only one from each node and no one bud is on the same side of the stem as the one next above or
below it. Deciduous fruit trees have buds that spiral along a shoot (Figure 4). The spiraling three-
dimensional arrangement of leaves around a stem is known as Phyllotaxy and is expressed as a
fraction, where the numerator is the number of turns to get to a leaf directly above another and
the denominator is the number of buds passed.
Figure 3. Section of a limb shows nodes, leaf scars, and different types of buds.
Figure 4. Shoots with alternate arrangement (left) and opposite arrangement (right).
In each case the shoot has been headed and the diagram to the right of the arrow indicates how
the buds respond to the heading cut.
iii. Classification by activity
Buds are dormant when they are not visibly growing. When shoots develop around large
pruning cuts, they usually are sprouting from dormant buds (Figure 5). Adventitious buds form
irregularly on older portions of a plant and not at the stem tips or in the leaf axils. They form on
parts of the root or stem that have no connection to the apical meristems. They may originate
from either deep or peripheral tissues. For example, shoots often arise from adventitious buds
growing from callus tissue around wounds. Root suckers (vigorous upright shoots developing
from the roots) develop from adventitious buds on the roots.
Figure5. Watersprouts developing from adventitious buds around a pruning cut used to lower a
tree.
Plant Hormones
Hormones are substances produced in very small amounts in one part of the plant and
transported to another part where they cause a response. Plants produce a number of hormones
that control various aspects of growth, such as stem elongation; dormancy of buds and seeds;
flowering; fruit set, growth, and ripening; and the response to light and gravity. While pruning, it
is useful to consider the activity of the general types of hormones, promoters (gibberellins and
cytokinins) and inhibitors (auxins and abscisic acid). Promoters generally cause bud growth, cell
division and elongation, and stem growth. Inhibitors are usually associated with dormancy and
inhibit shoot development from seeds and buds and may be involved in flower-bud induction. It
is often the ratio of promoters and inhibitors, rather than their absolute concentrations, that
determines how a plant will grow. The production of plant hormones is usually controlled by
environmental conditions such as temperature or day length. Vegetative growth is usually
associated with low ratios of inhibitors to promoters and dormancy is usually associated with
high ratios of inhibitors to promoters.
Dormancy is a condition characterized by temporary growth cessation and suppressed
metabolism. During the winter trees appear not to be growing, but the tissues are alive, there is
metabolic activity, and cells are slowly expanding and differentiating. By early October all the
flower parts (petals, stigmas, anthers, etc.) can be seen in a flower bud and vegetative buds
contain leaves. During the winter these various tissues continue to enlarge and differentiate.
Given favorable growth conditions, some buds will develop into shoots or flowers, but others
may remain dormant. By understanding the factors influencing bud dormancy we often can
influence certain aspects of tree growth. Buds of deciduous trees go through several stages of
dormancy. Results from dormancy research are confusing because plant physiologists have used
different terminology to describe the stages of dormancy. Plant physiologists currently describe
dormancy in four stages.
Para-dormancy occurs in the mid to late summer when buds do not grow because
inhibitors produced in the leaves and terminal buds inhibit bud growth. Para-dormancy can often
be overcome by removing leaves (leaf stripping) along a section of a shoot so the axillary buds
develop into shoots. Nurserymen often use this technique to produce trees with lateral branches
(feathered trees). Using heading cuts to remove the terminal portion of a shoot will allow several
axillary buds just below the cut to develop into shoots. Sometimes an application of growth
promoters (gibberellins and/or cytokinins) will induce bud growth.
Sometimes axillary buds do not become dormant and develop into shoots within a few
days of being formed. Such shoots are referred to as sylleptic shoots and are fairly common on
vigorously growing peach trees, but are rarely produced on apple trees (Figure 6).
Figure 6. Sylleptic-shoot growth on peaches during the growing season (left) and during the
winter (right). Arrows indicate sylleptic shoots.
http://pubs.ext.vt.edu/422/422-025/L_IMG_figure6a.jpg
Ectodormancy occurs in the early fall, before defoliation, when plants do not grow
because the environmental conditions are not conducive for growth. Growth will resume if the
plants are exposed to suitable temperatures and day lengths.
Endodormancy occurs during the winter because there are high levels of inhibitors
(abscisic acid) within the buds. During this phase of dormancy the trees will not grow even under
ideal growing conditions. The concentration of inhibitors declines as buds are exposed to chilling
temperatures. Temperatures near 45°F are ideal for chilling, but temperatures between 35° and
55° F will provide some chilling. The chilling requirement to satisfy dormancy for most varieties
of apples and peaches grown in Virginia is about 1,000 and 800 hours, respectively. When the
chilling requirement is satisfied, the level of inhibitors within the bud is low enough that growth
may commence when environmental conditions are appropriate for growth. Avoid planting
varieties with chilling requirements less than 800 hours because such varieties usually bloom
early and are susceptible to frost.
Eco-dormancy occurs in the late winter, usually by mid January, after the chilling
requirement has been satisfied. At this time the trees do not grow because conditions are
unsuitable for growth. Growth will commence when trees are exposed to warm temperatures.
Apical dominance is a type of para-dormancy, where axillary bud growth is inhibited in

the apical meristematic zone. Axillary buds on fruit trees typically remain dormant for a
prolonged period while the main shoot continues to grow. Apical dominance has been studied for
more than 80 years, and the exact mechanism is not yet fully understood, but it seems to be
controlled by the relative concentrations of inhibitors and promoters. Growth of axillary buds is
inhibited by high concentrations of auxin produced by the terminal bud. Auxin moves down the
shoot, from cell to cell by gravity, so concentrations are highest near the shoot tip. Promoters are
produced in the roots and are transported upward in the tree. Growth of axillary buds may occur
at the base of shoots where concentrations of inhibitors are relatively low and concentrations of
promoters are relatively high.
You can overcome apical dominance by removing the shoot tip, which is the source of
auxin (Figure 7). The three or four buds immediately below a heading cut usually develop into
shoots. Pinching annual plants to induce branching is a form of heading. Another way to
overcome apical dominance is to notch buds. Notching involves cutting through the bark to hard
wood, with a knife or hacksaw blade at about bloom time, just above a bud. The cut interrupts
the downward flow of inhibitors, but not the upward flow of promoters, and releases the bud
from dormancy. On vigorous upright one-year-old shoots, notching often successfully overcomes
dormancy in about 70 percent of the buds. Sometimes apical dominance can be overcome by
spraying shoots with promoters (gibberellins and/or cytokinins) just before bloom time.
Figure 7. One way to overcome apical dominance and inducing branching where we want
branching is to head the shoot (A). If the shoot is not headed, the top several buds will develop
into shoots (B). If the shoot is headed, several buds below the heading cut will develop into
shoots (C).
Shoot bending
Shoots bend in response to an auxin gradient within the shoot. Everyone who has grown
plants in the house has noticed that plants tend to grow towards the light. This phenomenon is
known as photomorphism and is caused by varying concentrations of auxin in different sides of a
stem or shoot. Auxin causes cells to elongate, but auxin is destroyed by light. Therefore, there is
a higher concentration of auxin on the dark side of a shoot and the cells on the dark side elongate
more than cells on the sunny side of the shoot, causing the shoot to bend towards the light
(Figure 8).
Figure 8. Photomorphism is the bending of a shoot towards the light.
The auxin concentration is highest on the dark side of the stem and causes cells on that
side to elongate, resulting in stem curvature.
Tree fruit producers have noticed a similar phenomenon where the tips of growing
branches tend to bend upward, even when the branch was physically oriented to the horizontal.
This condition, known as gravimorphism, is also caused by an auxin gradient within the branch
in response to gravity. Auxin flows by gravity to the lower side of a limb. The subsequent
accumulation of auxin is responsible for increased cell elongation on the underside of the limb,
and the growing tip bends upward.
Another consequence of gravimorphism is the development of watersprouts from the

upper surface of horizontally oriented limbs. Watersprouts are vertically growing shoots that
develop from the upper surfaces of branches or near pruning cuts. High auxin concentrations on
the underside of the limb inhibits growth of buds on the underside of the limb, but the
concentration of auxin on the upper side of the limb is inadequate to inhibit bud growth and
many of these buds develop into watersprouts. Watersprouts are usually undesirable and their
development can be suppressed by orienting limbs no more than 45 degrees from the vertical.
Fruit trees are sometimes trained as espalier (tree fence). There are several ways to espalier trees,
but one method involves orienting limbs to a horizontal position. This system induces many
watersprouts along the length of the branches. Watersprout development can be greatly
suppressed by orienting limbs 45 to 60 degrees above horizontal (Figure 9).
Figure 9. Auxin distribution within a stem is controlled by gravity. When limbs are oriented from
vertical to about 60 degrees from vertical, auxin is distributed fairly evenly around the limb and
buds develop into shoots fairly symmetrically around the limb (A and B).
Auxin accumulates on the underside of flat limbs (C and D) and inhibits growth of buds
on the underside. Auxin concentration is low on the upper side and buds are not inhibited and
develop into strong watersprouts.
Reducing tree height by cutting into large diameter branches or trunks often results in the
development of vigorous watersprouts around the cut. There are buds buried in the bark that
normally remain dormant. However, a severe pruning cut will release these buds from dormancy.
Additional Pruning Facts
Pruning is a dwarfing process pruning increases vegetative growth near the pruning cut
and this gives the illusion that pruning stimulates growth. However, the weight of a tree that was
pruned annually is always less than the weight of a nonpruned tree.
Pruning reduces yield
Pruning removes wood with flower buds, and thus potential fruit. Yield from pruned trees
is nearly always less than yield from nonpruned trees, but fruit quality is improved by pruning.
Pruning improves fruit size by increasing the amount of leaf area per fruit. Pruning improves
light distribution throughout the tree, which is important for the development of fruit red color
and sugar levels.
Pruning delays fruiting
Pruning encourages vegetative growth rather than reproductive growth in young trees. A
nonpruned tree will always flower and produce fruit earlier in the life of the tree than a pruned
tree. The reason young trees are pruned is to induce branches to develop where they are wanted
and to develop a strong tree structure that will support large crops as the tree matures. As a tree
matures the physiology changes from vegetative growth to reproductive growth. To obtain high
annual yields of mature trees, it is important to minimize fruiting until trees have nearly filled
their space. Pruning is one technique used to delay fruiting of young trees.
Summer pruning
Summer pruning involves the selective removal of leafy shoots during the growing
season. Responses to summer pruning vary with time of pruning, severity of pruning, tree vigor,
geographical location, and variety. Several researchers evaluated summer pruning during the
1980s and several general statements can be made about the practice.
Summer pruning reduces within-tree shade and usually improves fruit red color
development and sometimes improves flower bud development. Summer pruning removes
leaves that produce photosynthates (sugars) for growth of all tree parts. Summer pruning
sometimes reduces fruit size and sugar levels.
Due to reduced whole-tree photosynthesis, summer pruning suppresses late-season trunk

enlargement and root growth.
Summer pruning does not suppress shoot elongation the following season. Summer
pruning reduces late-season photosynthesis, and theoretically should reduce the accumulation of
reserve carbohydrates within the tree that are used for early season growth. However, results
from most pruning experiments indicate that the response to a certain type of pruning cut will be
the same regardless of the time of year the cut was made.
Summary
Pruning is an important orchard practice because pruning can influence fruit quality and
the balance between vegetative growth and fruiting. Successful pruners observe how plants
respond to various types of plant manipulation, including pruning. Profitable fruit production
requires an understanding of plant physiology, and how pruning alters the physiology of the
plant. For further information concerning how to prune fruit trees, see the Extension publications
that provide information on how to prune and train apple and peach trees.
Canopy Regulation in Fruit Crops
Canopy management
Canopy in a fruit tree refers to its physical composition comprising of stem, branches,
shoots and leaves. The canopy density is determined by the number and size of the leaves,
architecture of stem, branches and shoots. Canopy management of the fruit tree deals with the
development and maintenance of their structure in relation to the size and shape for the
maximum productivity and quality. The basic concept in canopy management of a perennial tree
is to make the best use of the land, the climatic factors for an increased productivity in a three
dimensional approach. Tree vigour, light, temperature and humidity play a vital role in the
production and quality of the fruits.
The major objective is to achieve maximum productivity in a shortest period with out
adversely affecting tree health and bearing of the orchard. The natural tree canopy of the fruit
tree varies greatly from species to species and cultivar to cultivar. The size, shape and volume of
canopy are affected by climate, planting density, rootstock, method of propagation, training,
pruning, regularity of bearing, soil type, nutrition, irrigation, intercrop, growth regulators used,
diseases, pests, environmental pollution etc.,
The crux of the canopy management lies in the fact, as to how best we manipulate the
tree vigour and use the available sunlight and temperature to increase the productivity and
quantity and minimize the adverse effects of weather parameters. Some of the basic principles in
canopy management are as follows.
1) Maximum utilization of the light

2) Avoidance of the build up of micro-climate congenial for the diseases and pests
3) Convenience in varying out the cultural operations, maximizing the productivity and
quality
4) Economy in obtaining the required canopy architecture.
Light is an important factor in production of fruit. It has a role in flower induction as well
as in fruit development through carbohydrate synthesis. While increased assimilates in the shoots
is a pre-requisite for flowering in mango and other fruits generally, high yield of quality fruits
are attributed to high light interception and distribution in the tree canopy. The fruit yield is
related to light interception, whereas fruit quality is a function of light distribution. Light
interception is influenced by plant density, canopy shape, canopy leaf area index and can be
raised by increasing the density of foliage in the canopy, the height of the tree and number of
tress per hectare. Light intensity decreases, within the tree canopy as the outer portion shades the
inner canopy. Light exposure influences flower bud differentiation, fruit set, fruit colour and
quality. In the canopy management, major emphasis is usually required to reduce the excessive
canopy shading and increase the air circulation in the fruiting region.
The practices used to accomplish these objectives are:

a) Control of tree vigour
b) Reduction of canopy shading
c) Training and pruning system to increase light interception and distribution.
Light was found to perform a triggering action in the process of fruit bud differentiation
in grapes. Failure of the flowering in mango trees with dense canopies (Buronkar and Gunjate,
1991) and opening of the canopies through pruning (Madhavarao and Shanmugavelu, 1976),
(Rameswar, 1989) support indirectly the role of light in fruits bud formation in mango. However,
the light dependence for the flower bud formation is not the same in different varieties. While,
White Riesling variety of the grape requires less light intensity, Thompson Seedless requires less
light for the fruit bud formation. Hogher light intensities of more than 3,600 ft candles and
temperature above 35 oC are favourable for the bud fruitfulness in Thompson Seedless grape.
The light utilized by the plants for the photosynthesis corresponds to 400 to 700 mm of
the electro-magnetic radiation from the sun. Kriedmann and Smart 1971 reported that the
photosynthesis in grapes rapidly increases upto the light intensity of 5,000 ft (200 watts/m ).2The
light compensation point, at which the rate of photosynthesis, is just the equal to the rate of
respiration in Thompson Seedless grape is 125 ft candles (5 watts/m ). L2 eaves at the light
regimes of lower than the compensation point are the liabilities to the plant. A leaf absorbs more
than 90 per cent of the solar radiation depending upon its thickness. Even if the full sunlight in a
given locality is 12,000 ft candles, the third layer of leaves in a tree canopy would receive the
light at a lesser intensity than the compensation point. Therefore, the tree canopy architecture has
to be so managed that every leaf gets light at the intensities, which are more than the
compensation point.
Close planting of the trees and the development of dense canopies may alter the micro-
climate around the tree canopy. Temperature and light regimes decrease, while humidity
increases. The incidence of powdery mildew will be more under the low temperature and in
shaded conditions. Bortrytis rot of the bunches was observed to be less in the vines with exposed
canopy. Low temperature and the high humidity caused by dense canopies in grape was found to
favour the incidence and spread of the downy mildew. The efficacy of plant protection measures
will be reduced, when the canopy is dense and the trees are tall. Canopy size and shape should be
such, so that the cultural operations could be carried out in an orchard with ease and
mechanization of some operations is possible. They primary aim of the canopy management is to
increase the productivity per unit area, quality of the fruit and to reduce the cost of production.
The canopy architecture should be easy and less expensive.
Ideal canopy architecture
Ideal canopy architecture shoud fulfill as many as possible principles involved in canopy
management. i.e., the canopy size should be dwarf, spreading and open in mango and guava. In
order to obtain more yields per unit area of the land, it is desirable to have the required surface
area per canopy volume by increasing the canopy height. But due to inconvenience in carrying
out the cultural operations including harvest, the canopy height should be at manageable level.
Based on the correlation of tree morphological characters with the fruit yield and
quantity, dwarf and spreading trees with larger trunks are the ideotypes in guava (Shikhamany et
al., 1977). The standards for an ideal canopy for grapes cv. Thompson Seedless are as follows
(Shikhamany, 1983):
Stem height - 135cm Cane number - 5 per m 2

Diameter - 7.5 Cane thickness-8 to 10 mm
Cordon length - 90cm Leaf number per bearing shoot - 12 to 15
Shoot orientation during the growth season- Shooting orientation during the fruiting
35 to 45 with the ground surfaces season- 35-40oC with the ground surface
upto a length of 90cm and parallel to the
ground surface beyoung 90 cm
Tools for the canopy management
Canopy architecture is a natural expression of the genetic make up of a tree. Genotypes

vary in the canopy size and shape. However, the size and shape of the canopy may also be
manipulated through various means. Some details of a few of them are given here under.
Training
Training of the perennial trees to the open vase centre is an age old practice to harvest the
advantage of the light and ventilation. Basically, the training is a potential tool to manage the
canopy architecture of a plant with weak stem like grape vine. Bower system of the training has
been found to be the best in tropics throughout the world. Although, it is an expensive training
system associated with the reduced light and temperature in vine canopy, increased humidity and
disease incidence, it is inevitable for exploiting fully the productive potential of the grape cine in
tropics, where the phenomenon of the apical dominance is more pronounced. It is possible to
develop as many as 10 shoots/m b2 y subdividing the apices growing in horizontal plain. Vertical
canopies, which envisage the best utilization of the light and the minimization of building up of a
high humidity in vine canopy, do not have provision to increase the number of fruiting units per
unit area. The best way to manage the canopy in grape vines is to develop diageotropic canopies
and increase the fruitfulness of the buds and consequently the cluster:cane ratio.
Pruning
Pruning is a tool to regulate the tree size and shape to achieve a desired architecture of
the canopy and also to reduce the foliage density by removing the unproductive branches of a
tree. Shanmugavelu and Selvarajan, 1985 observed an increased fruiting in Himayunddin,
Rumani and Kalepad varieties of mango. Pruning in mango was favourable for flowering by
redistribution of endogenous harmones (Madhavarao and Shanmugavelu, 1975) and increasing
the total phenolic contents in shoots (Chacko, 1968). The incidence of mango malformation was
also reduced by reducing the foliage density by pruning. In mango annual topping or hedging or
the combination of both, effectively controlled tree size but reduced the yields. On contrasts,
topping plus biannual hedging although controlling vegetative growth to a lesser degree than
annual pruning, produced yield similar to those of control trees. Topping at 15 oro30 prooduced
better results than topping at 0 (oTable 1). Hedging one side per year or all four sides every two
years resulted in higher yields than hedging two sides per year (Table 2) (Victor and Nunez,
1997).
Table 1. Effect of topping angle on growth and yield of mature "Tommy Atkins" mango
trees
Growth
Topping Canopy Yield (kg/tree)

Height (m) Cumulative
Angle Vol(m3)
1994 1995 1994 1995 1993 1994 1995
0o 6.22 b 6.30 b 147 c 122 b 139 b 240 ab 233 b 612
15o 6.83 b 7.10 b 299 b 158 b 187 b 283 a 248 b 718
30o 6.78 b 6.70 b 210 b 136 b 141 b 250 ab 242 b 633
Control 7.80 a 8.40 a 355 a 317 a 214 a 224 a 347 b 785
Means separation within columns by Tukey's multiple range test, 5% level.
Table 2. Hedging intensity effect on growth and yield of mature "Tommy Atkins" mango
trees
Growth
Topping Canopy Yield (kg/tree)

Height (m) Cumulative
Angle Vol(m3)
1994 1995 1994 1995 1993 1994 1995

One side
6.57 b 5.9 b 109 c 104 b 69 b 172 217 b 458
(AN)
Two side
6.43 b 6.10 b 103 c 113 b 128 b 140 265 b 533
(AN)
Four sides
6.57 b 6.10 b 215 b 136 b 85 b 235 245 b 565
(AN)
Control 7.80 a 8.4 a 355 a 317 a 213 a 224 347 a 784
(X): An = Annual;
Means separation within columns by Tukey's multiple range test, 5% level.
In Africa for mango size maintenance, pruning is performed shortly after harvest. The
aim is to remove the growth which occurred after the previous harvest by heading all of the
braches back. Size maintenance pruning is performed by hand or by mechanically hedging and
may only be required every second or third year in cultivars or situations where yearly canopy
expansion is not substantial.
Yield in citrus could also be increased by removing the upright branches and encouraging
the horizontal ones by pruning (Goswami et al., 1993). While, pruning of one-year-old shoots to
their half length has been recommended to increase the yields in mandarin, skirt pruning at a
length of 1 m could also increase the yield in Washington Navel sweet orange. Pruning and
shoot topping are the regular practices to shape the canopy and to promote fruiting and ripening
in grape.
Lecture No.13
Source and Sink Relationship

Plant needs an effective transport system for translocation of their
photoassimilates from the area of synthesis (source) to area of utilization (sink). Every
plants needs an effective transport system for the translocation of their
photoassimilates from the areas of synthesis(source) to areas of utilization(sink). For
instance during germination, stored assimilates in the seed is mobilized and moved
to active meristems for leaf, stem and root development and soon the seedlings
become autotrophic. Assimilates produced by green tissue is translocated throughout
the plant for growth, development, storage and maintenance. The division of
assimilates among these process termed partitioning determines the crop
production. The partitioning of assimilates and inorganic nutrients can affect both
the efficiency of phloem transport, dry matter production and the partition of
matter in the harvest.
In plant growth & development, materials are moved from source to sink,
primarily through xylem & phloem.
 Assimilates produced by green tissues is translocated throughout plant for growth,

development, storage and cell maintenance .The division of assimilates among
these process is termed as partitioning
 It determine the dry matter production and productivity of crop
How do you increase source and sink activity
Source is increased by
 Recommended dose of fertilizer
 Application of growth regulating substance
 Proper irrigation
 Removal of diseased leaves
 Proper plant protective measures

Sink activity is increased by
 Pruning
 Thinning
 Clipping
 Removal of excess vegetative growth
 Dwarfing in the case of fruit crops (Applying growth retardants)
 Girdling
 Notching
 Bending
 Application of growth regulating chemicals (booster) at the time flowering, fruit

settings, maturation and ripening.
 Application of micro nutrients at the time flowering, fruit settings
Phloem transport
 In plant growth & development materials are moved from source to sink through
xylem (acropetal) and phloem (basipetal & acropetal)
 Lateral movement in both xylem &phloem takes place through plasmodesmata
 Phloem –sucrose, amino acids, low quantities of growth regulators nucleotides

inorganic & systemic pesticides
The carbohydrates especially sucrose, nitrogenous substances & low quantities of

growth regulators , nucleotides, inorganic substances & systemic pesticides move
through phloem. But substances like reducing sugars, contact herbicides, proteins,
polysaccharides, Ca, iron ,& most micro nutrients do not move in phloem. The
mechanism of translocation follows munch‟s mass flow theory.
Translocation rates
 The rate of movement of compound is controlled by the rate of acceptance by sink

 The rate of movement of substance is measured by labeled isotopes 14
C, 32P, 40K,
55
Fe, 45Ca.
 Phloem size seems to develop according to the size of the source or sink it serves.
Size and volume of phloem limits the flow from source to sink
 Larger the leaf area larger is the cross-sectional phloem area.
 Translocation rate differs among the species of crop plant in C &

3 C pl4ants
 Leaves of C4plants have higher CER than C p3lants
 The improved export of assimilates in C 4plant may be due to Krantz anatomy
 Bio molecules in the signaling pathways have greater role in the source sink
relations.
However there is evidence to indicate that improved export might be related more
to higher CO 2 exchange rates than to leaf anatomy.
Phloem loading & unloading can be rate limiting & can affect translocation.
Assimilate partitioning
 Partitioning of assimilate is generally to the sink closest to the source
 Eg: upper leaves export principally to shoot apex. Lower leaves to roots & middle
leaves to both
Source & Sink relationship
 The photosynthetic source cells produce the sugars, which can move
symplastically to sieve tubes.
 Phloem loading increase sugar concentration to sieve tubes above apoplast
 Sink carbohydrates are utilized
 The build up of sugars in source &removal in sink establish a hydrostatic pressure

which moves water &sugars
 Increase of photosynthetic rate-increase in Hydrostatic pressure & Translocation

rate
 Sink have the ability to utilize more assimilate.
 If unable to increase in production of assimilate – accumulate and reduce

photosynthesis
Hormonal action
 The effect of hormones on sink cell have an effect on partitioning
 IAA, Cytokinin, Ethylene, GA
 They influence –initiation, development, abortion of flowers and seeds.
 Significant effects on source sink relationship in crops.
Assimilate partitioning during vegetative phase
 Leaves, green tissues- original sources
 Some remains in green tissues-cell maintenance
 If slow –converted to starch or some storage materials
 Rest transported to vegetative sinks –roots stem leaves.
The proportion of assimilates partitioned to these 3 organs can influence plant growth &
productivity depends upon the nature of crop either root, stem or leaf forms the main
economic portion of the crop.
 Young leaves –matured leaves
 Self sufficient export 60-80% -to other parts &to older leaves
During reproductive phase
 Reproductive growth primary part of plant
 Fruits, seeds, flowers, tubers resultant products of larger partitioning of assimilate

from vegetative (source) to sink
 In determinant species leaf &stem growth cease at flowering
 Indeterminate species – both vegetative reproductive occur simultaneously
 If much vegetative growth during reproductive phase, yield reduces

 As size of source increase photosynthesis increases
Harvest index
 Two useful terms used to describe partitioning of dry matter by the plant are
 Economic yield is used to refer to the volume or weight of those plant organs that
constitute the product of economic value.
 Biological yield proposed by Niche poroviah in 1960 to represent the total dry
matter accumulation of a plant‟s system.
 The proportion of biological yield represented by economic yield – harvest index
HI = EY/BY*100
Crop yield can be increased either by increasing the total dry matter produced or by
increasing the proportion of economic yield or both. More partitioning leads to increase
of HI, increase of crop yield.
Yield component
 Grain yield –product of a no of sub fractions called yield component.
Y=Nr Ng Wg
 Nr-No of reproductive units
 Ng-No of grains/ reproductive units
 Wg-Avg,wt./grain
 Yield components are affected by management, genotype & environment.
Remobilization
 The movement of compounds from an area where they were once deposited to an
area where they can be reutilized – Remobilization
 It occurs in organic & inorganic components
 During leaf senescence carbohydrate, nitrogenous compounds, metabolic

nutrients are remobilized.
Grain filling
For the development of grain photosynthate come from 3 sources:
 Current leaf photosynthesis
 From non-leaf parts
 Remobilization deposited in other plant organ.
 During drought grain yield reduces.
Questions
1. Define source with examples.
2. How will you improve sink capacity?
3. How assimilates are portioned during reproductive phase?
4. What is harvest index?
5. Mention the role of hormones in improving sink size.
Lecture No.14
Regulation of fruit set and development
It is well documented that flower and fruit set have a major impact on fruit quality and
regularity of bearing of fruit trees and that flower and fruit thinning help to avoid alternate
bearing and improve fruit quality. Efficient, chemical-free flower and fruit thinning methods
would help to further reduce chemical inputs in integrated fruit production and to reduce
production costs and alternate bearing in fruit orchards
Apple
Fankhauser and Schumacher (1984), Studies on the influence of growth regulators on fruit
development, brought out important findings:
 Experiments have shown that spraying with Amid affects trees even with light bloom and
therefore such trees should not be thinned.
 Treatment with Alar and PP333 in spring reduces the size of fruit. With the variety
'Gravenstein' we have observed that PP333 has the effect of significantly diminishing the
fruit size, but it enhances bitter pit.
 Fruit treated with Alar had the better skin color at harvest time than those treated with
PP333, which showed a high percentage of green fruit.
 PP333 produced stronger inhibition of shoot growth than Alar. However this regulator
seems to be very persistent in the soil
 Reduced fruit drop in June on AVG treated 'Jonathan' trees.

 The fruit load was much higher but the fruit size was strongly reduced.
 The positive effect was the reduction of internal breakdown.
Costa, G., Baraldi, R. and Bagni, N. 1984. INFLUENCE OF PUTRESCINE ON FRUIT-SET

OF APPLE (CV "RUBY SPUR"). Acta Hort. (ISHS) 149:189-196
 Putrescine was sprayed on "Ruby spur/MM 106" apple trees, at different times of
application in order to increase fruit set.
 The putrescine concentration of 10 M-3 applied at 20–30% open flowers or of 10 M at -2
full bloom induced the best fruit set.
 Also the fruit growth was generally increased by putrescine treatment. As far as the
uptake study is concerned the amount of polyamines (putrescine, spermidine, spermine)
found in samples of flowers and leaves sprayed in open field with 10 M-3 solution of each
polyamine reached a maximum value within 1 hour after treatment.
Bertschinger, L., Stadler, W., Stadler, P., Weibel, F. and Schumacher, R. 1998. NEW
METHODS OF ENVIRONMENTALLY SAFE REGULATION OF FLOWER AND FRUIT
SET AND OF ALTERNATE BEARING OF THE APPLE CROP. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 466:65-70
 Several approaches i) Various ways of hand flower thinning, ii) mechanical flower
thinning with a thinning machine, iii) shading trees from light admittance to enhance fruit
abscission, and iv) pruning at different dates to regulate flower induction and bud
differentiation.
 Hand thinning strategies were effective in regulating alternate bearing with cvs. Boskoop
and Elstar which tend to crop every second year and are difficult to regulate, but this
approach is labour intensive and cultivar particularities need to be respected.
 Some practical recommendations can be made regarding the use of a thinning machine.
 Shading of orchard apple trees at particular dates affected June drop significantely, but
further basic studies are required to value the potential of this approach for practical apple
growing.
Grochowska, M.J., Karaszewska, A., Jankowska, B. and Mika, A. 1984. THE PATTERN OF
HORMONES OF INTACT APPLE SHOOTS AND ITS CHANGES AFTER SPRAYING
WITH GROWTH REGULATORS. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 149:25-38
 Intact spurs and annual shoots of apple trees /McIntosh and Jonathan cvs/ and those
sprayed with growth regulators /McIntosh and Melba cvs/ were analyzed for endogenous
levels of auxin, gibberellin and cytokinin-like substances on six or four dates, beginning
from the fourth week after full bloom.
 Hormones extracted with ethanol from soft, growing parts of spurs and annual shoots
were purified, and partitioned by TLC then determined by specific bioassays.
 No significant differences were found in auxin levels between fruiting and non-fruiting
spurs.
 A high level of gibberellins occurred in the former while cytokinins prevailed in the
latter.
 Treatments of the trees with gibberellic acid brought about a decrease in cytokinin level
of the spurs.
 A mixture of succinic acid-2, 2-dimethylhydrazide /SADH/ and Ethrel /1000 and 500
mg/l/ caused an abrupt decrease in endogenous gibberellins and an increase in cytokinins,
whose level reached a maximum about a month later.
 In annual shoots an increase in cytokinins after treatments with growth retardants was
preceeded by their fall.
 A direct relationship was found between the ratio of endogenous cytokinins to

gibberellins and the ability of the shoots to produce flower buds.
Grapes
Ben-Arie, R., Sarig, P., Cohen-Ahdut, Y., Zutkhi, Y., Sonego, L., Kapulonov, T. and Lisker, N.
1998. CPPU AND GA3 EFFECTS ON PRE- AND POST-HARVEST QUALITY OF
SEEDLESS AND SEEDED GRAPES. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 463:349-358
 Berry size of seedless grapes is generally increased by application of GA 3 sprays at the

time of fruit set.
 For certain cultivars a number of applications is required to obtain a commercially

acceptable sized berry, and this may have deleterious effects on fruit bud initiation for the
following year.
 It has been found that a similar increase in berry size can be obtained by a single
application of CPPU to Perlette, Superior and Thompson Seedless cultivars As with GA , 3
fruit ripening and maturation were delayed following CPPU application, sometimes even
more severely than with GA 3.
 However, other aspects of development of the cluster were affected differently by each
growth regulator.
 Such aspects include the growth of the rachis and pedicels, berry shatter after harvest and
susceptibility of the berry to fungal attack and decay
 These differences may be attributed to the anatomical effects of the regulators, in that
CPPU increased the number and density of cells, whereas GA 3 enhanced cellular
expansion and decreased cell density
 Each growth regulator also increased the size of seeded berries of cultivar Zeiny and fruit
ripening and resistance to decay were similarly affected.
 When a combination of both compounds was applied, there were no additive effects on
berry size, berry firmness and fruit ripening, but the relative resistance to decay conferred
by CPPU, was eliminated by addition of GA .3
 Anatomical observations showed that the cell area and skin thickness of berries treated
with both regulators were the same as for berries treated with GAR alone.
Mango
Singh, Z. and Agrez, V. 2002. FRUIT SET, RETENTION AND YIELD OF MANGO IN
RELATION TO ETHYLENE. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 575:805-811
 The role of ethylene in fruit set and retention of 'Kensington Pride' mango was
investigated employing exogenous applications of ethylene and its biosynthesis and
action inhibitors including aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), and aminooxyacetic acid
(AOA) and cobalt sulphate (CoSO 4) and ethylene action silver thiosulphate (STS).
 A spray application of ethylene biosynthesis inhibitors was more effective at increasing

initial, final fruit set and fruit retention (120, 42 and 1.8 fruits/panicle), when compared
with the ethylene action inhibitor STS (104, 38.9 and 1.7 fruits/panicle) respectively,
when applied to fully-grown panicles before anthesis.
 Significant direct positive linear correlations were observed between both initial and final
fruit set and fruit retention, in all weeks after initial fruit. Exogenous application of ethrel
significantly reduced fruit set (up to 76%). Fruit yield was significantly improved with all
ethylene biosynthesis and action inhibitors.
 However, the results indicate that increasing initial or final fruit set has no effect on fruit
yield, although, there was a significant direct correlation between final fruit retention and
fruit yield.
 The increase in fruit yield with treatments of ethylene biosynthesis and action inhibitors
may be due to their effects on improving fruit retention.
 No deleterious effects on quality were observed with the single spray application of
ethylene biosynthesis and action inhibitors before anthesis.
 The promotion of fruit set with the inhibitors of endogenous ethylene biosynthesis and
it‟s action and reduction in fruit set with the exogenous application of ethrel showed that
endogenous ethylene plays an important role in the fruit set of mango.
 In conclusion, single exogenous spray applications of CoSO 4 (200mg/L) to fully-grown

panicles before anthesis, was most effective for improving fruit set, retention and yield.
Jutamanee, K., Eoomkham, S., Pichakum, A., Krisanapook, K. and Phavaphutanon, L. 2002.
EFFECTS OF CALCIUM, BORON AND SORBITOL ON POLLINATION AND FRUIT SET
IN MANGO CV. NAMDOKMAI. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 575:829-834
 The effects of calcium, boron and sorbitol on pollen germination in vitro, pollen tube
growth on stigma and fruit set in mango cv. Namdokmai were investigated.
 Both commercial and technical grades of calcium nitrate and boric acid were used in this
study, while only purified sorbitol was employed.
 All chemicals were sprayed onto 5-cm long mango inflorescences.

 When 50% of the flowers had bloomed, pollen was collected for in vitro observations
(Brewbaker and Kwack agar medium).
 Pollen tube growth on the stigma was examined by the aniline blue fluorescence method,
every 6-hours for 48 hours from 6 hours after hand pollination.
 Fruit set was examined every 3 days for 45 days after full bloom.
 The results showed that the applied chemicals had no effect on pollen germination or
pollen tube growth.
 The percentage of pollen germination in all treatments was 44.52% to 54.16%, and pollen
tubes took 24 to 30 hours to reach the stigma ends.
 Although, calcium, boron and sorbitol did not influence pollen germination and tube
growth, they did induce more fruit set in this mango cultivar.
 Therefore, it is anticipated that these chemicals may exert other effects on the fruitset.
Singh, Z. and Janes, J. 2000. REGULATION OF FRUIT SET AND RETENTION IN MANGO
WITH EXOGENOUS APPLICATION OF POLYAMINES AND THEIR BIOSYNTHESIS
INHIBITORS. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 509:675-680
 Aqueous solutions of spermine, spermidine and putrescine of different concentrations

(10-3, 10 , -14 0 -5 M) and spermine (10 , -130 , 10-4 -5
M) were sprayed onto fully grown
panicles prior to the anthesis in "Kensington Pride" and cvs Haden, Kent, Glenn and
Kensington Pride of mango (Mangifera indica L.) respectively to study the effects on
fruit set and retention.
 The effects of different concentrations (0, 1, 10, 100, 250 and 500 µM) of DFMO (DL-
-difluoro-methylornithine) or MGBG (methylglyoxal-bisguanyl hydrazone),

inhibitors of biosynthesis of polyamines on initial and final fruit set in "Kensington
Pride" mango were also studied.
 A single spray application of spermine onto the fully-grown panicles prior to the anthesis
resulted in higher mean fruit set in „Kensington Pride‟ as compared to putrescine, and
spermidine. Spermine (10 M-4) was most effective in increasing mean fruit set as
compared to control and all other treatments.
 The improvement in mean fruit set with the spermine treatments varied greatly among
different mango cultivars.
 The treatment of spermine (10 -4 M), when applied onto the fully-grown panicles prior to
-5
the anthesis increased fruit set in cvs Haden, Kent and Kensington Pride, where as (10
M) was the most effective in stimulating fruit set in Glenn.
 The increase in fruit retention with spermine was similar among all the cultivars.
 The treatments of inhibitors of biosynthesis of polyamines reduced the initial and final
fruit set in "Kensington Pride" mango, when applied onto the fully-grown panicles prior
to the anthesis.
 Spray application of spermine (10 -4 M) onto fully-grown panicles prior to anthesis was
most effective in increasing the final fruit retention in all the cultivars.

Pear
Herrero, M. 1984. EFFECT OF TIME OF GA 3 TREATMENT ON 'AGUA DE ARANJUEZ'

PEAR FRUIT SET. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 149:211-216
 GA3, at 10 ppm, was applied at three different stages of flower development.

 All treatments induced parthenocarpic set, although application at balloon and anthesis
resulted in a higher set than at petal fall.
 The latter treatment produced fruits similar to seeded fruits, while the two previous
applications gave elongated fruits.
 No differences in maturity could be observed between treatments or when comparing

with seeded fruits.
 Ovule development at different floral stages has been histologically investigated.

 GA3induced fruit set either with mature or immature embryo sacs.
 The differences in % set may be related to the stage of development of the nucellus.
Marcelle, R.D. 1984. EFFECTS OF GA 3, BA AND GROWTH RETARDANTS ON FRUIT
SET IN THE PEAR CULTIVAR 'DOYENNE DU COMICE'. Acta Hort. (ISHS) 149:225-229
 In the pear cultivar 'Doyenné du Comice', the problem of fruit setting after growth
regulator application has been re-examined. GA 3, BA and some growth retardants have
been used, alone or in combination.
 The experiments were done on shoots bearing a limited number of flower clusters and not
on whole trees.
 GA 3 alone or in a mixture with BA could largely increase the initial fruit set in this pear
cultivar.
 After June drop, however, no significant difference could be found between the
treatments.
 The number of well developed seeds decreased after GA 3 treatment; this effect seemed
to be reversed by BA in the 1983 experiment.
 In our experiments of two years, no significant effect of the growth retardants

chlormequat and mepiquat could be demonstrated.
 The same absence of effect was recorded in 1983 by using a seaweed extract containing
boron.
Plum
Webster, A.D. 1984. THE EFFECT OF PLANT GROWTH REGULATOR SPRAYS AND
SUMMER SHOOT TIPPING ON THE FRUIT SET AND YIELD OF YOUNG PLUM TREES.
Acta Hort. (ISHS) 149:203-210
 Sprays of GA 3 + 2,4,5-TP and/or summer shoot tipping increased the numbers of fruits
harvested from young Victoria plums but had no effect on fruit size.
 Similar treatments to Marjorie's Seedling increased fruit size but had no effect on fruit
numbers harvested.
 The spray treatments reduced floral-bud production on both cultivars. In the second year
of treatment summer tipping again increased the numbers of Victoria fruits harvested;
yields on the hormone-sprayed trees were reduced however.
 Sprays of paclobutrazol to young Grove's Late Victoria plums resulted in the abscission
of all fruitlets, and this effect was only partially alleviated by supplementary sprays of
GA3+ 2,4,5-TP.
Regulation of fruit drop, parthenocarpy and fruit development

FRUIT DROP
Causes
 The fruit lost are those they have not been completely pollinated.
 Competition between the fruits for food, water, and nutrients
Fruit drop and growth regulators
 The application of plant growth regulators can re-enforce hormone balance in the peel,
reducing or retarding this precocious fall and the losses at harvest (Primo et al., 1966).

 Monselise and Goren (1978) reported that the spraying of auxins prevented the dropping
of fruit by maintaining the cells at the zone of abscision, preventing the synthesis of
hydrolitic enzymes, such as cellulase, which decomposed the cell walls.
 Citing Riov (1974), the same authors reported that hormone balance acted on the
polygalacturonase activity, which, together with cellulase, was responsible for the
degradation of the two important components of cell walls, cellulose and pectin.
 The use of 2,4-D as a growth regulator to promote size and to control fruit and leaf drop
was reported by Hield et al. (1964)
 According to El-Otmani (1992), the combined application of GA an3d 2,4-D reduces the
precocious drop of fruit through the action of auxin and retards the softening and
senescence of the peel, by the longer harvest time, and more economical storing in areas
where stocking capacity is limited and cost is high.
 Prevention of pre-mature drop of fruits: 2,4,D,IAA,IBA, 2,4,5-T, are used to prevent pre-
harvest deep of sweet oranges( 100 to 500 ppm)
Control of premature fruit drop in Macadamia integrifolia: effects of naphthalene acetic
acid application, cincturing, and shoot-tip removal.
Williams, 2003
 The effects of NAA application, cincturing and shoot-tip removal on the incidence of
premature fruit
 A single, post-anthesis application of NAA (1 ppm) increased (P < 0.05) the final set of
macadamia fruit by 35%.
 Limb cincturing combined with shoot-tip removal increased (P < 0.05) initial fruit set and
possibly final set.
 Cincturing alone was less effective and shoot-tip removal had no effect alone.
Application of plant growth regulators at pre-harvest for fruit development of 'PÊRA'
oranges
 Almeida et al., 2004

-1 -1
 The treatments applied were: GA +32,4-D 12.5mg L of each; GA 3+2,4-D 25mg L ;
-1 -1 -1
GA3+ 2,4-D 37.5mg L ; GA + N 3 AA 12.5mg L ; GA + NA3A 25mg L ; GA + NAA3
37.5mg L -;1 NAA + 2,4-D 12.5mg L ; -N
1
AA + 2,4-D 25mg L ; N-1AA + 2,4-D 37.5mg L -
1
; and water (control).
 The treatments were applied 3 times, at intervals of 45 days. The variables evaluated
were: rate of natural fall (%), fruit length and diameter (mm), and fresh fruit weight (g).
 None of the treatments promoted alterations in the development of the fruits, but they did
reduce the natural fall rate, when compared to control, up to 78.05%, inhibiting the fruits'
abscision as much as 3 months.
Effect of cobalt and silver ions and naphthaleneacetic acid on fruit retention in mango
(Mangifera indica L.)
 Alam et al., 2004

 The chemicals were applied to immature fruits at pea size (5-6 mm) and again 2 weeks
later when the fruit lets had developed to marble size (10-15 mm).
 Three cultivars, Sindhri, Langra (3 seasons) and Dasehari (4 seasons), were tested and it
was observed that all concentrations of the chemicals significantly (P<0.05) increased
fruit retention.
 In Sindhri, cobalt nitrate, silver nitrate and NAA treatments increased yields by 106-
165%, 89-146% and 94-115%, respectively, and in Langra by 100-135%, 98-138% and
95-118%.
 Whole tree sprays of cv. Dasehari with Co(NO3)2 at 100 mg/L, AgNO3 at 100 mg/L, and
NAA at 20 mg/L yielded 129%, 66% and 54% more fruit than the control.
Hormonal control of fruit growth and fruit drop in mango cv dashehari
 The gibberellin content in seed increased rapidly during early seed growth and declined
as growth decreased.
 The seed was the major source of gibberellin in the fruit, the pericarp containing only
traces.
 Cytokinins were present both in pericarp and seed.

 During the single period of rapid growth in fruit and seed, cytokinin concentrations
increased rapidly at two periods.
 The first rapid increase in cytokinin concentrations preceds the period of rapid cell
division and cell enlargement and the second increase coincides with the period of rapid
cell enlargement only.
 The level of ABA-like inhibitor was high in the first 21 d preceding pollination which
corresponded with the period of slow growth in fruit and heavy fruit drop.
 During the rapid period of fruit growth, the level of inhibitors decreased and that of
promoters increased.
 However, in maturation and slow fruit growth period, the levels of both the growth
promoters and inhibitors were low.
 Thus all the growth promoters play their role in the growth of the fruit.
 Deficiency of auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins coupled with high level of inhibitors
appear to cause fruit drop in mango cv Dashehari.
Effect of aminoethoxyvinilglycine (AVG) on preharvest fruit drop and maturity of apples
 Apple trees cultivars Gala and Fuji were sprayed four weeks before commercial harvest
with aminoethoxyvinilglycine (AVG), at doses of 0, 125, or 250 mg L , -a1ndassessed for
preharvest fruit drop, fruit growth, and maturation on tree.
 In 'Gala', 64 days after AVG spraying, fruit drop for control treatment was 85%, and
AVG (at 125 and 250 mg L -)1reduced it to 10%.
 In 'Fuji', 64 days after AVG spraying, fruit drop for control was 6%, while treatments
with AVG (at 125 and 250 mg L -)1increased fruit drop to 10%.
 AVG was a powerful retardant of fruit maturation for 'Gala' but not for 'Fuji'.
 In 'Gala', the most affected attribute was the skin background color, followed, in
decreasing order, by soluble solids content, the starch index, skin red color, the flesh
firmness, and titratable acidity. In 'Gala', only flesh firmness retention was improved by
increasing AVG dose from 125 mg L -1 to 250 mg L-.1
-1
 The AVG at 250 mg L inhibited "Gala" late fruit growth but not 'Fuji'.
Conclusions
 AVG substantially suppressed preharvest fruit drop and delayed fruit

maturity on 'Gala' but not on 'Fuji';
 On 'Gala', the AVG dose of 125 mgL1- might be used commercially to delay fruit harvest
and increase yield by reducing premature fruit abscission and increasing fruit size of late
harvested fruit;
 Fruit treated with AVG had poor skin color (dark-green background and deficient red color
development) while still being able to mobilize starch, soften, and lose acidity on the tree.
Hormonal regulation of fruitlet abscission induced by carbohydrate shortage in citrus
 Sugar supply, hormonal responses and fruitlet abscission were manipulated through full,
partial or selective leaf removals at anthesis and thereafter.
 In developing fruitlets, defoliations reduced soluble sugars (up to 98%), but did not
induce nitrogen and water deficiencies.
 Defoliation-induced abscission was preceded by rises (up to 20-fold) in the levels of

abscisic acid (ABA) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) in fruitlets.
 Applications to defoliated plants showed that ABA increased ACC levels (2-fold) and
accelerated fruitlet abscission, whereas norflurazon and 2-aminoethoxyvinyl glycine
reduced ACC (up to 65%) and fruitlet abscission (up to 40%).
 Only the full defoliation treatment reduced endogenous gibberellin A 1 (4-fold), whereas
exogenous gibberellins had no effect on abscission.
 The data indicate that fruitlet abscission induced by carbon shortage in citrus is regulated
by ABA and ACC originating in the fruits, while gibberellins are apparently implicated in
the maintenance of growth.
 In this system, ABA may act as a sensor of the intensity of the nutrient shortage that
modulates the levels of ACC and ethylene, the activator of abscission.
 This proposal identifies ABA and ACC as components of the self-regulatory mechanism
that adjusts fruit load to carbon supply
Amla
 Advances in flower and fruit regulation

 Three staged of flower and fruit drops
 Ist – highest as 70% of flower drop off with in three weeks of flowering due to
degeneration of the egg apparatus and lack of pollination
 IInd – from June - Sep – due to lack of pollination and fertilization

 IIrd – drop consist of fruit of various stages beginning from third week of Aug until Oct –
due to embryological and physiological factors
PARTHENOCARPY
 In botany, the formation of fruits without seeds.

 This phenomenon, of no obvious benefit to the plant, occurs naturally in some plants,
such as bananas.
 It can also be induced in some fruit crops, either by breeding or by applying certain plant
hormones.
GA3
1
 Gibberellic acid application (10 µmol pistil ) caused development similar to that in
1
pollinated pistils, while benzyladenine (1 µmol pistil ) and naphthylacetic acid (10 µmol
1
pistil ) treatment produced shorter siliques. Naphthylacetic acid primarily modified
mesocarp cell expansion.
Auxins
 Parthenocarpy: IBA, NAA produces seed less/fruits - smaller sized fruits, but more in
number, hence yield not affected.
Strong synergistic effects of gibberellins with the synthetic cytokinin N-(2-chloro-4-

pyridyl)-N-phenylurea on parthenocarpic fruit set and some other fruit characteristics of
apple
 The induction of parthenocarpic fruit set was investigated using the apple cvs. Golden
Delicious and Jonagold.
 The gibberellins GA ,3GA , 4GA 5 and GA 7 and the synthetic phenylurea-type cytokinin
CPPU (N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea), were applied alone and in combination to
unpollinated flowers at the end of petal fall.
 Gibberellins induced only a marginal final set of parthenocarpic fruits.

 CPPU sprays were more effective, particularly in the first year.

 When applied in combination, CPPU and gibberellins had a positive synergistic effect on
parthenocarpic fruit set and fruit size, but a negative effect on flower induction the next
year.
 After CPPU + GA sprays, percent fruit set was similar, or greater, compared to natural
pollinated trees.
 The parthenocarpic fruits induced by CPPU + GA had an increased length to diameter

ratio.
 CPPU stimulated, and GA 4and GA r7educed, the russeting of the parthenocarpic fruits.
 The internal quality of the fruits was hardly affected, but Ca-deficiency symptoms
occurred more frequently in parthenocarpic fruits
Parthenocarpic fruit development in cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.) is induced by
3b-hydroxylated gibberellins
 The purpose of this study was to test the activity of gibberellins and auxins for induction
of parthenocarpic fruit development in cloudberry, Rubus chamaemorus L., a dioecious,
northern wild berry
 Plant hormones were applied directly to open flowers, either dissolved in ethanol or as an
aqueous spray.
 Of the tested gibberellins (GA , 1GA , G

3 A , d4imethyl-GA , G4A , GA
5 , GA9 19, GA 20 and
GA24) only GA 1, GA 3, GA a4 nd dimethyl-GA w4ere active and induced fruit development

comparable to development of pollinated fruits.
 Lack of activity of GA 20 and GA ,9the immediate precursors of GA 1 and GA ,4

respectively, suggests that 3b-hydroxylation of gibberellins can be inhibited in
unpollinated flowers of cloudberry.
 Auxin treatments induced an initial fruit development, but did not result in ripe berries.
 Based on these results, use of transgenic methods to regulate gibberellin or/and auxin
biosynthesis in carpels of cloudberry could be used to develop a parthenocarpic
cloudberry.
Fruit set and development of three pear species induced by gibberellins
 Parthenocarpy was readily induced in two cultivars of Japanese pear when GA + 4 7 (500
ppm) in combination with or without other plant growth substances were applied on the
emasculated and decapitated (stigma removed) flowers in full bloom and 3 weeks after.
 While GA3did not induce parthenocarpy in these cultivars.

 Gibberellin was not necessary for the second treatment (3 weeks after bloom), but could
be replaced with NAA and/or BA.
 The parthenocarpic fruit was small and generally elongated-obovoid, different from the
round seeded fruit.
 Parthenocarpic fruit set of European pear induced by GA , G3A+ 4 7 or GA 45 was 42, 45

and 46%, respectively.
FRUIT GROWTH
Using urea phosphate to enhance the effect of gibberellin A o3n grape size
 Gibberellic acid (GA )3is widely used to enlarge the berries of seedless grapes (Vitis
vinifera L). In cv. Sultana (Thompson Seedless) the addition of 1000 mg/L urea
phosphate (UP) to GA 3solutions after fruit set reduced the pH of the solutions to a stable
pH 2.9 and enhanced the effect of GA 3on berry size and delayed maturation.
 Addition of citrate buffer, pH 2.9, to GA s3prays did not affect berry size or maturation.
 The possibility of improved GA penetration due to the low pH is considered.
 The nutritional effect of UP and direct enhanced penetration by the urea ion are also
discussed.
Studies on apple fruit abscission and growth as affected by cytokinins
 Thinning trials were conducted for two years (1998-1999) on trees of Gala-derived
cultivars ('Mondial Gala' and 'Galaxy'), using NAA and CPPU.
 In both cultivars CPPU, alone or in combination with NAA, has proven rather successful,
always increasing fruit size.
 In both years and for both active ingredients the most effective concentration was 10
ppm, at various stages of fruit ontogeny.
 These applications resulted in reduced crop density (fruit number per trunk cross
sectional area, TCSA) and always increased fruit size compared to hand-thinned controls.
 CPPU was also tested as a promoter of fruit growth, applied after trees had been thinned
to optimum fruit load.
 Twenty ppm a.i., applied when the king fruit reached 20 mm diameter, increased fruit
size, improving yield per tree.
 Earlier modelling work on fruit growth has led to the hypothesis whether CPPU‟s mode
of action might be via a cell division stimulation, resulting in greater numbers of cells in
the cortical parenchyma of the treated fruits.
A Summary of growth regulator treatments used around the world.
Growth Effect Timing Concentration Extent of Effect

Regulator
s
One, (or for Proportional to crop size, variety
greater effect) and tree vigour.
Reduce flower Early June and at two sprays of
GA number to increase bud 25 ppm two 20% reduction in flowering in
break. Australian trials.
fruit size. weeks apart.
Ralex® at label
rates Registration of Ralex® due 2002,
restricted use trial permit currently
GA 70-90% petal fall uPsreodportional to crop size, variety
Improve fruit set. 10 to 25 ppm.
(October). and tree vigour.
50- Cost effective thinning agent.

Ethephon Thin crop load When fruitlets are 10 70ml/100Lat Good application techniques
to 15mm in diameter
about 3500L/ha required.
Thin crop load When fruitlets are 15 Proportional to crop size, variety
3,5,6-TPA especially smaller to 17 mm in 15ppm
fruitlets. diameter and tree vigour.
When fruitlets are 20

3,5,6-TPA Expand cell size to to 30 mm in 15ppm Proportional to crop size, variety
increase fruit size. diameter and tree vigour.
Proportional to crop size, variety

2,4,-D Expand cell size to When fruitlets are 5 to 57-110g/ha@ and tree vigour.
increase fruit size. 19 mm in diameter 5000L/ha.
Isopropyl ester formulation.
Mandarins: 15 to 20 and tree vigour.
Dichlorpro Expand cell size to mm in diameter 50 to 100 ppm.
p (2,4,DP) increase fruit size. Oranges: 22 to 25 mm A 4 to 5 mm increase in fruit
in diameter diameter for mandarins and a 5 to
10 mm increase for oranges.
When fruitlets are 15 Temperature dependant (rates vary
NAA Crop thinning to 20 mm in 200-350ppm
diameter to ambient temperatures)
Summary of Sprays Trialed in California (240 trees/ha)
Nutrient Rate Timing Effect

0.5%Nat31.4kgN/ha (1.1 Increase yield without
Urea (low biuret) kg/100L low biuret urea @ Winter- Pre bloom reducing fruit size. Also
application volume reported to increase TSS
6300L/ha) at harvest.
Nutri-phite® 0-28-26 Increase yield without

Phosphorus [phosphorus & reducing fruit size. Also
(Phosphite) Winter- Pre bloom
potassium mixture] at reported to increase TSS
7.3L/ha at harvest.
1.3%Nat31.4kgN/ha Increase yield by

Urea (low biuret) (2.8kg/100L low biuret urea Full bloom increasing fruit set.
@ application volume
2400L/ha) Fruit size is not
reduced.
1.5%Nrateat31.4kgN/ha Maximum Peel
Urea (low biuret) (3.3kg/100L low biuret urea Thickness / End of cell Increase fruit size
@ application volume division (Early/Mid
2100L/ha) Summer)*
Phosphorus Two applications of Nutri- Mid/late spring Increase fruit size and
(Phosphite) phite® at 4.6L/ha and early/mid increase TSS ratio at
summer* harvest.
Lecture No.15
Physiology of Fruit Ripening-climacteric and non-climacteric fruits-Hormonal

influence
After a period of growth, fruit undergoes some characteristic qualitative changes

leading to edible state. These changes are collectively referred to as fruit ripening. Some
important events in fruit ripening are as follows:
1. Changes with ripening.
2. The respiratory climacteric
3. Hormonal controls of ripening.
1. Changes with ripening
The general changes that occur during the process of ripening of fruits are,
a. Softening of fruit
b. Hydrolytic conversion of complex storage materials into simpler forms
c. Changes in pigments and flavours.
Softening is an important change with the ripening of fruits. The major role
played in this process is that of cell wall degrading enzymes, associated with hydrolysis
of cell contents. As such pectolytic enzyme activities induces solubilization of pectic
substances found in middle lamellae. The solubilization may occur through an increase in
methylation of the galacturonic acid or through reduction in the size of a chain of
polygalacturonoid or both.
Hydrolytic changes in the fruit during ripening usually lead to the formation of
sugars. Such changes show different rates in different fruits, e.g. banana ripens extremely
fast, apple shows gradual ripening and citrus fruits show very slow changes.
During ripening of fruits, some qualitative changes occur such as change in

pigmentation, production of flavour and depletion of astringent substances.
The changes in pigments in fruits are normally the loss of chlorophyll and the
development of carotenoids. There may be changes in colour due to moderate loss of
chlorophyll with little or no formation of carotenoids as in banana or due to complete
formation of carotenoids, as in oranges. The pigment changes occur mainly in the
chloroplasts with grana into chromoplasts with loosely dispersed thylakoid membranes.
Electron microscopic studies have revealed that new thylakoid membranes are
synthesized in the conversion. Chlorophyll is lost due to chlorophyllase activities. The
newly developed pigments may be carotenes as in papaya or anthocyanins as is
strawberry and these are synthesized in the presence of sunlight and with the involvement
of phytochrome.
Very little work has been done on development of flavour substances. In apples,
numerous volatile esters, aldehydes, ketones etc. have been identified. The loss of
astringent materials such as phenolics is commonly found in pomaceous fruits.
2. The respiratory climacteric
Kidd and West (1930) observed that in apple fruits, a major change occurs in
respiration rates during their ripening. They found lowering of respiration rate in
maturing fruits followed by large increase in respiration during ripening. And after
reaching a climacteric peak, the rate of respiration falls.
The period of occurrence of climacteric peak in fruits show variation in different

fruits, e.g. at the time of optimum eating quality as in pear, it slightly precedes this
optimum in banana and apple or just before the fruit is fully ripe as in tomatoes. Earlier it
was suggested that climacteric is associated with the hydrolysis of food reserves, but it
has not been found true in all cases, e.g. orange, lemon, grapes and fig in which case
climacteric rise in respiration is not found during fruit ripening. The process of fruit
ripening proceeds slowly in these crops. Hence, these fruits are termed as non climacteric
fruits.
As regards occurrence of climacteric, fruits may be divided into two types
1. Climacteric fruits
2. Non climacteric fruits
Climacteric Fruits Non-climacteric Fruits
Apple Chillies
Apricot Orange
Avocado Lemon
Banana Mandarins
Sapota Watermelon
Custard apple Grapes
Fig Pineapple
Mango Strawberry
Melon
Olive
Peach, Pear
Persimmon
Plum
Tomato
In non-climacteric fruits, the rate of respiration remains steady during their

ripening.
Climacteric rise has been found affected by low oxygen and increased
concentration of carbon dioxide. Both these factors prevent climacteric rise and thus
improve storage quality of fruits. Storage of fruits in polythene bags produces nearly the
same effect because plastic can lower oxygen and elevate carbon dioxide around fruits.
In climacteric fruits, the respiratory climacteric initiates after the fruit growth is
complete. Gane (1937) established that ethylene stimulates climacteric rise and that ripe
banana stimulates it in the same manner as ethylene.
Some further researches established that there is a marked rise in ethylene

formation in fruits either just at or just before the onset of climacteric rise. It has also
been found that the ability of ethylene to induce climacteric rise is found in climacteric
fruits.
3. Hormonal control of ripening
Ethylene has been established as a ripening hormone. Massive doses of ethylene

can bring about ripening changes in immature fruits. So, it is the hormone which plays
the most powerful regulatory role in ripening. It has been observed that a rise of ethylene
level occurs at the onset of the climacteric rise and can be assigned the role of the trigger
of ripening. They proposed that the onset of ripening is associated not only with a rise in
the ability to biosynthesize ethylene but also a marked increase in ethylene
responsiveness. It has also been found that ethylene can induce a respiratory climacteric
in some leaves and develop many of the pigments commonly developed in fruit ripening.
In general, ethylene may be bringing about the formation of new types of enzymes in
fruits.
However, ethylene is not a universal ripening hormone. Some climacteric fruits

like strawberry and citrus have no effect on their ripening by the ethylene treatment.
Leopold and Kriedemann (1975) concluded that ripening appears as an unveiling

enzyme system which brings about the alteration of the fruit, and respiratory energy must
be provided both for the synthesis of the new enzymes system and for their actions in
ripening. Hormonal regulation may be involved in the change from a mature fruit
resistant to a ripening to one which becomes receptive to ripening signals.
Symptoms of Fruit Ripening
1. Texture (Softening of fruit)

The changes in the texture of fruit result due to changes in the structure and
composition of their cell walls.
2. Colour
The factors responsible for changes in colour of fruit during ripening may be due
to changes in pigments localized in chloroplasts or those which are stored outside
chloroplasts in vacuoles.
(a) Colour changes due to conversion of chloroplasts into chromoplasts – The
carotenoids.
A major factor in the colour changes of fruit ripening is the transition from
chloroplasts which are rich in green pigment chlorophyll into chromoplasts which are
rich in red or yellow carotenoid pigments.
Carotenoids are important constituents of chloroplasts and are present in green
fruit tissues even before maturation. Maturation does not always involve accumulation of
carotenoid pigments. For instance, yellowing in many varieties of apples, pears, grapes,
olives and mature bananas results from pre-existing carotenoids which are unmasked due
to disappearance of chlorophyll.
A large number of other fruits such as citrus, tomato, capsicum etc.,
accumulate large amounts of carotenoids which are biosynthesized during later stages of
maturation. The complement of carotenoid pigments in these fruits, however, differs
greatly from one species to another. In tomatoes, the carotenoid pigments are dominated
by lycopene and _-carotene.
(b). Colour changes due to pigments stored outside chloroplasts (i.e., in
vacuole)-The anthocyanins.
Anthocyanins are water soluble phenolic pigments which accumulate in
vacuole and impart red, blue and purple colors to many fruits such as ripening fruits of
apple, grape, strawberry etc. Anthocyanins exist as complex conjugates of parent
aglycones called as anthocyanidins.
Lecture No.16
Physiology of seed development and maturation
The embryo, or embryonic plant, is the beginning of a new generation. A reserve

of stored food, either as cotyledons attached to the embryonic axis or as endosperm
tissue, functions as an initial source of nourishment for the embryonic plant until it attains
an independent autotrophic existence. The seed coat serves to protect the embryo against
adverse environmental conditions and, in some cases, is adapted as a means of seed
dispersal. The early developmental stages of the embryo sac are nourished by the cells of
the surrounding ovulary tissue. These cells are originally rich in starch, lipids, and
proteins, which are subsequently hydrolyzed to form soluble sugars, amino acids, organic
acids, and other metabolically active materials. The ovule is also connected to the main
transport system of the plant by a vascular strand through which water, ions, and the
other solutes are supplied to the developing seed.
The diploid nucleus of the zygote receives one chromosome complement from the
female parent (Egg) and one from the male parent (sperm). Thus the zygote contains all
the genetic information necessary for development of a mature plant. It is obvious,
however, that the cells in a seedling or mature plant are not alike and that these
differences arise very early in the life of the plant. The first division of the zygote forms
two cells, which are generally different in size. Further divisions of these cells lead to
embryonic development and the differentiation of tissues and organ systems
characteristic of the plant.
Endosperm development and composition
Endosperm tissue is composed of cells with three chromosome sets (3n), two
from the maternal and one from the paternal parent. This is the situation encountered in
many plants, but in the gymnosperms, such as pine and hemlock, the functional
equivalent of the angiosperm endosperm has a different chromosome complement and is
derived from the female gametophyte, which is composed of haploid (1n) cells.
Regardless of its origin and chromosome number, the endosperm serves a very special
function in nourishing the embryo during early seed formation and maturation and later
during seed germination before the embryo develops into an independent plant.
In angiosperms where the endosperm is commonly in the triploid (3n) condition,

the development of the endosperm generally precedes the development of the zygote.
That is, even though the fusion of the egg and sperm nuclei form the zygote (2n) and the
fusion of the sperm nucleus with the polar nuclei form the endosperm nucleus which may
occur simultaneously, the 3n endosperm nucleus usually divides to form numerous nuclei
before the zygote begins to divide. Frequently the endosperm develops in the free nuclear
condition without forming cell wall materials so that a liquid endosperm containing many
free nuclei results. Coconut milk is an example of such a liquid endosperms during the
early stages of seed development. Probably the endosperm of many other plants passes
through a similar free-cell liquid stage. During later stages of endosperm development,
cell walls form and a cellular, or solid, endosperm is produced. In many dicotyledonous
plants the endosperm is absorbed by the cotyledons of the developing embryo. The food
reserves of the cotyledons serves as a nutrient source during germination. In other plants,
particularly monocots (maize, wheat, etc), the solid endosperm persists and becomes a
part of the seed, where it functions to nourish the developing embryo during seed
germination.
Morphological and biochemical changes accompanying seed development
The morphological aspects of embryo development (embryogenesis) following

pollination, fertilization, and zygote formation have been described for many plant
species. Biochemical changes accompanying embryogenesis and seed development are
characterized by vigorous anabolic processes, resulting in the formation of new cells,
tissues and organs rich in proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates and fats. The early stages
of seed development, Phase I, Figure 16-2, involve pollination, fertilization, and zygote
formation, processes that contributes very little to dry weight formation but must involve
intense metabolic activity. Much more is known of the biochemistry of embryogenesis,
initiated by cell division of the zygote. The embryo increase in dry weight as new cells
are formed and cellular constituents synthesized. This is a period of intense metabolic
activity with a high demand for low molecular weight precursors, such as sucrose, amino
acids, fatty acids, nucleosides, organic acids, water, and inorganic ions. The bulk of these
materials are supplied by the parent plant through vascular connections, but some also
comes from the dissolution of cellular material in the ovule and embryo sac. Phase I
comes to an end when the embryonic plant is fully differentiated and cell division ceases.
Full-term embryos, excised and nourished by a suitable array of organic

molecules and inorganic ions, will continue to develop and form mature plants. The
young embryos generally require growth substances in addition to organic and inorganic
nutrients. The developing seed is in direct vascular contact with the parent plant. If
environmental factors, such as low or high temperature, reduced light, moisture stress, or
mineral deficiency, alter the metabolism of the parent plant, the pattern of development
during embryogenesis may be altered.
Precocious germination is prevented by the action of an inhibitor from ovule

tissue. The inhibitor, abscisic acid, may move into the ovule through vascular
connections from the parent plant or it may be synthesized in the ovule. Abscisic acid
prevents premature or precocious germination. Later in seed development, when vascular
connections between the ovules and parent plant are broken by desiccation, low seed
water content prevents premature germination.
Phase I comes to an end when the embryonic plant is fully formed and cell
division ceases. Seed dry weight continues to increase rapidly during Phase II, however,
because of the synthesis and deposition of seed storage materials-starch, protein, fats,
phytin, etc- in endosperm or cotyledonary tissues. In monocots such as maize and rice,
the endosperm cells lose their nuclear material and fill up with starch and phytin. A
specialized tissue, the aleurone layer, forms to the outside of the endosperm, next to the
developing seed coat. The aleurone layer may be several cells thick and is composed of
dense living cells filled with protein. In dicots, such as pea, the cotyledonary cells retain
their nuclear contents and become packed with starch, protein lipids, and phytin.
Phase II is the period of maximum seed dry weight increase. The storage
materials are synthesized from small precursor molecules from the parent plant. The
synthesis and deposition of storage molecules in developing seeds constitute a major sink
for carbohydrate and nitrogenous components made by the parent plant. Sucrose, the
major product of leaf photosynthesis, supplies carbon skeletons for starch and fats.
Moreover, sucrose is a source of carbon skeletons for nitrogenous constituents – amino
acids, amides, nucleotides. During seed filling, the demand for carbonaceous and
nitrogenous molecules is high and may not be met by current CO , NO , 2or N 3 2
assimilation. In such cases, reserve materials in the parent plant may be mobilized and
transported to developing seeds. To obtain maximum seed yields, especially in food
plants such as maize, peas, soybeans, and beans, it is essential that the leaves and other
assimilatory organs of the parent plant be kept active as long as possible. In soybeans, it
has been observed that leaf nitrogenous compounds have been hydrolyzed and
transported to developing seeds under conditions when the roots cannot supply enough
nitrogenous material to support seed filling. The loss of leaf nitrogen leads to premature
leaf senescence and the loss of photosynthetic surfaces for carbon assimilation.
Phase II comes to an end as the seed begins to lose water. The synthesis of storage
molecules involves the elimination of water molecules, but there appears to be an
accelerated process of water loss, possibly through an alternation of membrane structure.
Vascular connections between the developing seed and parent plant are broken so that no
water or solutes can move into the seed. Moisture content during seed filling may be in
the range of 50 to 60%, but after the desiccation process is under way, water content
drops to 10 to 15% at maturity. Water loss is not uniform in all parts of the seed. The
embryonic axis, composed of nonvacuolated parentchyma cells, contains relatively little
free water, but the structural components are hydrated. Cells in endosperm and
cotyledonary tissues, however, contain low amounts of water. Also, the tissues
surrounding the seed that develop into seed coats undergo desiccation and sclerification,
forming a hard protective structure.
During Phase III, the desiccation process continues, attaining moisture levels of
between 5 and 15% (total seed). With desiccation, the subcellular organelles in
cotyledonary cells seem to lose their structural integrity. In addition, organized
ribosome‟s (polysomes) essential for protein synthesis break up into single ribosome‟s.
The entire picture is one of very low metabolic activity, and if seed moisture remains
low, further development of the embryonic axis into a mature plant does not occur. The
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To obtain seeds of high vitality and vigor, it is important that seed moisture levels
be brought to at least 10 to 12% during maturation. In some instances, it is necessary to
dry seeds by artificial heat if they are harvested early. Several hybrid maize varieties, for
instance, have been developed for regions with short growing seasons. If the growing
season is terminated early by frost and cold weather, the normal seed desiccation process
may not bring the seed moisture levels sufficiently low for safe storage. The grain is
harvested and then put through a slow drying process to attain moisture levels of around
10% or lower. This process is costly and adds to the expense of producing the crop. If the
grain is not dried, it may spoil in storage by fermentive respiratory processes or by fungal
and bacterial growth. In the dry state seeds can withstand environmental conditions
generally unfavorable to growth: Low temperature, drought, excessive water, fire, and
toxic materials in the soil.
Commercial seed producers, especially flower seed growers, follow rather

stringent procedures of seed drying, storage, and packaging so as to provide the home
gardener with a quality product – seeds that will readily germinate to produce a vigorous
plant.
Questions
1. Explain the endosperm development process.
2. Name the plant hormone which prevents precocious germination of seeds
3. What is the role of aleurone layer in seed?
4. Enumerate the biochemical changes during seed development.
5. What are the compositions of endosperm?
Lecture No.17
Dormancy of Seeds and Buds and Germination
Dormancy of seeds
All the viable seeds have capacity to germinate if placed under suitable conditions
necessary for germination. But some seeds fail to germinate for sometimes even if
placed under the condition favourable for germination. This may be due to some internal
factors or due to specific requirement for some environmental factors. During this
period, the growth of the seeds remains suspended and they are said to be in rest stage or
dormant stage and this phenomenon is called as dormancy of seeds.
Factors causing dormancy of seeds
1. Seed coats impermeable to water
The seeds of certain plants especially those belonging to the families
leguminosae, solanceae, malvaceae, etc. have very hard seed coats which are
impermeable to water. The seeds remain dormant until the impermeable layer decay by
the action of soil micro-organisms.
2. Seeds coats impermeable to oxygen
In many plants such as cocklebur and many grasses, the seed dormancy is due to
the impermeability of the seed coat to oxygen. However, during the period of dormancy
the seed coat gradually becomes more permeable to oxygen so that they may germinate.
3. Immaturity of the Embryo
In certain orchids, the seed dormancy is due to the immaturity of the embryos
which fail to develop fully by the time the seeds are shed. In such cases, the seeds
germinate only after a period or rest during which the development of embryo inside the
seed is completed.
4. Germination Inhibitors
In certain seeds, the dormancy of the seeds is due to the presence of certain
germination inhibitors like coumarin, ferulic acid, abscisic acid, etc. These may be
present in endosperm, embryo, testa or juice or pulp of fruit.
5. Chilling or low temperature requirement
In certain plants such as apple, rose, peach etc, the seeds remain dormant after
harvest in the autumn, because they have a low temperature or chilling requirement for
germination. In nature this requirement is fulfilled by the winter temperatures. In such
case, the seeds remain dormant throughout the winter season and germinate only in the
following spring.
6. Light sensitive seeds
In many species, the germination of the seeds is affected by light resulting in seed
dormancy. Such light sensitive seeds are called photoblastic. Seeds of lettuce, tomato
and tobacco – are positively photoblastic and germinate only after they have been
exposed to light. On the other hand, the seeds of certain plants are negatively
photoblastic and their germination is inhibited by light.
Types of Dormancy
1. Exogenous dormancy
Exogenous dormancy is caused by conditions outside the embryo and is often
broken down into three subgroups:
Physical dormancy
Which occurs when seeds are impermeable to water or the exchange of gases.
Legumes are typical examples of physically dormant seeds; they have low moisture
content and are prevented from imbibing water by the seed coat. Chipping or cracking of
the seed coat or any other coverings allows water intake. Impermeability is often caused
by an outer cell layer which is composed of macrosclereid cells or the outer layer is
composed of a mucilaginous cell layer. The third cause of seed coat impermeability is a
hardened endocarp. Seed coats that are impermeable to water and gases form during the
last stages of seed development.
Mechanical dormancy
Mechanical dormancy occurs when seed coats or other coverings are too hard to
allow the embryo to expand during germination. In the past this mechanism of dormancy
was ascribed to a number of species that have been found to have endogenous factors for
their dormancy instead. These endogenous facts include physiologically dormancy cased
by low embryo growth potential.
Chemical dormancy
Includes growth regulators etc. that are present in the coverings around the
embryo. They may be leached out of the tissues by washing or soaking the seed, or
deactivated by other means. Other chemicals that prevent germination are washed out of
the seeds by rainwater or snow melt.
2. Endogenous dormancy
Endogenous dormancy is caused by conditions within the embryo itself, and it is
also often broken down into three subgroups: physiological dormancy, morphological
dormancy and combined dormancy, each of these groups may also have subgroups.
Physiological dormancy
Physiological dormancy prevents embryo growth and seed germination until
chemical changes occur. These chemicals include inhibitors that often retard embryo
growth to the point where it is not strong enough to break through the seed coat or other
tissues. Physiological dormancy is indicated when an increase in germination rate occurs
after an application of gibberellic acid (GA3) or after Dry after-ripening or dry storage. It
is also indicated when dormant seed embryos are excised and produce healthy seedlings:
or when up to 3 months of cold (0–10°C) or warm (=15°C) stratification increases
germination: or when dry after-ripening shortens the cold stratification period required. In
some seeds physiological dormancy is indicated when scarification increases germination
Physiological dormancy is broken when inhibiting chemicals are broken down or are no
longer produced by the seed; often by a period of cool moist conditions, normally below
(+4C) 39F, or in the case of many species in Ranunculaceae and a few others,(−5C) 24F.
Abscisic acid is usually the growth inhibitor in seeds and its production can be affected
by light. Some plants like Peony species have multiple types of physiological dormancy,
one affects radicle (root) growth while the other affects plumule (shoot) growth. Seeds
with physiological dormancy most often do not germinate even after the seed coat or
other structures that interfere with embryo growth are removed. Conditions that affect
physiological dormancy of seeds include:
 Drying; some plants including a number of grasses and those from seasonally arid
regions need a period of drying before they will germinate, the seeds are released
but need to have a lower moisture content before germination can begin. If the
seeds remain moist after dispersal, germination can be delayed for many months
or even years. Many herbaceous plants from temperate climate zones have
physiological dormancy that disappears with drying of the seeds. Other species
will germinate after dispersal only under very narrow temperature ranges, but as
.
the seeds dry they are able to germinate over a wider temperature range
 Photodormancy or light sensitivity affects germination of some seeds. These
photoblastic seeds need a period of darkness or light to germinate. In species with
thin seed coats, light may be able to penetrate into the dormant embryo. The
presence of light or the absence of light may trigger the germination process,
inhibiting germination in some seeds buried too deeply or in others not buried in
the soil.
 Thermodormancy is seed sensitivity to heat or cold. Some seeds including
cocklebur and amaranth germinate only at high temperatures (30C or 86F) many
plants that have seed that germinate in early to mid summer have
thermodormancy and germinate only when the soil temperature is warm. Other
seeds need cool soils to germinate, while others like celery are inhibited when soil
temperatures are too warm. Often thermodormancy requirements disappear as the
seed ages or dries.
Seeds are classified as having deep physiological dormancy under these conditions:
applications of GA3 does not increase germination; or when excised embryos produce
abnormal seedlings; or when seeds require more than 3 months of cold stratification to
germinate.
Morphological dormancy
Embryo underdeveloped or undifferentiated. Some seeds have fully differentiated
embryos that need to grow more before seed germination, or the embryos are not
differentiated into different tissues at the time of fruit ripening.
 Immature embryos – some plants release their seeds before the tissues of the
embryos have fully differentiated, and the seeds ripen after they take in water
while on the ground, germination can be delayed from a few weeks to a few
months.
Combined dormancy
Seeds have both morphological and physiological dormancy.
 Morpho-physiological or morphophysiological dormancy occurs when seeds
with underdeveloped embryos, also have physiological components to dormancy.
These seeds therefore require dormancy-breaking treatments as well as a period of
time to develop fully grown embryos.
 Intermediate simple
 Deep simple
 Deep simple epicotyl
 Deep simple double
 Intermediate complex
 Deep complex
3. Combinational dormancy
Combinational dormancy occurs in some seeds, where dormancy is caused by
both exogenous (physical) and endogenous (physiological) conditions. Some Iris species
have both hard impermeable seeds coats and physiological dormancy.
4. Secondary dormancy
Secondary dormancy occurs in some non-dormant and post dormant seeds that are
exposed to conditions that are not favorable for germination, like high temperatures. It is
caused by conditions that occur after the seed has been dispersed. The mechanisms of
secondary dormancy are not yet fully understood but might involve the loss of sensitivity
in receptors in the plasma membrane .
Not all seeds undergo a period of dormancy, many species of plants release their
seeds late in the year when the soil temperature is too low for germination or when the
environment is dry. If these seeds are collected and sown in an environment that is warm
enough, and/or moist enough, they will germinate. Under natural conditions non dormant
seeds released late in the growing season wait until spring when the soil temperature rises
or in the case of seeds dispersed during dry periods until it rains and there is enough soil
moisture.
Advantages of dormancy
1. In temperate zones, the dormancy of seeds helps the plants to tide over severe
cold which may be injurious for their vegetative and reproductive growth.
2. In tropical regions, the dormancy of seeds resulting from their impermeable seed
coats ensures good chances of survival during water stress.
3. Dormancy of seeds in many cereals is of utmost importance to mankind. If these
seeds would germinate immediately after harvest in the field, they will become
useless to man for consumption as food. Rain, at the time of harvest or maturity
may spoil entire produce by initiating germination.
Methods of Breaking Seed Dormancy

Various methods have been used by seed scientist and technologists to break the
dormancy of seed.
Simple and widely used methods are
A. Scarification
Any treatment i.e.,physical or chemical that weakness the seed coat, is known as
scarification.
Scarification method is applied, when dormancy is imposed by hard seen coat e.
g. in legumes- cajanus cajan, (tur), gram etc.
In this method there are various way to break hard seed coat such as:
1. Seeds are either rubbed on a sand paper manually. At the time of rubbing care
should be taken that not to damage the axis of the seed e.g. Green gram &
subabool.
2. When seed coat is too hard i.e. of woody nature, the seed coat has to be removing
completely by breaking it. E.g. Rubber (Havea spp) seed India teak wood seed.
3. Soaking treatment: Soaking hard seed coat in concentrated or diluted solution of
sulphuric acid for 1 to 60 minutes, it removes seed coat impermeability. E. g.
cotton seeds, India teak wood seeds etc.
B. Temperature Treatments
1. When the dormancy is due to embryo factor i.e. the seed is incubating at low
temp. (0- 5 o C) over a substratum for 3 to 10 days placing it at optimum temp.
Required for germination. E.g. mustard. – (Brassica campestrits)
2. Some seeds required a brief period of incubation (from a few hours to one to five
o
days) at 40 to 50 C before germinating at required temp. (in this method care
should be taken that moisture content of the seed is not more than 15% e.g. paddy
(Oryza sativa)
3. Hot water treatment is also an effective method of breaking hard- seed ness in
legumes. In this method the seeds are soaked in water at 80 C teomp. For 1 – 5
minutes (depending up on the type of seed) before putting for germination.
C. Light Treatments:
Same seeds do not germinate in dark thus it provides continuous or periodic
exposure of light is essential e. g. Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) required red light (660nm) or
white light is essential for germination to occur.
D. Treatments with growth regulators & other Chemicals:
Endogenous dormancy may be due to presence of germination inhibitors.
Application of low level of growth regulators (i.e. Gibberellins, Cytokinins and Ethylene
etc) may break the seed dormancy.
Most widely used growth regulators are gibberellins and kinetics e.g. seeds of
sorghum crop presoaking seed treatment with GA3 at the conc. Of 100 ppm have been
used for breaking seed dormancy
Among other chemicals potassium nitrate (0.2%) and thio – urea (0.5 to 3%) are widely
used for breaking seed dormancy in oat (Avena sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare),
tomato (Solanum Lycopersicum).
Seed germination
The process of seed germination starts with the imbibition of water by seed coat
and emergence of growing root tip of embryo. The optimum conditions for seed
germination are availability of moisture, O a2 nd optimum temperature.
Physiological and biochemical changes during seed germination

Physiological changes
1. Water uptake
Seed germination starts with the imbibition of water by dry seed coat. Due to
imbibition of water the seed coat becomes more permeable to O 2 and water and less
resistant to outward growth of embryo. After imbibition, the inner contents of the seed
increase in volume, thereby exerting pressure on the seed coat leading to rupture of the
seed coat. The plumule and radical emerge thereafter.
2. Respiration
After initiation of germination process, enormous energy is required for various
biochemical changes which are met through rapid increase in respiration rate. Sucrose is
probably the respiratory substrate at this stage which is provided by endosperm. In
oilseeds and pulses, the lipids and proteins respectively are converted into sucrose by
suitable biochemical reactions.
3. Mobilization of reserve materials
As germination progresses, there is mobilization of reserve materials to provide.
i) Building blocks for the development of embryo ii)

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Page 125
iii) Nucleic acids for protein synthesis and embryonic development
Biochemical Changes
1. Nucleic acids
In monocots, during imbibition, there is a rapid decrease of DNA and RNA
contents in the endosperm with a simultaneous increase in the embryonic axis. High
concentration of RNA in the embryonic axis precedes cell division. Due to more cell
division DNA content is increased.
2. Carbohydrates
Insoluble carbohydrates like starch are the important reserve food of cereals in the
endosperm. During germination, starch is hydrolysed first into maltose in the presence of
 -amylase and  - amylase and then maltose is converted into glucose by maltase. The
glucose is further converted into soluble sucrose and transported to growing embryonic
axis. During germination, the embryonic axis secretes gibberellic acid, into the aleurone
layer which causes synthesis of  -amylase.
3. Lipids
Many plants like castor bean, peanut, etc, store large amount of lipids or fats as
reserve food in their seeds. During germination, the fats are hydrolyzed into fatty acids
and glycerol by lipase enzyme. Fatty acids are further converted into acetyl – COA by
the process of  - oxidation. The acetyl COA is further converted into sucrose via
glyoxylate cycle and is transported to the growing embryonic axis.
4. Proteins
Some plants store proteins as reserve food in their seeds. Proteins are hydrolysed
into amino acids by peptidase enzyme. The amino acids may either provide energy by
oxidation after deamination (removal of amino group) or may be utilized in the synthesis
of new proteins.
5. Inorganic nutrients
A number of inorganic nutrients such as phosphate, calcium, magnesium and
potassium are also stored in seeds in the form of phytin. These stored nutrients are
liberated during germination due to the activity of various phosphatases including
phytase.
Emergence of seedling out of the seed coat
All the changes described above gradually result in splitting of seed coat and
emergence of the growing seedlings.
First the radical comes out and grows downward, then plumule comes out and
grows upward. Due to continued growth of this seedling, the plumule comes out of the
soil, exposed to light and develops its own photosynthetic organs. Until the seedlings
starts producing assimilate by its own photosynthetic organs, the reserve food available in
the seed is sufficient to sustain the seedling growth.
Splitting of seed coat may take place either 1) by imbibitional pressure 2) by
internal pressure created by the growing primary root 3) by hydrolytic enzymes which act
on cell wall contents of seed coat and digest it eg. Cellulase, pectinase etc and sometimes,
the seed coat may be extensively damaged by the activity of micro-organisms in the soil.
Questions
1. In certain plants, seeds do not germinate immediately after harvest even under
favourable condition due to,
a. dormancy of seeds b. vernalization c. photoperiodism d. all of above
Ans: a. dormancy of seeds

2. Which of the following cause dormancy of seeds?
a. Seed coats impermeable to water b. Mechanically resistant seed coats

c. Immaturity of the embryo d. all of above
Ans: d. all of above

3. Which one of the following is not germination inhibitor?
a. Auxin b. Abscisic acid c. Coumarin d. Ferulic acid
Ans: a. Auxin
4. Seeds are positively photoblastic in.
a. lettuce b. shepherd‟s purse c. tomato d. all of above

5. Dormancy of seeds can be broken by
a. scarification b. stratification c. hydraulic pressure d. all of above

6. Which of the following is not a germination stimulating compound?
a. KNO3 b. Thiourea c. Parasorbic acid d. Ethylene
Ans: c. Parasorbic acid

7. Dormancy of buds in potato tubers can be prolonged during storage by
a. gibberellin b. ᾳ naphthalene acetic acid
c. ethylene d. phthalids
Ans: b. ᾳ naphthalene acetic acid

8. Seeds with life span varying from 15 years to 100 years or more one called as,
a. Microbiotic b. Mesobiotic c. Macrobiotic d. None of the above

Ans: c. Macrobiotic
9. The seeds which just wait for suitable environmental conditions to germinate are said
to be,
a. Dormant b. Quiescent c. Thirsty d. None of the above
Ans: b. Quiescent
Questions
1. Differentiate climacteric and non-climacteric fruit
2. What is the role of ethylene in fruit ripening?
3. Give examples for non climacteric fruits
4. Mention the biochemical changes during ripening.
5. How the pigment composition is altered during ripening?
Ex.No.1. Estimation of photosynthetic pigments
Chloroplasts aredynamicentitiesofgreencellsin whichphotosyntheticprocesses

take place. The light energy absorbed by the chloroplast is converted into chemical
energyandstarchis synthesizedutilizingCO and2H Oas r2awmaterialsand releasingO 2
as byproduct.The wholesustenanceofaplant depends onthegreenpigments present in

the chloroplast. The chloroplast is a double-layered membrane, consists of stroma
(internal matrix),whichis colourless,and granawhichis green incolour.Photosynthetic
pigments arelocalizedonlyin thylakoidmembrane.
Chlorophylls and carotenoids are the main pigments that take part in
photosynthesis.There areseveral types ofchlorophyllswhichdifferfromoneanotherin
the details of their molecular structure and the absorption properties. Most common
chlorophyll typesinthevascularplants arechlorophyllaandb.Chlorophyll aisfoundin
all photosynthetic eukaryotes, which converts light energy into the chemical energy.
Chlorophyll ais a largemoleculewith atetrapyrrol ringandamagnesiumionheldin it.
Attached to one of the rings is a long insoluble hydrocarbon ring, a 20-carbon phytol
group.Chlorophyllbhasa-CHOgroup inthethird carbonofsecond pyrrol ringinstead
of-CH g3 roup as inthecaseofchlorophyll a.
Chlorophyll aand chlorophyllbhavetypical absorptionspectraofsolarradiation.

Maximum peak of chlorophyll a is observed in blue violet (429 nm) and in red region
(660 nm) while the chlorophyll b absorbs at 453 nm and 642 nm in ether extracts.
Chlorophyll a is usually blue green and chlorophyll b is yellow green in colour. The
empirical formula for the chlorophyll a molecule is C H O55NM
72 g 5and
4 chlorophyll b
moleculeis C H
55 O7N
0M6 g.4Themethod ofArnon(1949)is employedin theestimation
ofthe chlorophyll pigments.
Another class of accessory pigments involved in the absorption of light energy

during photosynthesis is the carotenoids. Carotenoids are 40-carbon compounds. They
are the red, orange, or yellow fat-soluble pigments found in chloroplasts.Normallytwo
kinds of carotenoids are found in chloroplasts. They are carotenes and xanthophylls.
Xanthophyllscontainoxygenintheirmolecules whereascarotenes donot.
Estimation of Chlorophyll content
Reagent required
80%Acetone
Procedure
250 mgofleafsampleis maceratedwith 10ml of80%acetoneusingapestleand mortarand

the extractis centrifugedat 3000rpm for10minutes.Thesupernatantsolutionistransferredintoa
25ml volumetric flask and made up to 25ml using 80% acetone. The color intensityof the green
pigment is readat 645nm,663nmand652nmforchlorophylla,chlorophyllb andtotal chlorophyll
contentrespectivelyusingSpectrophotometer.
Formula for calculation
V
Chlorophyll a= 12.7(ODat 663)-2.69(ODat 645) x-----------------------
1000 x W
V
Chlorophyll b =22.9 (ODat645)-4.69(ODat 663) x-------------------
1000 x W
ODat652 x1000 V
Totalchlorophyll = ------------------------------------------- x -------------------
34.5 1000 xW
Where
OD-Optical Density
V-Final volume ofsupernatant (25ml)
W-Freshweight ofthe sampletaken ingram(0.25g)
Thechlorophyll content ofthe leafsample is expressed as mg/ goffreshleaf.
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyllaand b Ratio= --------------------------
Chlorophyll b
Ex.No.2. Estimation of photosynthetic enzyme
Soluble protein
Wildman and Bonner (1947) found that leaves contain a soluble protein, which
theycalledFraction Iprotein.Growingandexpandingleaves ofmanyspecies ofplants
werefoundtocontain thisprotein,whichsubsequentlywas found tobeidenticaltoRuBP
carboxylase (RuBP Case) enzyme. This enzyme is present in all plants containing
chlorophyll aas well as manyphotosyntheticalgaeandbacteria. RuBPCasehas been
isolated and purified from the leaves of many plants and in 1971 the protein was
crystallized fromtobaccoleavesin Wildmans la,boratory. Theproteinoccurs instromal
fraction of chloroplast at concentration as high as 300mg ml- . C1rystalline RuBP Case
hasamolecularweight of557,000 andis composedofeight largesubunits (MW55800
each) and eight small sub units (MW12000 each). Thelarge sub units aresynthesized
withinthechloroplast,whereas thesmall subunitsaresynthesized outsidethechloroplast
in the cytosol. The small sub units then penetrate the chloroplast envelope and the
completeprotein (RuBpcase)isassembledinthestroma.
RuBP case is known as the most abundant protein in the world because of its
widespread occurrence in plants and its relatively higher concentration in the soluble
proteinfractionofleaves(>70%). RuBP Caseenzymeisofspecial importancebecause
2 ibulose 1-5 bisphosphate with the formation of
it catalyses the addition of CO to R
3PGA. Hence, the estimation of soluble protein fraction containing RuBP carboxylase
will be enabling to study the rate of CO 2 fixation and thereby provide information
concerningthe relativeamount ofCO fix2ed bydifferent species ofplants.
Principle
Theblue colourwasdevelopedbyBiuret reaction oftheprotein withthe alkaline

copper tartarate in which phosphomolybdic and phosphotungstic components in the
Folin- Ciocalteau reagent are reduced by the amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan
respectivelypresent inthe protein.Thecolourintensityis measured at 660nm.
Reagents required
1. Phosphate buffer
Monobasic (NaH 2PO )4–0.2M
Dibasic (Na2HPO 4)–0.2 M
16 ml ofMonobasic+84ml ofDibasicmixtureis madeupto200mlwith

distilledwater.
2. Alkaline Copper Tartarate reagent (C)
2% sodiumcarbonate in0.1 Nsodiumhydroxide(A)
0.5 % coppersulphate(CuS0 5H
4 0)i2n1% sodiumpotassiumtartarate(B)
Mix50ml ofAand 1ml ofBpriortouse
3. Folin - Ciocalteau reagent (1:2 with water)

Procedure
Leaf sample of 0.25 g is macerated with 10ml of phosphate buffer solution and
the leaf extract is centrifuged at 3000rpm for about 10 minutes and the supernatant
solutioniscollected.Onemlofthesupernatant solution ispipetteout intoatest tubeand
5ml of Alkali Copper reagent is added. The solution is kept as such for 30 minutes for
color development. Then, 0.5ml of phenol reagent is added and the OD value of the
sampleis readat 660nm inSpectrophotometer.Thesoluble protein content is expressed
as mgg o-1fleafsample.
Standard
50mg of Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA) dissolve in 100ml of distilled water,

which gives stocksolutionof500ppm.Preparedifferent concentrations ofBSAstandard
solutions like 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500ppm by diluting the stock solution. Run the
series ofstandard insimilarwayasthatof yoursample anddrawastandardgraph.Plot
your sample OD in the standard graph and find out the corresponding concentration (x
µg). From that, calculate the amount of soluble protein present in the given sample by
usingfollowingformula.
Calculation
X 25
Amount ofsoluble protein=-------x--------x1000
0.5 500
Amount ofsoluble proteinpresent inthegivensampleis expressedin mg/g.
Ex.No.3. Measurement of leaf area following various methods
Leaf is assigned as one of the important organs of plant system and further
development ofplant depends uponthepersistenceofleaves. Physiologically,leafarea
constitutes the main photosynthetic surface and supplies most of the photosynthates
required by the seed, fruit or any storage organs. So the estimation of leaf area is an
essential integral part ofclassicalgrowthanalysisand isoftenimportant inphysiological
reasoning of variations in crop productivity. For the estimation of leaf area, several
methodshave beendeveloped. Followingarethemost simple,inexpensiveand accurate
methods:
1. Graphic method
2. LeafAreaMeter
3. Dryweight method
4. Linear method
1. Graphic method
This involvestheuseofgraphpapers forthe estimationofonlysmallerleaves. So

this typeofmethodcannotbeused forestimatingtheleafareaforall types ofleaves. For
estimatingtheleafarea,theoutlineoftheleafisdrawnonagraphpaperandthenumber
offull squares,halfsquares and quartersquaresarecounted and added. Theleafareais
expressedascm p2erleaf.
2. Electronic method (leaf area meter)
LeafAreaMeteris used forestimatingleafareaofall typesofleaves. This method

is also termedasdirect method. But theleavesshould beremovedordetachedfromthe
plants and fedintototheareameter. Theestimation canbe doneonlyinthelaboratory.
In the area meter, fluorescent light source, mirror and scanning camera and a conveyor
beltareprovided.Initiallyzerois set. Whenaleafis placedintheconveyorbeltitmoves
along with conveyor belt and when the leaf comes close to scanning camera, it reflects
the image of leaf on the mirror and the reading is measured digitally. Area of leaf is
expressedincm . 2
3. Linear Method
This method is relatively simple, time saving and non-destructive method for
estimating the leaf area. Montgomery (1911) studied the statistically defined
mathematical relationship between the linear dimensions of the leaf area and proposed
the followingformula.
Leaf Area (A) = K x L x B
Where
A=leafareaperleaf
L= maximumlengthofthe leaf
B = maximumbreadthoftheleaf
K=leafareaconstant
Thevalueofleafareaconstant(K)is theratio between actual leafareaand apparent

leafareaandis always less than1. Apparent leafareacanbecalculated bymultiplying
the maximumlengthandbreadthofthe leaf. Actual leafareacanbemeasured byusing
Leaf Area Meter. The Leaf area constant may not be same for different varieties and
different growthstage also.
4. Weight basis method
The leaf area (L)1occupied by known dry weight (W) of lthe single leaf can be
foundoutadoptinganyoneofthe methods.This forms the basisforcalculatingthewhole
plantleafarea(L)ba2 sed onthetotaldryweight (W)byusin2gthegivenformula.
L1
Wholeleafarea (L2)= ---------------- xW2
W1
Where, L2-Total leafarea;
L-1Singleleafarea,
Wl–Singleleafweight (dry)
W2-Total leafweight (dry)
Approximate K value for important crops
Crops Equation
Banana A=0.756
Grapes A= 0.81
Papaya A=106 X -2028
X= lengthof median midrib(mm)
Tomato A=0.41 +0.211X
X= LxW
Bhendi A=115X–1050
X= length ofmidrib (mm)
Onion A=2.794+ 1.686X
X=leaf length
Acidlime A= 0.608
Ex.No.4. Growth analysis
Growth is a characteristic of life. It is the foremost symbolization of life in

action. Growth continues till the end of an organism. It is expressed as height, weight
(size), volume, number and area. Growth is always phenomenal. If growth stops
vertically it may commence horizontally. If leaf expansion stops, it starts gaining in
number and volume. Thus the growth is multifaceted, remarkable accomplishment of
life.Theshapeandsizeofanorganismarebecauseofits continued cellulardevelopment
anddifferentiation. Practically, everycell undergoes sequentialphases such as juvenile,
grand growth and senescence. This is a sigmoidal function. Growth rate is quantified
mathematically in terms of time as in cases of other vital processes of plants and this
gives us a valuable information documenting growth as influenced by various abiotic,
biotic,edaphicandseasonal factors.
Thetechniqueofgrowthanalysis is advantageous to plant scientists as ithelps
1. Tofindout therelationship between photosyntheticproductionandrateof
increaseindrymatter.
2. Toinvestigatethe ecologicalphenomenonandcompetitionbetween different
species.
3. Topredict theeffectofagronomicmanipulation.
Soit is auseful tool instudyingthecomplex interactions between plant growth

andtheenvironment.Growthanalysismeasurements do not requireelaborateequipments
or extensive laboratory facilities, but need just an oven and a balance for dry weight
determination and a method for measuring leaf surface. The method employed for
measuring the growth may also provide better understanding of growth processes and
limitations ofcropyield.
Blackman (1919), an English plant physiologist, suggested that the growth of the
plantcouldberepresentedbyanequation
rt
W1=W .0e
Where,W 1 = thefinal size(weight,height,etc.,)aftertime„t‟.
W0 = the initial sizeatthebeginningofthetimeperiod
‘r’ = the rate at which plant substance is laid down during time ‘t’
‘e’ = the base of natural logarithm.
Theaboveequation also indicates that thesizeofan organism(W )depen1ds on the

initial size (Wo). The plant size also depends on the magnitude of r (relative growth
rate).It shouldbenotedthat‘r’is therelativegrowth rate. Blackmansuggestedthat‘r’
might be used as a measure of the abilityof a plant to produce new plant material and
called‘r’,theefficiencyindex. The plants withhighefficiencyindexcould beexpected
to outperformplants withalowefficiencyindex. Although‘r’does differamongplant
species,itis not constant duringthelifeofaplant.
PARAMETERS OF GROWTH ANALYSIS
1. Leaf Area Index (LAI)
Itistheleafarea perunitareaoflandoccupied byaplant.
Leaf area per plant
LAI = -------------------------------------------------
Land area occupied by a plant (spacing)
Watson (1956) suggested this formula. LAI is the measure of available photosynthetic
surfaceperunit landarea.
2. Leaf Area Duration
It is the ability of the plant to maintain the green leaves over unit area of land
throughoutits life.Itreflects thevitalityofleavesand anopportunityforassimilation.It
also measures the persistence of the assimilating surface. This factor was suggested by
Poweretal.(1967)and employedtheformula
LAI (i) + LAI (ii)

LAD = ------------------------------- X t –2t 1
LAI(i) -Leafareaindexatfirststage
LAI(ii)-Leafareaindexatsecondstage
t2-t 1 - Timeinterval between the twoconsequentstages andexpressedindays.
3. Leaf Area Ratio (LAR)
Inorderto estimatethecarbon assimilatoryefficiencyofleaves orto estimatethe

leafiness ofplants,Radford(1967)suggestedleafarea ratioas ameasureofleafareato
2 -1
the weight ofthewholeplant.It isexpressedas cm g
Leaf Area/ plant

LAR = -------------------------
Plant dry weight
In broad sense, LAR represents the ratio of photosynthesizing to respiratory
material withintheplant.
4. Specific Leaf Area (SLA)
It is theratioofassimilatingareato its dryweight.Itwas suggestedbyKvetet al.

(1971)andtheformulaused to calculateSLAis
Leaf area/ plant

SLA = ----------------------------
Leaf dry weight/ plant
2 -1.
It is expressed ascm m g
5. Specific Leaf Weight (SLW)
Usingtheleafdryweightand leafarea,SLWis calculated. Itis theratioofleaf

dryweighttoits areaofassimilatingsurface. TheformulawassuggestedbyPearceetal.
-2.
(1968)andexpressedas mg cm
Leaf dry weight/plant
SLW = -----------------------
Leaf area/plant
6. LEAF WEIGHT RATIO (LWR):
It is the ratio of leaf dry weight to the plant dry weight. It is the measure of
.-1
leafiness oftheplant onaweightbasis.It is expressedingkg
Leaf dry weight

LWR= -------------------------
Plant dry weight
7. Net Assimilation Rate (NAR)
It is the rate of increase of leaf dry weight per unit area of leaf per unit time.
Williams (1946)employedtheformulaand expressedas mgcm day-2 -1
Loge L2– Loge L 1 W2- W 1

NAR = ------------------------- x -----------------
L2- L 1 t2- t 1
Where
Loge L 2 = Natural logofleafareaatstage2
Loge L 1 =Naturallogofleafarea at stage1
L2&L 1 = leafarea at stage2&1 respectively.
W2&W =1 Dryweightofthewholeplantatstage2 &1 respectively
t2-t 1 =Timeinterval betweenthetwostages

NAR is expressed as mg cm -d2 ay -1
8. Relative Growth Rate (RGR)
It is the rate of increase of dry weight per unit weight already present per unit
time. Williams (1946)suggested theformula.
LogeW2_−_LogeW1
RGR= ---------------------------------
t2 - t 1
–
W2&W =1Wholeplant dryweight at t &t re2 spec1tivelyand expressed asmgg
1
day-1
9. Relative Leaf Growth Rate (RLGR)
It is the difference in leaf dry weight over a period of time. Fisher (1921)
1 -1
suggested theformula andthevalues expressedasmgg- day .
LW2 - LW1
RLGR = -------------------------
t2 - t 1
RLGR involves consideration of physiological activity like photosynthesis,
respiration,nutrient uptakeand metabolic balance.
10. Crop Growth Rate (CGR)
CGR is a simple and important aid of agriculture productivity. It is the rate of
increase of dry weight per unit land area per unit time. Watson (1958) suggested the
formula.
W2 - W1
CGR = -----------------
P (t2- t 1)
Where
W2and W –1areplant dryweightat timeintervals t andt 2 1
P-populationperunit area
CGR is alsotheproduct ofleafareaindexandnet assimilation rate.
CGR = LAI x NAR
CGRincreases as LAIincreases becauseofgreaterlight interception.
CGRis expressedas g m d-a2 y -1
Crop = Soybean; Spacing = 30x10 cm 2
CASE STUDY
Total dry matter production (g)
Treatments /DAS 15 30 45 60 75
Control 0.225 1.04 3.79 9.50 20.98
KH2PO (41%) 0.239 1.17 4.40 11.70 33.78
Urea(1%) 0.230 1.14 4.14 11.28 30.57
Mepiquat chloride(125 ppm) 0.210 1.07 4.02 10.25 26.18
Leaf dry weight (g)
Control 0.140 0.810 2.50 4.20 6.00
KH2PO (41%) 0.140 0.810 4.25 5.98 7.94
Urea(1%) 0146 0.892 4.15 5.69 7.79
Mepiquat chloride(125 ppm) 0.149 0.820 3.81 5.20 7.27
Leaf area (cm2)
Control 679 1132 1451 1814 1620
KH2PO (41%) 850 1536 1996 2495 2170
Urea(1%) 927 1686 2134 2668 2320
Mepiquat chloride(125 ppm) 762 1385 1753 2192 1940
Ex.No.5. Bioassay for hormones
Bioassay for auxins
Several, bioassays have been devised for auxins such as Avena curvature test,
Avena section test, split pea stem curvature test, cress root inhibition test etc. A brief
account oftheAvenacurvaturetestisgivenbelow:
Avena Curvature Test
Principle
This test is based on the polartransportofthe auxin in Avena coleoptiles.The

auxin applied on one side of the cut coleoptiles stump will diffuse down that side only
and will cause that side to grow more resulting in curvature of the coleoptiles. Within
limits this curvatureis directlyproportionaltotheamount ofauxin applied.
Procedure
i. Avena grains germinated and grown in total darkness. The seedlings are exposed
to short periods (2-4hrs)ofred lighttwodaysaftergermination.
ii. When the roots are about 2mm. Long, the seedlings are planted in special glass
holders,usingthewaterculturemethod.
iii. Thestraight coleoptiles areselected
iv. Thetips ofthecoleoptiles (about1mm)are removedandplaced onagar-agar
v. The agar is cut into blocks of standard size (usually1 mm ) wh3ich now contain
auxin.
vi. Afterabout 3hours aseconddecapitationofthe coleoptiles is madeto removethe

tipwhich might haveregeneratedandthefirstleafoftheseedlingis pulled so that
itsconnectionfromthebase isbroken.
vii. An agar block containing auxin is now placed on one side of the cut coleoptile.
Theprojectingprimaryleafgives supporttotheauxinblock.
viii. Afterabout 90minutesthe shadowgraphs oftheseedlingsaretaken and theangle
of curvature (_) is measured bydrawing a vertical line and a line parallel to the
curved portionofthecoleoptiles.
ix. Within limits the curvature of the coleoptile is directly proportional to the
concentration of auxin in agar block. In case of Indole-3-Acetic Acid (IAA) the
maximumresponseis at about0.2mg/ litre.
Bioassay for gibberellins
A number of bioassays are known for gibberellins such as pea test, dwarf corn
test, lettuce hypocotyls test, cucumber hypocotyls test, barley endosperm test, ect. The
relativeactivityofthedifferentgibberellins is different indifferent bioassaysystems.For
instance, the relativity of GA in1 dwarf corn (strains d , d a1nd d3 ) is in 5the following
order:-
d1–GA >1GA >GA

3 > GA4 > GA >
7 GA > 5GA > G
6A 8 9
d3-GA 5 >GA >7 GA > G

9A 3 > GA 4 > GA >
1 GA 6> GA 2
d5-GA 5 >GA 7 >GA >3GA 4 >GA 9 >GA >1GA 2> GA 2 > GA 8
Abriefaccountofthedwarfcorntest is given below:-
Dwarf Corn Test
Principle
This bioassay is based on the fact that gibberellins cause elongation of the
internodes, and in case of corn they also increase the length of the leaf sheaths which
surround the internodes.
Procedure
Ameasured amountofthetest solutioninasuitablewettingagent isappliedinto

the firstunfoldingleafofcornseedlings whentheyare6 to7daysold.The seedlings are
allowed to grow for 6 or 7 more days till the first and the second leaves are fully
developed. The increase in the length of the first leaf sheath is measured and is plotted
against the concentration of gibberellins applied. Within limits, a direct relationship is
observedbetweenthetwo.
Bioassay for kinetin (or cytokinins)
Anumberofbioassayshavealsobeendevisedforcytokininswhicharebasedon
theirspecificphysiological activities.TheyareCelldivisiontests,Chlorophyll retention
tests, Cell enlargement tests,Germination tests anddifferentiationtests.Abriefaccount
of one of the cell division tests which are based on the induction of cell division in
cytokinin-requiringtissueculturesis givenbelow:
Carrot Root Phloem Bioassay
i. Matureroots ofcultivatedcarrot(Daucus carota var.sativus)arepeeled andthe

surfacesterilized.
ii. With the helpofa specialcuttertheyarecut intothinslices about1-2mm.thick
iii. With the help of a canula, secondary phloem explants are removed from a
distanceabout1.2mm.awayfromthecambium
iv. Thesecondaryphloemexplants weigh about 2.5-3mg.
v. About three explants are inoculated into a culture tube containing 10 ml. of
medium
vi. Theculturetubes areplacedonawheel whichturns ofahorizontalaxis at1 rpm

sothat theexplantsare alternativelyexposedtomediumand theair.
vii. After a specified time (about 18-21 days) the explants are removed, weighed,
macerated and the cells are counted. The number of the cells is converted into
milligrams (1mgbeingapproximatelyequal to10,000cells)and isplottedagainst
thetimein days.
 The classical methods for bioassays of plant growth hormones auxins,

gibberellins etchavenowbeenreplacedwith modern methods of separation and
quantificationsuch ashighperformanceliquidchromatography(HPLC)andgas
chromatography (GC) which are then followed by mass spectrometry (MS) to
provide proofofstructure.Immuno-assaymethods arealsoused which aremore
rapidand thousandtimesmoresensitivethanbioassays.
Ex.No.6. Preparation of hormonal solutions
Solutions aresystems in which onecomponent (thesolute)is dispersedthroughout the

other(thesolvent)intheformofmoleculesorions.Theoretically,thesolventmaybeagas,asolid,
oraliquid,butsolutionsinwhichthesolventisaliquidarebyfarthemostimportantinliving
organisms.Waterispracticallytheonlysolventthatfunctionsinplants,butthesolutesconcerned
arenumerousandincludesallsolubleinorganicsaltsthatmaybepresentinthesoil,aswellas
oxygen,CO2,sugars,organicacidsandvariousothersolubleorganiccompounds.
Standardsolutioncontainsaknownweightofthesubstancesdissolvedinaknownvolume
ofsolvent.Thetermconcentrationdenotestheproportionofsolutesandsolventsinasolution.
Therearenumerouswaysinwhichconcentrationandcompositionofasolutionmaybeexpressed.
1. Per cent solution
Expressedintermsofpercentage.Inthistypeofasolutionaknownunitofthesoluteis
dissolvedin100unitsofwater. Whenthesoluteisasolidandthesolventaliquid,apercent
solutionispreparedonaW/Vbasis,i.e.,aknownwtofasubstance(solute)isaddedto100mlof
thesolvent.
Example
Topreparea10percentCuS0 s4olution,weadd10gofCuS0 to1400mlofwater.
On the other hand, if both the solute and the solvent are liquids, per cent solution is
preparedonvolumebasis,andhere,aknownvolumeofthesoluteistakenandthefinalvolumeis
thenmadeupto100mlwiththesolvent.
Example
Tomakea35percentsolutionofperchloricacid,35mlofperchloricacidistakenina
measuringcylinderandthevolumeismadeupto100mlwithwater.
Thismethodofexpressiondoesnotshowtherelativenumberofmoleculesofthesolute
thatarepresentinthesolution.Therefore,althoughpercentsolutionsareusedquitefrequentlyin
thelaboratory,theyaregenerallyfoundinadequateforprecisework.
Whenweusesaltswhilepreparingapercentsolution,basedonweightbyvolume,itwill
givepercentofsaltsbutnotdifferentionsinthesalts.
Example
Topreparepercentagesolutionofanionpresentinthesalt(fore.g.,NainNaOH),theratio
oftheiontothetotalsalthastobedetermined.Thisiscalculatedbasedonthemolecularweightof
thesalttothemolecularweightoftheion.
Mol.wt.ofNaOH=40
Na=23
0 =16
H=1
23 gofNaispresentin40gofNaOH.
Toprepare10percentNasolution, 10gofNahastobedissolvedin100mlH0. 2
23 gNaispresentin40gNaOH.17.4gofNaOHcontains 10gofNa.
2. Normal solutions
A normal solution contains 1 g equivalent weight of adissolvedsubstance

(solute)perliterofthesolution.
1 gequivalentwt. 1 gmol.wt.ofthesubstance
ofasubstance =
No.ofreplaceablehydrogenatomsorhydrogenequivalents
Hydrochloricacid(HC1)withmol.wt.of36.47hasonereplaceablehydrogenatom,hence
1 literof1NHC1contains36.47goftheacid.Ontheotherhand,sulfuricacid(HS0)hav2 ing4 a
mol.wt.of98,has2replaceablehydrogenatoms.ThereforeanormalsolutionofHS0 2 co4ntains49
g(98/2)oftheacidperliter.
Similarly 1 N NaOH will contain 40 g of the base per liter (as one hydrogen ion is
equivalenttooneacidhydrogenatom),while1NCa(0H) c2 ontains74.096/2=37.048g/liter.
Saltsarealsoconsideredinthesameterms.1NK2SO4contains174.26/2=87.13g/liter
(K2S0 4contains2hydrogenequivalents).
Example
Toprepare1NNaOH,dissolve1geq.wt.(40x1=40)ofNaOHinasmallquantityof
waterandmakeupthevolumeof1liter.
Tomake2NNaOH,dissolve40x2g(80g)NaOHinasmallquantityofwaterandmake
upthevolumeto1liter.
Tomake0.1NNaOH,dissolve40x0.1g(4.0g)ofNaOHinasmallquantityofwaterand
makeupthevolumeof1liter.
3. Molar solutions
Amolarsolutionisonecontainingasmanygramsofthesoluteperliterofthesolutionas
themolecularweightofthedissolvedsubstance,i.e.,onegrammolecularweightofasubstance
dissolvedin1literofthesolution.
Example: 1 M sucrose: 342.2 g sucrose dissolved in a small quantity of water and the volume is
madeupto1liter.
342.2 mgdissolvedinliter-1mM342.2ugdissolvedinliter
Whenwehavetopreparethemolarconcentrationofanioninasubstancethemolecularratioof
thationtothetotalmolecularweightofthecompoundhastobeconsidered.
Eg: 1. NaOH-Mol.wt.=40
40 ginaliter=1MNaOH
Toget1MofNatheamountofNaneededis23gwhichispresentin40gofNaOH.
2. K2S0 4-Mol.wt. =174.2
174.2 ginaliter=1MK2SO4
Toget1MofKtheamountofKS0 2nee4dedis87.1g (174.2/2=87.1)
4. Parts per million (ppm)
Onemgofasubstancedissolvedin1literofasolutionwillgive1ppmsolution.
The quantity of substances necessary to prepare 10" ppmsolutionissamefor

substancesdifferinginmolecularweight.
Example: GA-molwt.=342.0
10 mgofGAinaliter-10ppm
IAA-molwt.=175.
10 mgofIAAinaliter-10ppm
Thoughthemolecularweightisdifferent,theamountnecessarytoprepare10ppmis10mg.
Ex.No.7
Assessment of hormonal influence on induction of rooting in cutting
The most common use of plant regulators in horticulture is to induce root of

cuttingin manyhorticultural plants.Themost commonlyemployedcompoundis indole
butyric acid (IBA) which is the most effective one and the other compounds are
Naphthalene acetic acid (NAA). Indole acetic acid (IAA) and 2,4-Dichloro phenoxy
aceticacid(2,4-D).Certainofthesechemicals canbeusedin a powderformmixedwith
talc.Thecuttings maybemoistenedwith waterattheirlowerends and thendipped inthe
powder and planted, afterwards, lower end going beneath the soil. Some patented
products like SaradixAandB can beused in the formofpowder. Thelowerendofthe
cuttings may be soaked in such solution of low concentrations like 10,25,50 parts per
million(ppm)for18to 24hours(soakingmethod)orat higherconcentration from500
to 2000ppmfora minuteorless (quickdipmethod).Theconcentrations differaccording
to the type of cuttings viz herbaceous, semi hardwood and hardwood cuttings. Another
usageofplantregulatorsinpropagationofplantis inrootingofairlayering.Gibberellic
acid is one such plant regulator which is used to induce vigorous growth of nursery
plants.When thischemical is appliedto the growingtips,this chemicalwillinducerapid
cell divisionandcell elongation resultinginveryrapidgrowth.
Method of application of growth regulators
1. Powders: Woody and difficult to root species should be treated with higher
concentrations of preparations whereas tender and succulent and easily rooting species
shouldbe treatedwithlowerconcentrations.Fresh cuts shouldbemadeat thebaseofthe
cutting shortly before they are dipped into the powder. The powder adhering to the
cuttingaftertheyhavelightlytappedis sufficient.
Talc preparation has advantages of being readily available and easy to use, but
uniformresultsmaybe difficulttoobtain owingtovariabilityin the amount ofmaterial
adheringtothecuttings.
2. Dilute solution soaking method: The basal part i.e. 12.5 cm of cutting will soak in a
dilute solution of the material for about 24 hours just before they are inserted into the
rootingmedia.Theconcentrationmayvaryfrom20to200ppm.
3. Concentrated solution dip method: In the dip method, the concentrated solution vary
from 500-10000 ppm of root promoting chemical in 50% alcohol is prepared and the
basal1-2 cmofcuttingaredippedinforashort timeabout5sec.Thenthecuttingsare
inserted in therootingmedia.Here,moreuniformresults arelikelytobeobtained.Once
prepared and used chemical should be thrown instead of reusing. Growth regulators in
excess may inhibit bud development and may cause yellowing and dropping of leaves,
blackeningofthestemand eventual death ofthe cuttings. The concentrationjust below
the toxic pointis consideredthemost favourable forrootingmedia.
Fruit tree Treated Growth substances and Remarks

part their strength
Anab-e-Shabi grapes Hardwood IAA(75mg/l)inleafmould Better performance on
(Vitis vinifera) cuttings IAA(100 mg/l)insoil leafmould
Kagzilime Cuttings IAA (250-300 mg/l) 24 hr Rooting percentage
dip) increased
Lemon Cuttings NAA(0.2%) Higher rooting
percentage
Sweetlime Hard wood IBA (200 mg/l) with 2% Beneficial effect on
cuttings sucrose rooting
Sourorange Cuttings IAA and NAA 50 and 100 Betterrooting
mg/l
Plum(largered,large Stem IBA Recommended for
yellowandAlpha) cuttings commercial propagation
Citrus(C.aurantifolla) Air-layers IBA(1.0%)andIAA(1.0%) Increased rooting
Guava Air – IBA(250mg/l inlanolin) Significant improvement
layering intherooting
Ex. No. 8. Assessment of hormonal influence on control of flower and fruit drop
Regulation of flower drop and thinning in fruit crops
Thinning is done for two reasons.
 First,acertainportion ofthe fruitis removed,sothat theremainderwill develop

adequatesizeandquality.
 Second, thethinningprocess serves toincrease theplant‟s abilityto formflower

buds forthenext year.
 Thinningalsoreduces thetotal loadon the branchesandreduces breakage.
 Thinningis necessaryforapples,nectarines,pears,plums,andpeaches.
Thinning the fruit will provide many advantages
 FruitSize-theresultingfruits will bemuchlarger.
 ReturnBloom-next yearthetreehas amuchbetterchanceofproducingadecent

crop,asopposedtodevelopingahabit ofbiennial bearing.
 Tree Stress -with alightercrop(fewerfruit)thetreeisunderless stress.
 Flavouris improvedwithalightercrop
Chemicals used for thinning
NAD
 Napthaleneacetimideis aless potent formofNAA.
 It frequently is used in situations where foliar damage caused by NAA is a

problem,especiallyforsummercultivars.
 NADis applied at 25to50 ppmat petal fall, or in apost-bloom spraywhen the

fruit letsare10-12mmindiameter.
Benzyladenine (BA)
 Is marketed underthetradenameAccel.
 WhileAccelis notastrongthinner,itcanpromoteincreased fruitsizeandreturn
bloom.
 Toinsureadequatethinning,trythefollowingsequence ofthinningsprays.
 At petalfall,applycarbaryl.
 When fruit are between 5 and 15mm diameter, apply Accel at 30 grams active
ingredient(a.i.)peracre.
 Iffruit set appears heavy,includecarbaryl inthis secondthinningspray.
Carbaryl
 Reducingthenumberoffruits percluster.
 It has been shown to be effective in increasing fruit size but has no hormonal
effect inincreasingreturnbloom.
NAA
 Naphthaleneaceticacid(NAA)is apowerful fruitthinningagent.
 NAA should be applied at concentrations of 2.5 to 20 ppm, depending upon the

cultivartobethinnedandwhetherornotitis usedincombinationwithcarbaryl.
 When the fruitlets are 10-12mm in diameter, which usually occurs by 14 to 21

daysafterfull bloom.
Grapes
Effect of crop load, girdling and berry thinning on water berry development in
grapes.
Suneel Sharmaet al.,1999
Hisarduring1995,on9-year-old vines ofcv.Perlette.
Treatments
T1 - Trunkgirdling(80bunches / vines)
T2 - Berrythinning(80bunches / vines)
T3 - Croploadof40bunches / vine
 Berry thinning was done at berry set stage by removing the lower one third
portionofmainstemofeachclusterleaving12laterals atthebaseofthe cluster
Results and discussion
 Minimum incidence of 7.02% was observed in treatment involving crop load of

40 bunches /vinefollowed byberrythinning.
 Thedecreased croploadto 4o/60bunches vineensures balancedpartitioningof

photosyntheticassimilates to the developingbunches, therebyenablingthe vine
to meet thenutritional requirement.
 Increasedbunch weight (4and7.50g)couldbeattributed totheeffect ofgirdling

and cluster and berry thinning treatments increased the amount of CHO to the
growthanddevelopmentofthebunches.
Peach
 Thenoofleaves to beretainedperfruit afterthinningis 30-40
Teskeyand Shoemkar,1972
 Fruitswerethinnedat15to 20cmapart fromeachother
 Inlowchillingcvs.10-15cm
Singh,1969
Chemical thinning
 300 ppm3-CPA
 2-3 % thiourea
 40-100 ppm2,4,5-T
 50ppm2,4-D
Erez,1975
Time of thinning
 Beforefirst fruitdrop,evenblossomthinningis moreeffectivethan latethinning
 Redhaven–35-45days afterfull bloom/when fruits are 10-15mmdia
Lekson,1981
Evaluation of the effectiveness of Armothin for chemical peach thinning.
Tsipouridis and Thomidis, 2005
 Fruitset on„Andross‟trees sprayedwith 3%Armothinwerelowerthanonthose

sprayedwith1.5%Armothin.
 Both3and1.5%Armothinresulted inless fruit setthanintheuntreatedcontrol.
 Therootstockuseddid notinfluencethe effectivenessofArmothin.
 However,whentreatedwith3%Armothin,thenumberand proportion offruitset

in thecultivar„FlavourCrest‟was much higherthan that set in the cultivar„May
Crest‟.
 The highest percentage of fruit set per annual shoot ranged from 10 to 40%
treated with3% Armothin,
 Whereas therangewas 60–80%on theuntreatedcontrol.
Heading fruiting shoots before bloom is equally effective as blossom removal in

peach crop load management.
 Marini,2002
 Threeexperiments wereperformed in Virginia,'USA,in 1993,1995 and1996.
 Year-old shoots on 'Cresthaven' trees were headed by 50% or blossoms were

removedfromtheterminal halfofeach shoot.
 At 45 days after full bloom,all trees were hand thinned to obtainpredetermined

cropdensities.
 The average fruit weight was highest on trees with blossom removal. But crop
valueandnet profitwas highest fornontreatedtrees.
 Fruitweight andcropvaluewerenotaffectedbythepercentageofshoots treated.
 Heading of shoots reduced fruit set, number of fruits removed at thinning, and
thinningtimepertree.
 Yield,cropdensity,andaveragefruit weightwerenot affectedbyheading.
 Profit was increasedbyshootheadinginIofthe3years.
 Resultsfromthisstudyindicate that headingpeachshoots by50%,while dormant

pruningcanreducethinningcosts without reducingfruit size.
Partial flower thinning increases shoot growth, fruit size, and subsequent flower
formation of peach.
 Myers etal.,2002
 Infieldexperiments conductedinVirginia,USA
 Cultivars Redhaven (USA) and Golden Queen (New Zealand) during bloom to
50%ofthenecessarylevelbyhand, followedbyadjustment hand thinningat42
days after full bloom (DAFB), was compared to a similar degree of thinning
accomplishedentirelyat 42DAFB byhand.
 Compared to unthinned trees and trees thinned at 42 DAFB, partial flower

thinningincreasedthesubsequentdevelopment of flowerbuds per shoot andthe
numberofflowerbuds pernode.
 Thenumberofflowerbudsontheproximal fivenodesofshoots 15.0-30.0 cmin

lengthwas increased,althoughnot onshoots 5.0-7.0 cminlength.
Peach fruit weight, yield, and crop value are affected by number of fruiting shoots
per tree
 RichardandMarini.2003
 About 40 days after bloom each year, fruits on all trees were thinned to similar
croploads,soonlythenumberoffruits pershootvaried.
 Fruitset andnumberoffruits removedbyhandthinningwerepositivelyrelatedto

numberoffruitingshootsretained pertree.
 Numberoffruits harvestedpertreewasnot relatedtonumberofshootspertree,
whereas average fruit weight at thinning and at harvest, and crop value per tree
werenegativelyrelatedtothe numberofshoots retained pertree.
 Thenumberoffruitingshoots retainedpertreeduringpruningshouldbeone-fifth
to one-seventhofthenumberoffruits desiredpertree,sothat fivetosevenfruits
perfruitingshootareretainedafterhandthinning.
Plum
Fruit Thinning
 Removal ofparts ofthecropenablesthe remainingcrop toreceiveagreatershare

ofthefoodmanufacturedbytheleaves.
 Thinning also results in removal of the undesirable fruits and thus reduces limb
breakage.
 Earlythinningtends toincreaseaveragefruit weight andhastenmaturitywithout

affectingtotal yield(Belmans andKeulemans,1987).
 WellsandBukovac(1978)reported that fruitthinningsignificantlyincreasedfruit

size,solublesolids andcolour,andmarkedlydecreased yieldinStanleyplum.
 Batjer(1965)suggestedasprayof4,6-dinitro-ortho-cresol (DNOC)42to 85 ml
per100 litre,
 Otherchemicals that havebeensuggestedforuseas plumfruitthinners are2,4,

5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid with or without gibberellic acid (Paunovic and
Ogasonovic, 1979), naphthaleneacetic acid (Lat and Thakur, 1979), 3-
chlorophenoxypropionie acid or 3-chlorophenoxy propionamide or a mixture of
both(Webster,1980; Beutel,1969)and (2-chloroethyl)phosphonicacid(Martin,
et al., 1975).
 The spray should be applied slightly before full bloom to obtain adequate
thinning.
 In case inclement weather occurs during the pre bloom period, which could
quantitatively affect the full bloom and subsequent fruit set, the spray may be
delayeduntil adayortwoafterfullbloom.
 Lupescu and Tertecel (1985) in trials with 11 year old Stanley plum, sprayed
FIordimex(ethephon)at200or400ppm orNAAat 20 or30ppm,2weeks after
full bloom.
 They found that ethephon at 200 ppm produced yields of 28-29 tones/ha
comparedwith23-27tones/hain thecontrol.
Effect of thinning and of trunk girdling on growth, production and quality of

Japanese plums.
 Ilhaet al.,1999
 Theeffect ofmanual fruitthinning(0,25,50and75%)and trunkgirdling(4mm

width)onthegrowth,production andqualityofJapaneseplums cv.Amarelinha)
was evaluated.
 Thinning was performed on 16 October 1995, 36 days after full bloom, and
girdlingat 7daysafterthinning.
 Thinning decreased total fruit yield proportionally to the applied thinning

intensity.
 Trunk girdling decreased fruit firmness, titratable acidity and increased the ratio
oftotal solublesolids: titratable acidity,
 But decreasedthevigourandvegetativegrowth ofthetrees.
 Noneoftreatments significantlyaffectedthemeanfruitweight.
Apple
Thinning Golden Delicious apples with pre-bloom naphthalene acetic acid and later
carbaryl sprays
 Jonesetal.,2005
 TheNAAwasappliedatpinkbud orballoonblossomat12,18and24ppm,with
orwithout carbarylat 1800ppmapplied10 dafterfull bloom.
 Thehigherconcentrations ofNAAdidthemost thinning
 But only the hand-thinned and 24 ppm NAA at balloon blossom with carbaryl
treatment thinnedenoughtoproduce therequiredfruit size.
 TheNAAspraysatballoonblossomthinned considerablymorethan those at pink

bud.
 NeitherNAAnorcarbarylalonewas as effectiveas thecombination.
Studies on the use of 2-chloroethyl-phosphonic acid (ethephon) as a thinning agent

for apples.
 Veinbrants,2005
 2-chloroethylphosphonic acid (ethephon) at concentrations from 50 ppm to 400

ppm was applied at various stages during and after flowering to apple cultivars
GoldenDelicious,Gravenstein,Jonathan,RicharedandStarkrimson.
 On the heavy setting Golden Delicious, Gravenstein and Jonathan cultivars,

adequate thinning and satisfactoryfruit size was obtained when ethephon at 100
ppm was applied at or shortly after full bloom, followed by naphthalene acetic
acid.
 On thelightersettingRichared and Starkrimson cultivars,oneethephon sprayat

100 ppmappliedatorshortlyafterfullbloomresultedinadequatethinning.
 All fruit were eliminated on Jonathan, Richared and Gravenstein cultivars when
ethephon was applied at 400 ppm, 300 ppm and 200 ppm, 36, 35 and 42 days
afterfull bloom,respectively.
Combining ethephon and naphthalene acetic acid (NAA) in one spray to thin
`Golden Delicious' apples
 Jones etal.,2000
 Allsprays wereapplied onlyat full bloom(FB).
 Ethephon sprays of 0, 50, 100, and 200 mg/litre and NAA at 0, 5, 10, and 20
mg/litrewithan additionaltreatment handthinnedjust afterFB.
 Ethephonappliedalonethinnedeffectivelyat100or200mg/litre.
 NAAapplied alonedidnotthinatanyconcentration.
 Thethreeconcentrations ofNAAwith ethephonat 50mg/litreimprovedthinning

over the untreated control but not enough to significantly improve fruit weight
andsize.
 Ethephon alone at 100 mg/litre thinned very effectively and as well as any
combination withNAA.
 Fruit weight and size were improved by all treatments using ethephon at 100
mg/litre.
 There was no advantage using ethephon at 200 mg/litre when compared to 100
mg/litre.
 Althoughtherewas someevidencethatthecombinationofethephon andNAAat

thehighestconcentrations removedmorefruitthanethephon aloneat 200mg/litre
this was not reflectedinbetterfruitweightorsize.
 There is no advantage in adding NAA to ethephon to thin `Golden Delicious' at

FB andethephon at100mg/litrewould bethethinningsprayofchoice.
Effects of fruit thinning agents on apple tree canopy photosynthesis and dark
respiration
 RalfUntiedtandMichaelBlanke2001
 Effects on photosynthesis of the fruit thinning agents naphthaleneaceticacid

(NAA) and three commercial plant growth regulator formulations
,naphthaleneacetic acid (''Rhodofix'') and naphthaleneacetamide(''Amidthin'') and
2-chloroethylphosphonic acid(''Ethrel'')were evaluated with respect to the stress
they impose on the fruit tree, using the alternate-bearing sensitive apple cv.
''Elstar''.
 All employed thinning agents reduced whole tree canopy photosynthesis
consistently by 3–34% on the five days following their application, with
photosynthesis still decliningthereafter in the case of the NAA and'' Amid-thin''
application.
 The reduction after application of either ''Rhodofix'' or ''Ethrel'', declined within

five days, such that most of the original photosynthetic potential was restored,
indicating acceptable phytotoxicity of these three plant growth regulators at the
concentrationsused.
 NAAand ''Ethrel''increaseddarkrespirationover-proportionallybyupto106%,
whereas ''Amid-thin''and''Rhodofix''decreased it byupto46% in thefirst night
after application, thereby drastically affecting the carbon balance of the tree in
oppositeways.
Citrus
Improving fruit size and packout of Late Valencia oranges with ethephon fruit-
thinning sprays
Hutton2005
 Ethephon (as Ethrel, 42-60 mL/100 L water), applied in a heavy-set year at 6-8
weeks post bloomwhen fruitlet sizewas 10-15 mmdiameter,induceda 15-20%
reductioninfruitnumber.
 This resulted in significantly improved fruit size and marketable outturn with
negligibleyieldpenalty.
 In the 2 successive harvests following spray treatment, the cropping pattern

remained uniformanda14% improvement in packout (marketablefruit size<100
counts percarton)was maintained.
 Internal fruitqualitywas unaffected.
 Control of alternate bearing was carried forward for at least 2 seasons with
relativelystableyields followingasingle spraytreatment.
Pear
Chemical thinning of Asian and European pear

with ethephon and NAA
StevenandRtney,2002
 Asian pear (Pyrus pyrifolia Nakai) trees were sprayed with 400 ppm ethephon
((2-chloroethyl)phosphonic acid), applied 15 days after full bloom (DAFB) or
hand thinned(leavingonefruitlet at eachfruitingsite56DAFB)
 Ethephonreducedfruit set of`Nijisseiki'and`Hosui'by37and15%,respectively
 Fruit set was significantly reduced in proportion to the ethephon concentration

with800 ppmreducingfruit set by62%comparedtothenil treatment.
 Increasingethephonconcentrations significantlydecreasedmeanfruitweightand
flesh firmness at harvest, and significantly increased fruit soluble solids
concentrationand seed number.
Loquat
Chemical Fruit Thinning in Loquat with NAAm:Dosage, Timing, and Wetting

Agent Effects
Cuevas etal.,2004
 Loquatis usuallythinnedbyhandinFebruary,butthis practiceis expensiveand

oflimited usefulness duetoits lateexecution.
–1
 NAAm at doses of 30 and 60 mg l applied at the end of bloom produced an
averageincreaseoffruit diameterof11 and18%,respectively.
Regulation of fruit drop, parthenocarpy and fruit development
Fruit drop
Causes
 The fruit lost are those they have not been completely
pollinated.
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Fruit drop and growth regulators
 Theapplicationofplant growthregulatorscan re-enforcehormonebalancein the

peel,reducingorretardingthis precocious fall andthelosses at harvest (Primoet
al.,1966).
 Monselise and Goren (1978) reported that the spraying of auxins prevented the
droppingoffruit bymaintainingthecells atthezoneofabscision,preventingthe
synthesis of hydrolitic enzymes, such as cellulase, which decomposed the cell
walls.
 CitingRiov(1974),thesameauthorsreportedthat hormonebalanceactedon the

polygalacturonaseactivity,which,togetherwithcellulase,was responsibleforthe
degradationofthetwoimportant components ofcell walls,celluloseandpectin.
 The use of 2,4-D as a growth regulator to promote size and to control fruit and
leafdropwas reportedbyHieldetal.(1964)
 According to El-Otmani (1992), the combined application of GA and 23,4-D

reduces the precocious drop of fruit through the action of auxin and retards the
softening and senescence of the peel, by the longer harvest time, and more
economical storinginareas wherestockingcapacityislimitedandcost is high.
 Prevention of pre-mature drop of fruits: 2,4,D,IAA,IBA, 2,4,5-T, are used to

prevent pre-harvest deep ofsweet oranges(100to500ppm)
Control of premature fruit drop in Macadamia integrifolia: effects of naphthalene

acetic acid application, cincturing, and shoot-tip removal.
Williams,2003
 The effects of NAA application, cincturing and shoot-tip removal on the

incidence ofprematurefruit
 Asingle,post-anthesis applicationofNAA(1ppm)increased(P<0.05)thefinal
set ofmacadamiafruit by35%.
 Limbcincturingcombinedwithshoot-tipremovalincreased (P <0.05)initial fruit

set andpossiblyfinal set.
 Cincturingalonewas less effective andshoot-tipremovalhadnoeffect alone.
Application of plant growth regulators at pre-harvest for fruit development of

'PÊRA' oranges
Almeidaet al.,2004
-1
 The treatments applied were: GA + 32,4-D 12.5mg L of each; GA +3 2,4-D
25mgL ;GA +23,4-D37.5mgL ;GA +NAA132.5mgL ;GA + NA-A
-1 -1 1
25mg3
L-1; GA +3 NAA37.5mgL ;NA-1A+2,4-D12.5mgL ;NAA+ -21,4-D25mgL ; -1
NAA+ 2,4-D37.5mgL ; a-1ndwater(control).
 The treatments were applied 3 times, at intervals of 45 days. The variables

evaluatedwere: rateofnatural fall(%),fruit lengthanddiameter(mm),andfresh
fruit weight(g).
 Noneofthetreatmentspromotedalterationsinthe developmentofthefruits,but
they did reduce the natural fall rate, when compared to control, up to 78.05%,
inhibitingthefruits'abscisionasmuch as3months.
Effect of cobalt and silver ions and naphthaleneacetic acid on fruit retention in
mango (Mangifera indica L.)
Alametal.,2004
 Thechemicals wereappliedtoimmaturefruits atpeasize(5-6 mm)and again2

weekslaterwhenthefruit lets haddeveloped to marblesize(10-15mm).
 Threecultivars,Sindhri,Langra(3 seasons)andDasehari(4seasons),weretested
andit was observedthat allconcentrationsofthechemicals significantly(P<0.05)
increasedfruitretention.
 In Sindhri, cobalt nitrate, silver nitrate and NAA treatments increased yields by
106-165%,89-146% and 94-115%,respectively,andinLangraby100-135%,98-
138% and95-118%.
 Whole tree sprays of cv. Dasehari with Co(NO3)2 at 100 mg/L, AgNO3 at 100
mg/L, and NAA at 20 mg/L yielded 129%, 66% and 54% more fruit than the
control.
Hormonal control of fruit growth and fruit drop in mango cv dashehari
 The gibberellin content in seed increased rapidly during early seed growth and
declined as growthdecreased.
 Theseedwas themajorsourceofgibberellininthefruit,the pericarpcontaining

onlytraces.
 Cytokinins werepresent both in pericarp and seed.
 During the single period of rapid growth in fruit and seed, cytokinin
concentrationsincreased rapidlyattwoperiods.
 The first rapid increase in cytokinin concentrations preceds the period of rapid
cell division and cell enlargement and the second increase coincides with the
periodofrapidcellenlargementonly.
 The level of ABA-like inhibitor was high in the first 21 d preceding pollination
whichcorresponded withthe periodofslowgrowth in fruit andheavyfruitdrop.
 Duringtherapidperiodoffruit growth,thelevelofinhibitors decreased and that

ofpromoters increased.
 However, in maturation and slow fruit growth period, the levels of both the
growthpromoters and inhibitors werelow.
 Thus all thegrowthpromoters playtheirroleinthegrowthofthefruit.
 Deficiency of auxins, gibberellins and cytokinins coupled with high level of

inhibitors appeartocause fruit drop inmangocv.Dashehari.
Effect of aminoethoxyvinilglycine (AVG) on pre-harvest fruit drop and maturity of

apples
 Apple trees cultivars Gala and Fuji were sprayed four weeks before commercial
-1
harvest with aminoethoxyvinilglycine(AVG),at doses of0, 125,or250 mg L ,
andassessed forpre-harvest fruit drop,fruit growth,andmaturation ontree.
 In 'Gala',64 days afterAVGspraying,fruitdropforcontrol treatment was 85%,

andAVG(at 125and250mgL )red-u1 ced it to10%.
 In 'Fuji', 64 days after AVG spraying, fruit drop for control was 6%, while
treatments withAVG(at125and250mgL )incr-e1asedfruit dropto 10%.
 AVGwasapowerfulretardantoffruit maturationfor'Gala'but not for'Fuji'.
 In 'Gala',the most affectedattributewas theskin background color,followed,in

decreasing order, by soluble solids content, the starch index, skin red color, the
flesh firmness, and titratable acidity. In 'Gala', only flesh firmness retention was
improvedbyincreasingAVGdosefrom125mgL to250-m
1
gL . -1
 TheAVGat 250mgL inh-1ibited "Gala"latefruitgrowthbut not 'Fuji'.
Conclusions
 AVGsubstantiallysuppressedpre-harvestfruitdropanddelayedfruit
maturityon'Gala'butnoton'Fuji';
 On'Gala',theAVGdoseof125mgL mi-g1htbeusedcommerciallytodelayfruit
harvest andincreaseyieldbyreducingprematurefruit abscissionandincreasing
fruit sizeoflateharvestedfruit;
 FruittreatedwithAVGhadpoorskin color(dark-greenbackgroundanddeficient
red colordevelopment)whilestillbeingabletomobilizestarch,soften,and lose
acidityonthetree.
Hormonal regulation of fruitlet abscission induced by carbohydrate shortage in

citrus
 Sugar supply, hormonal responses and fruitlet abscission were manipulated

throughfull,partialorselectiveleafremovals atanthesis and thereafter.
 In developing fruitlets, defoliations reduced soluble sugars (up to 98%), but did
notinducenitrogenand waterdeficiencies.
 Defoliation-inducedabscissionwas preceded byrises(upto20-fold)inthe levels

of abscisic acid (ABA) and 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) in
fruitlets.
 Applicationsto defoliatedplants showedthat ABAincreasedACC levels(2-fold)
and accelerated fruitlet abscission, whereas norflurazon and 2-aminoethoxyvinyl
glycinereducedACC (upto65%)andfruitlet abscission(upto40%).
 Only the full defoliation treatment reduced endogenous gibberellin A (4-f1old),

whereas exogenous gibberellins hadno effect onabscission.
 The data indicate that fruitlet abscission induced by carbon shortage in citrus is
regulated by ABA and ACC originating in the fruits, while gibberellins are
apparentlyimplicatedinthemaintenanceofgrowth.
 Inthissystem,ABAmayact as asensorofthe intensityofthenutrient shortage

that modulates thelevels ofACCand ethylene,theactivatorofabscission.
 This proposal identifies ABA and ACC as components of the self-regulatory

mechanismthat adjusts fruit loadtocarbon supply
Amla
 Advances inflowerandfruitregulation
 Threestagedofflowerandfruit drops
 Is–t highestas 70%offlowerdropoffwith in threeweeks offloweringdueto

degenerationoftheeggapparatus andlackofpollination
 IInd –fromJune-Sep–dueto lackofpollinationand fertilization
 IIIrd– dropconsist offruitofvarious stagesbeginningfromthirdweekofAug untilOct–

duetoembryological andphysiological factors
Parthenocarpy
 Inbotany,the formationoffruits without seeds.
 This phenomenon, of no obvious benefit to the plant, occurs naturally in some

plants,suchas bananas.
 It can also be induced in some fruit crops, either by breeding or by applying

certain plant hormones.
GA3
 Gibberellicacid application(10µmol pistil 1

) causeddevelopment similartothat
1
in pollinated pistils,whilebenzyladenine(1µmol pistil ) andnaphthylaceticacid
1
(10µmol pistil ) treatment produced shorter siliques. Naphthylacetic acid
primarilymodified mesocarp cellexpansion.
Auxins
 Parthenocarpy: IBA, NAA produces seed less/fruits - smaller sized fruits, but
morein number,henceyieldnot affected.
Strong synergistic effects of gibberellins with the synthetic cytokinin N-(2-chloro-4-

pyridyl)-N-phenylurea on parthenocarpic fruit set and some other fruit
characteristics of apple
 The induction of parthenocarpic fruit set was investigated using the apple cvs.
GoldenDelicious andJonagold.
 The gibberellins GA , 3GA , G

4A 5 and GA a7 nd the synthetic phenylurea-type
cytokinin CPPU (N-(2-chloro-4-pyridyl)-N-phenylurea), were applied alone and
in combination tounpollinatedflowers at theend ofpetal fall.
 Gibberellins inducedonlyamarginal final set ofparthenocarpic fruits.
 CPPUsprays weremoreeffective,particularlyin thefirstyear.
 When applied in combination, CPPU and gibberellins had a positive synergistic

effect on parthenocarpic fruit set and fruit size, but a negative effect on flower
inductionthenextyear.
 After CPPU + GA sprays, percent fruit set was similar, or greater, compared to
naturalpollinatedtrees.
 The parthenocarpic fruits induced by CPPU + GA had an increased length to

diameterratio.
 CPPUstimulated,andGA an4dGA redu7ced,therussetingoftheparthenocarpic

fruits.
 Theinternal qualityofthefruits washardlyaffected,butCa-deficiencysymptoms
occurredmorefrequentlyinparthenocarpicfruits
Parthenocarpic fruit development in cloudberry (Rubus chamaemorus L.) is

induced by 3b-hydroxylated gibberellins
 The purpose of this study was to test the activity of gibberellins and auxins for
inductionofparthenocarpicfruit development in cloudberry,Rubus chamaemorus
L.,adioecious,northern wildberry
 Planthormoneswereapplieddirectlyto openflowers,eitherdissolved in ethanol

oras anaqueous spray.
 Ofthetestedgibberellins (GA ,G1A ,GA

3 ,dim4ethyl-GA ,GA ,GA
4 ,G
5 A ,G9A 19 20
andGA )2o4nlyGA ,GA1 ,GA3anddi4methyl-GA were ac4tiveandinducedfruit

development comparabletodevelopment ofpollinatedfruits.
 Lack of activity of GA 20 and GA 9, the immediate precursors of GA an1d GA , 4
respectively, suggests that 3b-hydroxylation of gibberellins can be inhibited in

unpollinatedflowersofcloudberry.
 Auxin treatments induced an initial fruit development, but did not result in ripe
berries.
 Based on these results, use of transgenic methods to regulate gibberellin or/and

auxin biosynthesis in carpels of cloudberry could be used to develop a
parthenocarpic cloudberry.
Fruit set and development of three pear species induced by gibberellins
 Parthenocarpywas readilyinducedintwocultivars ofJapanesepearwhen GA + 47
(500 ppm) in combination with or without other plant growth substances were
applied on the emasculated and decapitated (stigma removed) flowers in full
bloomand3 weeks after.
 While GA3did not induceparthenocarpyinthesecultivars.
 Gibberellinwas not necessaryforthesecondtreatment(3weeks afterbloom),but

could be replacedwithNAAand/orBA.
 The parthenocarpic fruit was small and generally elongated-obovoid, different
fromthe roundseededfruit.
 Parthenocarpic fruit set of European pear induced by GA , G3A + o4r G7 A 45 was
42,45and46%,respectively.
Fruit growth
Using urea phosphate to enhance the effect of gibberellin A o3n grape size
 Gibberellic acid (GA )3is widely used to enlarge the berries of seedless grapes
(Vitis vinifera L). In cv. Sultana (Thompson Seedless) the addition of 1000
mg/Lureaphosphate (UP)to GA sol3utions after fruit set reduced thepH ofthe
solutions to a stable pH 2.9 and enhanced the effect of GA on be3 rry size and
delayedmaturation.
 Addition of citrate buffer, pH 2.9, to GA spra3ys did not affect berry size or
maturation.
 ThepossibilityofimprovedGApenetrationduetothelowpHisconsidered.
 The nutritional effect of UP and direct enhanced penetration bythe urea ion are
alsodiscussed.
Studies on apple fruit abscission and growth as affected by cytokinins
 Thinningtrials wereconductedfortwoyears (1998-1999)on treesofGala-

derived cultivars ('Mondial Gala'and'Galaxy'),usingNAAandCPPU.
 Inbothcultivars CPPU,aloneorincombinationwithNAA,has provenrather

successful,always increasingfruitsize.
 Inbothyearsandforbothactiveingredients themost effective concentrationwas

10 ppm,atvarious stagesoffruitontogeny.
 These applicationsresulted inreducedcropdensity(fruit numberpertrunk cross

sectionalarea,TCSA)andalways increasedfruit sizecomparedtohand-thinned
controls.
 CPPUwas alsotested as apromoteroffruit growth,appliedaftertrees hadbeen
thinnedtooptimumfruitload.
 Twentyppma.i.,appliedwhenthekingfruit reached20 mmdiameter,increased

fruit size,improvingyieldpertree.
 Earliermodellingworkonfruitgrowthhas ledtothehypothesis whetherCPPU‟s

modeofactionmightbeviaa celldivisionstimulation,resultingingreater
numbers ofcellsinthecortical parenchymaofthetreated fruits.
A Summary of growth regulator treatments used around the world.
Growth
Effect Timing Concentration Extent of Effect
Regulator
s
One, (or for Proportional to crop size, variety
Reduce flower greater effect) andtree vigour.
GA Early June and at
numbertoincrease two sprays of
budbreak. 20% reduction in flowering in
fruitsize. 25 ppm two
Australiantrials.
weeks apart.
Ralex® at label Registration of Ralex® due 2002,
GA 70-90% petal fall Proportional to crop size, variety
Improvefruitset. 10 to25ppm.
(October). and tree vigour.
50- Cost effective thinning agent.

Ethephon When fruitletsare10
Thincropload 70ml/100Lat Good application techniques
to15mmindiameter
about 3500L/ha required.
Thin crop load When fruitletsare15

3,5,6-TPA especially smaller to 17 mm in Proportional to crop size, variety
15ppm
and tree vigour.
fruitlets. diameter
Whenfruitletsare20
3,5,6-TPA Expand cell size to Proportional to crop size, variety
to 30 mm in 15ppm
increasefruitsize. and tree vigour.
diameter
2,4,-D Expand cell size to When fruitletsare5to 57-110g/ha@
and treevigour.
increasefruitsize. 19 mmindiameter 5000L/ha.
Isopropylesterformulation.
Mandarins: 15 to 20 Proportional to crop size, variety
Dichlorpro Expand cell size to mm in diameter and treevigour.
50 to100ppm.
p (2,4,DP) increasefruitsize. Oranges: 22to 25mm A 4 to 5 mm increase in fruit
indiameter
diame ter for mandarins and a 5 to
10 mmincreasefororanges.
When fruitletsare15
Temperature dependant (rates vary
NAA Cropthinning to 20 mm in 200-350ppm
toambienttemperatures)
diameter
Summary of Sprays Trialed in California (240 trees/ha)
Nutrient Rate Timing Effect

0.5%Nat31.4kgN/ha (1.1 Increase yield without
kg/100Llowbiureturea@ reducingfruitsize.Also
Urea (low biuret) Winter-Prebloom
applicationvolume reportedtoincreaseTSS
6300L/ha) at harvest.
Nutri-phite®0-28-26 Increase yield without

Phosphorus [phosphorus& reducingfruitsize.Also
Winter-Prebloom
(Phosphite) potassiummixture]at reportedtoincreaseTSS
7.3L/ha at harvest.
1.3%Nat31.4kgN/ha Increase yield by
(2.8kg/100Llowbiureturea increasingfruit set.

Urea (low biuret) Fullbloom
@applicationvolume Fruit size is not
2400L/ha) reduced.
1.5%Nrateat31.4kgN/ha MaximumPeel
Urea (low biuret) (3.3kg/100Llowbiureturea Thickness/Endofcell

Increasefruitsize
@applicationvolume division (Early/Mid
2100L/ha) Summer)*
Mid/latespring Increase fruit sizeand

Phosphorus Two applicationsofNutri-
andearly/mid increase TSS ratio at
(Phosphite) phite®at4.6L/ha
summer* harvest.
Ex.No.9. Assessment of physiological changes during fruit ripening
Regulation of ripening and storage
Aspects include fruit ripening and maturation, postharvest treatments to advance or

retard ripening, control of storage decay, storage physiology, and effects on shelf-life,
includingvase lifeofcutflowers.
 An increaseinexpressionofACCsynthasecauses an increasein ethylene
 Ethylene accelerates the process of fruit ripening, which includes cell wall
breakdown, production of pigments, can include a burst of respiration
(climacteric)and sweetening
 Applied ethylene (as ethephon) can promote ripening of fruit before or after
harvest
 Control ofethylene is importantin post-harvest storageof fruit andflowers; can

uselowO ,l2owtemp,ethylenescavengers (alsocontrolsrespiration)
 Canrepress theexpressionofACC synthasegeneintomatofruit andget delayed

ripening
The role of ethylene in fruit ripening
 Ethylene is a plant hormone regulating fruit ripening by coordinating the

expressionofgenes that areresponsibleforavarietyofprocesses,includingarise
in respiration, autocatalytic ethylene production and changes in color, texture,
aromaandflavor.
 Ethyleneis biosynthesizedfromS-adenosylmethionevia1-aminocyclopropane-1-
carboxylicacid(ACC),catalyzedbyACC synthaseandACC oxidase.
 Bothenzymes arelimitinginpreclimactericfruitsbut aregreatlyinduced during

theripening.
 ACC synthase has been purified and characterized fromvarious fruit tissues and
itscDNAs cloned.
 ACC oxidase was identified by a reverse genetic approach and subsequent

identification ofgenefunctionbyexpressionin heterologous systems.
 ACCsynthaseandACC oxidaseareencodedbymultigene families.
Banana
 Bananais commerciallyripenedbytreatment withexogenous ethylenegas at100

ppmmaintainingpulptemperature between16-18 C aot 95%RH
(Goldinget al.,1998)
 Storedat atemperature above13 C aondwithaRHof85-95%forabout3 weeks

andis ripenedinaweekortwo at 62 –70oF(16.o5–21 C) o
 Fruitbecomes blackenedat lowertemperature andshouldnot be placedina

refrigerator
Regulation of 1-MCP-Treated Banana Fruit Quality by Exogenous Ethylene and

Temperature
Jianget al.,2004
 Reductions infirmness,titratableacidity(TA)andstarchcontent (SC)of banana

fruits wereremarkablydelayedby1-MCPtreatment.

1-MCP treatment also delayed the increase of total soluble sugar (TSS) and
solublepectin(SP)contents.
 Soluble solids (SS)content inthe1-MCP-treatedfruitremainedalmost unchanged
duringthefirst10 days ofstorageat20C.
Ripening behaviour and quality of Brazilian bananas following hot water

immersion to disinfest surface insects
Marisa,2004
 Fruitsexposedto51ºC hot waterfor20 min.increasedtheshelflifeandkeeping

quality
 Hot water did not affect the total sugar or sucrose concentration of ripening
banana
 Starchconcentrationremainedhigherthancontrol.
 Glucoseandfructoseconcentrations werereducedinbananaimmersdin51ºC hot

waterfor20min.
 Delayedrespiratorypeaks and ripening
 Decreased Co 2productionalso tendedtohavethe highest starch andlowestsugar

concentration.
 Exposuretohot waterfor20minmayhave inhibitedstarch hydrolyticenzymes.
 Therefore less carbon was available to enter the glycolytic and gluconeogenic
pathways.
 Ethyleneproductionwasreducedand delayed.
 Inhibitethylene productioninfruits throughinactivationof1-aminocyclopropane

-1-carboxylicacid(ACC)synthaseandACC oxidase.
Effects of Chilling Temperatures on Ethylene Binding by Banana Fruit
YuemingJiangetal.,2004
 Exposureofbananafruit to the ethylene bindinginhibitor1-methylcyclopropene

(1 µl l -1 1-MCP) prevented ripening. However, this treatment also enhanced the
chilling injury accelerated the occurrence of chilling injury-associated increased
membranepermeability.
 14C-ethylenereleaseassayshowed that ethylenebindingbybananafruit storedat
low temperature decreased with reduced storage temperature and/or prolonged
storagetime.
 Fruit exposed to 1-MCP for 12 h and then stored at 3 or 8°C exhibited lower
ethylenebindingthanthosestoredat13 °C.
 Thus,chillinginjuryofbananafruitstoredatlowtemperature is associated with a

decrease in ethylene binding. The ability of tissue to respond to ethylene is
evidentlyreduced,therebyresultinginfailureto ripen.
Grapes
Storage of „Italia‟ grape submitted at calcium application.
Limaet al.,2000
 Calciumwas appliedbyimmersingthebunchesin0and1.5%CaCl solution2for

10 seconds atthe initialphaseofcolourchangeandsofteningofberries.
 Grapes werestored underrefrigeratedconditions (3.3-3.6 C aond 87-99%relative

humidity)andevaluatedat14-dayintervals until day70.
 Treatment with calcium decreased TSS, pH, and TSS/TAA ratio, and increased
theTTAandcalciumcontent in therachis andberry.
 Thestoragelifeofthegrapeswas=56days.
Use of different wax films for the prevention of dehydration of the rachis of table
grapes post harvest.
Baez Sanudoet al.,2001
 Ediblefilms orcoatingscouldbeagoodalternativetopreventtheproblemsince
this compound modulates the tissue permeability, decreasing water loss and
dehydrationrate.
Papaya
Ramakrishna and Hari Babu. 2003. Effect of post harvest application of CaCl and 2
Wax emulsion on the storage life of papaya
 CaCl23%andwaxemulsion6%-reducedPLW
 Waxcoatingreducedwaterloss – controlledtranspiration
 CaCl2 – maintain cellular organization and regulating enzyme activities and

therebyhelpinreducingwaterloss.
 TSSmaximumincontrol(11.01%),less inCaCl 3.0%2 and 6% waxat 12 days of

storage.
 IncreaseinTSS–conversion ofstarchandotherpolysaccharidesinto sugars.
 CaCl2(3.0%) and wax emulsion (6.0%) – high titrable acidity (0.31%) after 12
daysofharvest
 Changes in acidity – changes in mechanisms of respiratory process and

conversionofacids tosugars.
 Sugarcontent was maximumincontrol(8.92%),lowtotalsugar(7.67%)–CaCl 2
3%followedby6% wax.
 Carotenoid maximum in control (1.52%) compared to 3% CaCl and2 6% wax –

slowedprocess ofconversionofchlorophylltoorangecoloured pigments.
 Shelflife  6%wax(10.67),CaCl 3%
2 (10.33);control(6.33)
 Post-harvest treatments –extendedpostharvest lifebyanother4days.
Guava
Effect of postharvest application of ethephon and calcium carbide on the ripening

behaviour and quality of Guava fruits
Mahajanet al.,2004
 Ethephon500ppmrecordedminimumweight loss
 TheEthephon500ppmtreatedfruits werefoundquitefirmintexture duetolower

waterloss fromthefruits as aresult ofregulation ofripeningbyethyleneaction
 1000ppmEthephonregisteredlowestspoilage% after4days due toreductionin

primaryinoculamload inthefruit byaqueous dip
 1000ppm attained uniform ripening and color due to controlled ripening
mechanisminitiated byethyleneaction
 Increase in TSS and ascorbic acid in fruits treated with ethephon 1000ppm was
morethanCacarbide
Apples and pears
Effects of some growth regulators on the ripening and storage quality of apples and
pears
Sharpleset al.,1986
 Aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG) appears to inhibit ripening by blocking ACC

synthase activity and its effects can be overcome by treatment with exogenous
ethylene.
 Daminozidealsodelays the rateofripeningbysuppressionofethylenesynthesis

and, where pre-harvest spray application of daminozide is supplemented by
efficient ethylene removal, significant improvements in the quality of apples
storedincontrolledatmospheresmaybeachieved.
 Theincreasein coreflush(browncore)and breakdownwhich mayoccurinsome

varieties after treatment with daminozide can be largely overcome by reducing
applicationrates andselectingappropriate storageconditions.
 Cycocel (CCC) appears to have relatively little effect on fruit composition or

ripeningratebut Paclobutrazol promotes fruitcalciumlevels and,in some trials,
hasimprovedfruit firmnessandincreasedacidity.
 These effects are consistent withthoseofananti-gibberellin treatment sinceGA

sprays appliedclosetofullbloom,candepress fruitcalciumlevels andleadtoan
increasein disorders duringstorage.
 Tri-iodobenzoic acid has also been shown to depress fruit calcium levels and to
lead,insomecases,toincreasedbitterpit.
 Synthetic auxinspraysappliedtopreventpremature sheddingbeforeharvesttime

increasefruit redcolourandmayadvanceripeningincertain varieties.
 Post-havest applicationofGAandIAAmayhavebeneficialeffects onthestorage
qualities ofseveral varieties ofapplesandpears.
 Injection of GA into the core of Jonathan apples reduces breakdown whereas

abscisicacid tends topromote thisdisorder.
 It is evident that application of growth regulators to harvested fruits may often

produceverydifferent effects inthestored cropto thoseobservedwhenthesame
compoundis appliedtothefruitingtree.
Effects of some growth regulators on the development and ripening of peach fruits
Gyuróand Dávid 1978
 On peach cv. Marygold, spraying with 5000 ppm SADH at the stage of rapid
initial growthencouraged earlierandmore uniformfruit ripening.
 The most effective results followed an application of an SADH-Ethrel mixture

sprayedat stone-hardening.
 This gaveonly6.5% unripefruit at harvestingcomparedwith11% inthecontrol.

Succinicacid at 2000ppmshowedresultssimilartothose ofSADH.
Ex.No.10. Estimation of ascorbic acid content in fruits
Ascorbic Acid
Volumetric Method
Ascorbicacidisotherwiseknownas VitaminCandis an antioxidant.Itispresent

in goose beery, bitter gourd etc. in high amounts. Generally it is present in all fresh
vegetableandfruits.It is awatersolubleand heat-labilevitamin.Themethoddescribed
belowis easy,rapid andalarge numberofsamples canbe analysedinashorttime.
Principle
Ascorbic acid reduce the 2, 6-dichloro phenol indophenols dye to a colourless

leuco-base.Theascorbicacid gets oxidized to dehydroascorbicacidthoughthedyeis a
bluecolouredcompound,theendpointis the appearanceofpinkcolour.Thedyeis pink
colouredinacid medium.
Materials
 Oxalic Acid4%
 Dyesolution–Weight42mgsodiumbicarbonateintoasmall volumeofdistilled
water.Dissolve52 mg2,6-dichlorophenolindophenol in itandmakeupto200
ml withdistilled water.
 Stockstandard solution –Dissolve100mgascorbicacidin100ml of4%oxalic

acidsolutionin astandardflask(1mg/ml).
 Workingstandard – Dilute10ml ofthestocksolution to100ml with4%oxalic

acid.Theconcentration ofworkingstandardis100mg/ml.
Procedure
1. Pipetteout5mloftheworkingstandard solutioninto a100mlconical flask.
2. Add 10ml of 4% oxalic acid and titrate against the dye (V ml)1. End point is the
appearance of pink colour which persists for a few minutes. The amount of the
dyeconsumed is equivalent to the amount ofascorbic acid.
3. Extract thesample (0.5-5g)dependingonthesamplein4%oxalicacidandmake
uptoaknownvolume(100 ml).Centrifugeorfilter.
4. Pipette out 5 ml of the supernatant, add 10 ml of 4% oxalic acid and filtrate
against thedye(V m2 l).
Calculation
Amount ofascorbic acid mg/100 gofsample0.5mgx2x100ml x100

Vlml 5ml Wtofsample
Result
Theamount ofascorbicacidpresent inthegiven sample=----------mg.
Ex.No.11. Estimation of TSS and total sugar content
TSS
The total soluble solids of each sample was estimated through a hand
refractometerandexpressedas degreebrix.
Estimation of total sugar content
1. Total sugar content

Procedure
Reagents used were2.5 N HCl, anthrone reagent, standard glucose and working
standard(10 ml standardglucosedilutedto100mlwithdistilledwater).
One hundred mg of the sample was taken in a boiling tube and the sample was
hydrolyzed by keeping it in boiling water bath for 3 hours with 5 ml of 2.5 N HCl. The
wholecontent was cooledtoroomtemperature.Itwas neutralizedwith sodiumcarbonate
until the effervescence ceased. Then the volume was made up to 100 ml with distilled
water and the supernatant was collected after centrifuging. Aliquots of 0.5 and 1.0 ml
weretakenforanalysis.
Thestandards were preparedbytaking0.2,0.4,0.6,0.8and 1.0 ml oftheworking

standard. Then, the volume was made up to 1.0 ml with distilled water and 4 ml of
Anthronereagent was added toallthetesttubes andheatedfor8minutes inboilingwater
bath. The tubes were then cooled rapidly. The OD of the green coloured product was
readat 630nm.Thestandard graph wasdrawnbyplottingconcentrationofthestandards
on the x-axis and absorbance on the
y-axis and, the amount of total sugars present was calculated by using the following
formula.
Amount oftotalsugars present mgofglucose

in100mgofthesample = -------------------------x100
Vol.oftest sample
Ex.No.12. Estimation of carotenoids and lycopene content in fruits
Carotenoids
The Carotenoids are a group of yellow, orange and orange red fat – soluble
pigment widelydistributes innature. Ingreen leaves,theyoccurin granaofchloroplast.
Thegreencolourofthechlorophyllmasks the yellowto redcolourofthecarotene except
in veryyoungleaves andinvariegatedleaves,whereinchloroplast content is less. These
pigments arepresent in mango, papaya, tomato, carrot,red pepper, mostoftheflowers,
etc. Carotenoids are of two groups carotenes and xanthophylls. Carotenes are
hydrocarbonswiththeempirical formulaC H 40 56 composedofeight isopreneunits. There
are several isomers of which _- carotene, the precursor of vitamin A, is most abundant
andmaymakeup as much as 0.1% oftheleafdryweight. The red pigment,lycopene,
foundinripetomatoes,rose fruitsandotherplantparts,isalsoas isomerofcarotene.
Mostxanthophylls havetheformulaC H O
40 ,a5n6da2reyellowtobrownincolour.
Xanthophyllscanbeseparatedphysicallyfromcarotene becausetheyaremoresolublein
alcoholand muchless solubleinpetroleumether. The most abundantleafxanthophyllis
lutein which sometimes occurs in higher concentration that _- carotene. Carotenoids
functionas accessorypigments inphotosynthesis and mayalsoprotect chlorophyll form
irreversiblephotooxidation.
Estimation of carotenoids
Procedure
250 mg of fresh leaf sample is macerated thoroughly with 80% acetone (10ml) using a
pestle and mortar. The leaf extract is centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 20mts and the residue is re-
extractedwithanother5ml of80% acetoneuntilhomogenatebecomes colorless. Thesupernatant
solution is transferred to a 25ml volumetric flask and made up to 20ml with 80% acetone. The
optical densityofthe extractis measuredat 480and510nmwavelengthinaSpectrophotometer.
Calculation
7.6 (ODat480)-1.49(ODat510)V
Carotenoids: -----------------------------------------------
1000 xW
Thecarotenoid contentisexpressedas mgg- offr1esh leaf.
Estimation of lycopene
Procedure
Ten grams of sample was extracted with acetone. The acetone extract was
transferred to a separatingfunnelcontaining15mlofpetroleumetherandmixedgently.
Theloweracetonephasewas dilutedwithwatercontainingfivepercent sodiumsulphate
andthentransferredto anotherfunnel.Theextractionwas repeatedwith petroleumether
until it was colourless. Anhydrous sodium sulphate was added to the pooled petroleum
etherextracts andthe volumewasmadeupto100mlwithpetroleumether.An aliquot of
5 ml was diluted to 50 ml and the colour was read at 503 nm in a spectrophotometer
against petroleumetheras blank.Thelycopenecontent ofthesamplewas expressed as
mg/100gandcalculated bytheformula.
Calculation: 3.1206 x OD value of sample x Volume made up x Dilution x 100
1.0 xweight ofsamplex1000

Ex.No.13. Identification of physiological and nutritional disorder and correction
measures in horticultural crops
Deficiency Symptoms
Whennutrientis not presentinsufficient quantity,plant growthis affected.Plants

may not show visual symptoms up to a certain level of nutrient content, but growth is
affected and this situation is known as hidden hunger. When a nutrient level still falls,
plants show characteristic symptoms of deficiency. These symptoms, through varywith
crop, have a general pattern. These are generally masked bydiseases and other stresses
and so need careful and patient observation on more number of plants for typical
symptoms.Thedeficiencysymptoms appearclearlyincrops withlargerleaves.
Identification of Deficiency Symptoms
The deficiency symptoms can be distinguished based on the (1) region of

occurrence, (2) presence or absence of dead spots, and (3) chlorosis of entire leaf or
intervenialchlorosis.
Deficiency symptoms
Oldleaves Newleaves Oldand new Terminal buds

leaves
N,P,K,Mg, S,Fe,Mn,Cu Zn Ca,B

Mo
Deadspots Nodead Greenveins Yellow

spots veins
K,Mo N,P,Mg Fe,Mn S,Cu
GreenVeins Yellow
veins
Mg N
Identification of deficiency symptoms
Theregionofappearanceofdeficiencysymptoms depends onmobilityofnutrient

in plants. The nutrient deficiency symptoms of N, P, K, Mg and Mo appear in lower
leaves because of their mobility inside the plants. These nutrients move from lower
leaves to growingleavesthus causingdeficiencysymptoms inlowerleaves.
Zincis moderatelymobileinplantsanddeficiencysymptoms,therefore,appearin
middle leaves. The deficiency symptoms of less mobile elements (S, Fe, Mn and Cu)
appear on new leaves. Since Ca and B are immobile in plants, deficiency symptoms
appearonterminal buds.Chlorinedeficiencyisless common in crops.
Deficiency symptoms on old leaves
Thesymptomsthatappearonold leaves canbefurtherdistinguishedbasedonthe

presenceorabsenceofdead spots.
Without Dead Spots. The characteristic deficiency symptom of nitrogen is

uniform yellowing of the leaves including the veins. The leaves become stiff and erect
especiallyin cereals.Theleafmaydetachafteralittleforceful pull inextremedeficiency
in dicotyledonouscrops.Cereal crops showcharacteristic'V'shapedyellowingatthetip
oflowerleaves.
In phosphorus deficiency, leaves are small, erect, unusually dark green with a
greenish red, greenish brown or purplish tinge. The rear side develops bronzy
appearance.
Magnesium deficiency also causes yellowing, but differs from that of nitrogen.
The yellowingtakes place in between the veins and the veins remain green. The leaf is
not erect. The leaf detaches very easily and may be shed by blowing wind. Necrosis
(deathoftissues)occurs inextremecases onlyin themargins.
With Dead Spots. In potassium deficiency, yellowing starts from tips or margins
ofleaves extendingto thecenterofleafbase.Theseyellowparts becomenecrotic(dead
spots) very soon. There is sharp difference between green and yellow and yellow and
necroticportions.Thedeadspots appearparticularlyonmarginsandtips.
Molybdenumdeficiencycausestranslucentspots ofirregularshapeinbetween the

veins ofleaves.Thesespots are light green,yelloworbrownincolour.Theaffectedspots
are impregnated with resinous gum which exudes from rear side of the leaf from the
reddishbrownspots.
Deficiency Symptoms on New Leaves
These symptoms maybespreadoverentireleafortheveins mayremaingreen.
Veins Remaining Green. Veins remain green in iron and manganese deficiency. In
irondeficiency,theprincipal veinsremainconspicuouslygreen andotherportions ofthe
leaf turn, yellow tending towards whiteness. Under severe deficiency, most part of the
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veins are green. The interveinal portion is yellowish, not tending towards whiteness.
Deadspotsalsoappearat alaterstage.Thereis achequered appearanceto theleaf.
Veins not Remaining Green. The leaf becomes yellowish due to sulphur
deficiency,but lookslikenitrogendeficientleaf.Theleafis small andtheveins arepaler
thanintervenialportion.Nodead spots appear.Plantdoesnot losethelowerleaves as in
the caseofNdeficiency.
In copper deficiency, leaf is yellowish tending towards whiteness. In extreme

deficiency, chlorosis of veins occur and leaf loses luster. Leaf is unable to retain its
turgidityand hence,wiltingoccurs. Leafdetaches dueto watersoakedconditions ofthe
baseofpetiole.
Terminal Buds
The deficiency symptoms of Ca and B are many times seen on new leaves.
However, it is easy to recognize their deficiency symptoms on the terminal buds or
growingpoints than onnewleaves.
In calcium deficiency, the bud leaf becomes chlorotic white with the base
remaining green. About one-third chlorotic portion of the tip hooks downward and
becomes brittle.Death ofterminalbudoccurs in extremecases.
Borondeficiencycausesyellowingorchlorosis whichstarts fromthebasetotip.

Thetipbecomes verymuchelongatedintoawhiplikestructureandbecomesbrownishor
blackishbrown.Death oftheterminalbud occursinextremecases.
Deficiency on both old and new leaves
Inzincdeficiency,the leafbecomes narrowandsmall.Laminabecomes chlorotic

and veins remain green. Subsequently, dead spots develop all over the leaf including
veins, tips andmargins.In cereals,zincdeficiency generallyappears in 2-4 leaves from
the topduringvegetativestage.Plants appearbushyduetoreducedinternodalelongation.
Subsequently,panicle fails toemergecompletelyoremerges partially.
Toxicity Symptoms
Whena nutrientis present inthesoilin excess ofplant's requirement,the nutrient

is absorbed in higher amounts which causes imbalance of nutrients or disorder in
physiological processes. Unlike deficiency symptoms, toxicity symptoms are less
common.
Nitrogen: Excess nitrogen causes delay in maturity and increases succulency. The
adverse effects of excess nitrogen are lodging and abortion of flowers. Crop becomes
susceptibletopests and diseases.
Phosphorus: Excess phorphorus causes deficiency of iron and zinc. In some crops like
maize, leaves develop purple colouration and plant growth is stunted. In cotton, leaves
becomedarkgreenincolour,maturityofbolls delayedandstems turnred.
Iron: Tiny brown spots appear on the lower leaves of rice starting from tips and
spreading towards bases. Leaves usually remain green. In extreme case, the entire leaf
turns purplishbrown in colour.
Manganese: The plant is stunted and tillering is often limited. Brown spots develop on
the veinsoftheleafbladeandleafsheath,especiallyonlowerleaves.Manganesetoxicity
occurs inlowland rice.
Boron: Chlorosis occurs at the tips of the older leaves, especially along the margins.
Large,darkbrown,ellipticalspotsappearsubsequently.Theleaves ultimatelyturnbrown
anddryup.
Identification of physiological and nutritional disorders in fruit crops
Theproductivityas well as thequalityoffruit cropsis affectedtoagreaterextent

due to the physiological and nutritional disorders. Disturbance in the plant metabolic
activities resultingfromanexcess ordeficitofenvironmental variables liketemperature,
light, aeration and nutritional imbalances result in crop disorders. In fruit crops, the
deficiency of micronutrients causes many more disorders than that of macronutrients.
Nutritional disorders havebecome widespreadwithdiminishinguseoforganicmanures,
adoption of high density planting, disease and salt tolerance, unbalanced NPK fertilizer
applicationand extensionofhorticulturetomarginal lands.Togethighqualityfruitand
yields, micronutrients deficiencies have to be detected before visual symptoms are
expressed.
The deficiencies of Zn, Mn and B are common in sweet orange, acid lime,
banana, guava and papaya in India. To correct both visual and hidden micronutrient
deficiencies, appropriate foliar and soil applications are necessary. The description of
physiologicalandnutritionaldisorders incrops includes anumberoftechnical termsand
it is essential to understand the terms for better identification of symptoms. Some
common terms are, bronzing (development of bronze or copper colour on the tissue),
chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll resulting in loss of green colour leading to pale yellow
tissues), decline (onset of general weakness as indicated byloss of vigour, poor growth
and low productivity), die-back (collapse of the growing tip affecting the younger
leaves),firing(burningoftissueaccompaniedwithdark brownorreddishbrowncolour),
lesion (a localized wound of the leaf/stem tissue accompanied with loss of normal
colour), necrosis (death of tissue), scorching (burning of the tissue accompanied with
light brown colourresultingfromfacultyspray,salt injury,etc.)
Somecropsaremoresensitivethanothers tothedeficiencyofa micronutrientand

itcan beinferredthat thecriticalconcentrationofanutrientisnotsame forall thecrops.
Thesusceptibilityortoleranceratingofcropstonutrient deficiencies shows considerable
variation duetowiderhereditaryvariabilitywithinacrop species (Tandon,1995).
Apart from the nutrient deficiencies that affect various horticultural crops,
physiologicaldisorders arealsocommonlynoticed.Theprincipal causes fortheonset of
physiological maladies arefound to besuddenshift in theenvironments factors, change
in the fertilizer pattern, qualityof irrigation water, pest infestation, misuse of chemicals
such as herbicides,growth regulators,pesticides,etc.
For the proper growth and development of crop plants, especially fruit trees,
majornutrients suchas nitrogen,phosphorusandpotassium,secondarynutrients such as
magnesium,calcium,sulphurand micronutrientssuchas iron,magnesium,copper,zinc,
boronandmolybdenumareverymuchneededinproperquantities.Ifevenanyoneofthe
aforesaid nutrient elements is available is less than optimum level in the plant, the very
growth of the plant is adversely affected. Hence, it is imperative that all the essential
nutrient elements shouldbeadequatelyprovided tothe crop plants soas tofacilitatethe
tissues incarryingoutthevarious metabolicandphysiological processes.
Whenfoliarsprayoffertilizeris takenup,it is advisable tohave thesprayeither

in the morning or evening. While spraying, the foliage should be drenched fully and it
can be achieved by operating a hand sprayer. Addition of soap solution to the spray
solution is very much required to facilitate uniform spread and wetting of the nutrient
solutionon theleafsurface.Rainydays shouldbeavoidedforthefoliarspray.When soil
applicationofnutrientmixtures is adopted,the fertilizers shouldbemixedwithcompost
farmyardmanurewhichhelpsineasyavailabilityand uptakebytheplants.
Banana
Physiological disorders
1. Choke throat
It is due to lowtemperatureaffectingactivegrowthoftheplant. Leaves become

yellowandinseverecases,thetissuegets killed.In case ofnormallyfloweringplants,the
stalkcarryingbunches elongates freelysothat theentireinflorescence comes out ofthe
pseudostem and hags down. Bunch development is normal, but when the time of
flowering synchronizes with low temperature, the bunch is unable to emerge from the
pseudostem properly. The distal part of the inflorescence comes out and the basal part
gets stuck up at the throat. Hence, it is called Choke throat. Maturity of the bunch is
delayedbytaking5-6months insteadof3.5–4months forharvest.
Precautions provision of shelter belts,plantinglow temperaturetolerant varieties

adjustingthetimeofplantingandorchardtoprevent rapid coolingduringcoldspells.
2. Maturity bronzing
It is astress relateddisordercommonlycalled asmaturitystainorbronzing.The

symptoms includecrackingofthe peel and discolouration begins as a lightbrowntinge
andturns tosoliddarkbrownlesions which dries andformlongitudinal cracks.Thecells
oftheunderlyinglayers ofbananapeel expand at afasterrate foralongperiod oftime
than epidermal cells. This pattern of growth gives rise to point of weakness at the cell
edge.Theepidermal cellsaresubjectedtocircumferential stressduringfruit growthand
itexceedsitselasticlimitandseparationofcells at anticlinal walls ofadjacentepidermal
cells.Hence,redbrown discolouration occurs.
3. Chilling injury
Chillingoccurswhenpre-harvestorpost-harvest temperatures fall below14°C for

various time periods (Stover,1972).Thepeel ofbanana becomedarkandthefruit exhibit
unevenripening.Ripeningfingersshowdull yellowto smokyyellowcolourandwatery
darkpatchesareobserved ontheskin.Brittlenessofthefruitandfungalinvasionis also
observed. The vascular bundles of the sub-epidermal layer show brown streaks. The
discoloration is ascribedtotheenzymaticoxidation ofdihyroxyphenylalanine.
4. Finger drop
It is thedislodgement ofindividualbananafingers fromthebunchduringripening

andmarkting.Itcanbedefinedasphysiological softeningand weakeningofthepedicel
which causetheindividual fruitofahand toseparateveryeasilyfromthecrown.Finger
drop is related to the reduction in the pedicel rupture force of fruit. Fruits which were
ripened at 15-30°C had progressively weaker pedicels at increasinglyhigh temperature.
However, at very high temperature of 40°C pedicels remained firm and fruits were
resistant tofingerdrop.Softeningoffruitis associated withthewaterrelationsofcelland
composition ofcell walls.Duringripening,thepeel ofbananaloses weightmorerapidly
than pulp and becomes easytopeel. Fruits ripenedat 40°C had averyhighweight loss
which resulted in thin dry leathery skin which is resistant to finger drop. Exposure to
ethylene for24hours reducefingerdropbecauseofafasterripeningrateandhighwater
loss.
5. Kottaivazhai
It is a serious maladyinPoovan varietyofbanana,reducingtheproductionby10-

25%. The symptoms are distinctly conical and ill filled fruits with a prominent central
core having many underdeveloped seedy structures making the fruit inedible. The
pseudostem exhibits streaks, striations and blotches on the surface. Bunches are held at
anangleabove thehorizontalposition.Pollengrains areinfertile,shriveled,shrunken and
broken while the pericarp is smaller and the locular cavity is bigger than normal. The
absenceortheoccurrenceofauxin,gibberellinandcell dividingfactors at subepidermal
levels affectthedevelopment ofparthenocarpicfruits.Applicationof2,4-D25ppmand
GA100 ppmafterthe openingoflast hadfavours developmentofparthenocarpicfruit.
6. Hard lump
Hard lump or masses of varying sizes and shapes occur in the pulp. Lumps are
pinkish brown in colour and more firm than the usual pulp and taste like immature or
unripefruits,withtheresult thequalityofthefruitis affected.Occurrenceofhardlumpis
seasonal and only the bunches shot during dry winter period exhibit the phenomenon.
Thepinkdiscolorationand astringenttaste offruit isdue tohigh accumulation oftannin
duringwintermonthswhichinhibitthe conversionofstarchtosugar.Sprayingordipping
the endofpeduncle in20mlof2,4-D1000ppmchecks thedisorder.
Nutritional disorders
Lopex and Espinosa (2000) observed that banana required more nutrients per
hectare than any other commercially cultivated crop and reported various nutritional
disorders affectingthe yieldandqualityofbanana.
1. Nitrogen deficiency
The most evident symptom that N is lacking is yellow leaves resulting from a
reduction in chlorophyll content. The normal progression of the deficiency is for
yellowingtobeginintheolder,lowerleavesandsubsequentlytoaffectyoungerleaves as
the deficiencyworsens.Petiolesofthemost affectedleaves showapinkishdiscoloration.
Nitrogen deficiency significantly delays plant growth and development by

reducing leaf production rates as well as the relative distance between leaves. A rosette
appearance often results from each leaf emerging and developing on top of each other.
Plantheight andleaflengthsarealsoconsiderablyreduced.
2. Potassium deficiency
The most characteristic of the K deficiency symptoms is the yellowing of older Goorgeldeu
leaf tips followed byinward leaf curling and death. The banana bunches in K deficient sceeadrpchho-
twow
syw nt.ahn
plants are short, slim and deformed as a consequence of poor fruit filling caused by
esilirsaannad
su0g1a4r.tw
13 raenbsbployr.tcaotm
ion.
Page 199
3. Calcium deficiency
Calcium deficiency symptoms appear in the younger leaves since it has low
mobility within the plant. This thickening is accompanied by marginal interveinal
chlorosis as the plant grows. If the deficiency is severe, the leaves become completely
deformed with margins becoming serrated or saw-like. Prolonged and severe Ca
deficiencycan prevent theemergenceofnewleavesand ultimatelythedeath oftheplant.
Deformationsofthe flagleafcanbeinducedbypoorlyplacedherbicideapplications such
as glyphosate and can be erroneously confused with deficiencies of Ca, Zn or B.
Similarly,symptoms ofviral attackcanbemistakenfordeficiencies ofthese elements.
4. Magnesium deficiency
The most typical visual Mgdeficiencyis yellowingof theoutsidesectionofthe

lamina in older leaves, which is due to its mobility in the plant. As the deficient leaf
matures,chlorosis becomes moreintense,and darkspotsform,that laterbecomenecrotic.
Affected leaves become an intense golden yellow colour. The deficiency changes the
arrangement of leaves in the pseudostem, producing a rosette appearance. Another Mg
deficiencysymptomis abluish-purplecolourationofthe petioles calledblue sickness.
When Mg deficiency is severe, the basal section of the petiole can separate and
breakfromthepseudostem,causingearlyleafsenescence.
5. Zinc deficiency
Due to imbalanced fertilizer application and high density planting, incidence of

Zn deficiencyhas become yieldlimiting.Disproportionateand high applicationofDAP
as basal and top dressing create P induced Zn deficiency in banana. The leaf width is
reduced more than the length and the leaf becomes lanceolate in shape. The lower leaf
surfaceshows purplepigmentation,resultingin interveinalchlorosis andyieldreduction.
Spraying of Zinc sulphate 0.3% + 0.5% urea at 45 and 60 days after planting of main
cropand45daysaftercuttingofmotherplant forratooncropcorrects the disorderwell.
InZn deficient soils,application ofZincsulphate @50g/plantat thetimeofplantingis
recommended.
6. Boron deficiency
InB deficient plants,theveins areveryclose,raisedabovethe laminaandleaves

are brittle in the early stage. In the later stage, chlorotic spots parallel to midrib and
corrugation and laddering symptoms also appear and unfolding of leaf is delayed in
additiontotheyieldreduction.Breadingofleaftip,torningofleaftips andbrowning at
the end is alsoobserved. Corrective measureis application of borax at 20 g/plant at the
timeofplantingand foliarsprayof0.2% boricacidatfourthand fifth monthofplanting.
2. Mango
Physiological disorders
1. Black tip
Coal fumes of brick kilns containing sulphur dioxide, ethylene and carbon
monoxideare observed to beresponsibleforblacktip.The damage has been noticed in
the mango orchards located upto 200 metres of distance from brick kiln. It is
characterized bydepressedspots ofyellowingtissues atthedistal endofthefruit,which
graduallyincreasein size, becomebrown and finallyblack. Thenecroticareais always
restricted tothetip ofthefruit.Thegrowthofthefruit is almostat standstillandthefruit
becomes soft after premature ripening. Such fruits never reach full maturity and drop
earlier.Thepreventivemeasureistohaveorchards 1.5 kmtotheeast and west and0.75
kgtothe northandsouthawayfromthekilns.Sprayingof2%sodiumcarbonateor0.6%
boraxisrecommended ascontrolmeasure.
2. Scorching of leaves
It has become a serious problem in north India. The typical symptoms are the
brick red colour towards the tip, along the margins of old leaves and subsequent
collapsing of these tissues. New leaves do not exhibit any such deformities. Almost all
leaves get affected in the winter. The symptom resembles potassium deficiency, but
Pandey (1971) reported that it is caused bychloride ion toxicity. For Kapplication, the
useofpotassiumchlorideshouldbeavoided,instead potassiumsulphateshould beused.
Irrigationwaterhavinghighchloridecontent shouldnot beused.
“Deficiency symptoms”
Theleaves willbecomesmallerinsize,interveinalchlorosis will set inwhichmay

lead to reduction in photosynthesis. As a consequence, fruit yield will be very much
affected.
Recommendations
The aforesaid symptoms are manifested as a result of deficiency of magnesium

and zinc. Hence, it is advisable to provide the mango tree with the following nutrients:
250 g. each of magnesium sulphate, manganese sulphate, zinc sulphate and borax are
mixed along with 100 gm of urea in 100 litres of water added with 100 ml of soap
solution. The solution is given through foliar spraythree times at 20 days interval. It is
also followed up with soil application at the rate of 75 gm each per tree of magnesium
sulphate,zincsulphate, manganesesulphateand borax alongwith20-25kgofcompost,
irrigationshouldbedoneimmediatelyaftersoil fertilization.
Acid lime
“Iron chlorosis”
Irondeficiencyis known simplyas„Ironchlorosis oras limeinducedchlorosis‟.

It develops on young growth but may persist throughout the life of the plant. In mild
cases youngleaves becomepalegreen except forthe veins whichremain darkgreen.In
severecases,thesymptomsaredrasticallyaggravated.Newlyemergingleavesarealmost
whitewith onlya fainttingeofgreen alongtheirmidribs.The treemaybearfewerfruits
which aresmall,hardand coarse.
Recommendations
500 gmofferrous sulphateand 100 gm ofureaalongwith100mlofsoapsolution

aredissolvedin100litres ofwaterandsprayedto thecropinanareofgarden.Thespray
maybe repeatedtwoorthree times ataninterval of20days dependingontheextent of
deficiency.
Sathukudi
1. “Little leaf with chlorosis”
Theleaves areverymuchreduced in size andwillexhibitchloroticsymptoms.
Recommendations
Foliarsprayofmanganesesulphateandzincsulphateeach500gm alongwith100
gm of urea dissolved in 100 litres of water is done three limes at 20 days interval.
Besides,soilapplication ofmanganesesulphate (100gm)andzincsulphate(100g)along
with25kgofcompost farmyard manurewill be advantageous.
Acid lime and jack
1. “Zinc Deficiency”
It is characterized by small leaves with shorter stalks producing a rosette

appearance.Interveinal chlorosiswill benoticed.Thefruits will besmallerinsizeandthe
yieldwill get affected becauseofhigherproportionoffruit drops.
Recommendations
Foliarapplication ofnutrient solutions contains zincsulphate(500 gm)and lime

(250 gm)mixed with100gm ofureaand100mlsoap solution dissolvedin100 litresof
wateris giventhriceat 20daysintervals.Whenthetreeputforths newgrowth,basalsoil
application of 250 g zinc sulphate along with compost FYM during March and
Septemberin equal dosesis mostbeneficial.
Sapota
1. “Boron Deficiency”
When there is boron deficiency, the pollination of flowers is affected leading to

sterility; hence,fruitformationisaffected resultingin pooryield.
Recommendations
Foliarsprayofboron(300gm)/100 litres ofwaterat thetimeoffloweringis to

given twice at 15 days interval. Boron nutrition will help in proper pollination and
fertilizationofflowers in sapota.
Guava
Symptoms
The leaf size will get reduced and leaf colour will turn yellowish or reddish
brown.Fruitsizealso will bereducedwithsurfacecrackingandmalformation.
Recommendations
Sincethismaladyisbrought about byadeficiencyofacombinationofnutrients,

the followingmicro nutrients will be applied through coliarspray. 300 g each ofborax,
zincsulphateandcoppersulphatealongwith100 gofureaand100ml ofsoapsolution
dissolved in100litofwaterwill be sufficient foranareaofoneacreofgarden;basalsoil
application of 30 g each of borax, zinc sulphate and copper sulphate has to be done
around each tree. These fertilizers are mixed with compost and then placed in the
trenches around thetrunkofthetree;it is tobefollowed byimmediateirrigation.
Grapes
1. “Hen and chicken disorder”
This disorder is characterized by the presence of a large number of shot berries

alongwith a fewnormalsizeberries.Theleaves willbemarketedbypresenceofyellow
spots andwiltingofleaftip andmargins.Thefruits willbesourtotaste.
Recommendations
Since this disorder is caused mainly by boron deficiency, foliar application of

borax@500galongwith 100gofureaand100 ml ofsoapsolutionin 100 lit ofwateris
to begivenforanorchardofoneacre area.
2. “Zinc deficiency”
Zincdeficiencyis sometimes implicatedas a causeforthisdisorder.Hence,it is

preferable to mix zinc sulphate @ 500 g with borax and urea (100 g) dissolved in 100
litres ofwaterandsprayed throughfoliarmeans.
Soil application of borax (75g) and zinc sulphate (75g) along with 25-30 kg of
FYMpertree is alsoadopted.
Tomato
1. “Blossom End Rot”
This deficiencydisorderis causedbyinsufficiencyofcalciuminthesoil,usually

induced bywaterstress in theplant.Attimeoffruit set,cellsattheblossomendoffruits
are injured when insufficient calcium translocation to the flower results in a dry rot
brownarea on the expandingfruit.
Recommendations
Soil moisture should be maintained at optimum level so as to prevent the

occurrence of this malady. To correct this disorder, foliar spray of lime (calcium
chloride) @ 500 g dissolved in 100 lit of water along with 100 ml of soap solution for
oneacreofgarden. Whilespraying,it shouldbeensuredthat completedrenchingofthe
fruits with thespraysolutionisachieved.
Apple
1. “Internal Cork”
The mesocarp of the fruit will become corky with dark brownish patches thus
renderingitunfit forconsumption.It is duetoborn deficiency.
Recommendations
Foliarapplication ofborax(500g)andurea(100 g)dissolvedin100 lit ofwater

will remedythedisorder.
Nutritional disorders and corrections in vegetable crops
Vegetables are very often subjected to nutrient stresses because of their rapid
growth, high nutrient requirement and intensity of production. The requirement of
nutrients for vegetable crops is considerablyhigher than that of field crops. It has been
observed that nitrogen should be high in fertilizers for leafy foliage crops, that
phosphorusshould be highforfruit crops andpotashhighforrootcrops.
Symptoms of nutrients deficiencies that develop in vegetablecrops grown in the

field often vary from those produced in plants grown under controlled greenhouse
conditions. Disease and insects often produce plant symptoms closely resembling those
resultingfromnutrientdeficiencies.
Cauliflower
“Brown heart disorder”
Borondeficiencyin cauliflower, turnip, radish, cauliflower and other root crops,

commonlycausewhat is knownas brownheart.Itis manifestedfirst bydark spots onthe
roots, usually on the thickest parts. The plant gradually becomes stunted or dwarfened.
Theleaves aresmallerthannormalandfewer.
In the case of cauliflower, the flower head will show hollow stem and bronzing
duetothe decayofthecoretissuesofthestalk.
Recommendations
To ameliorate this disorder, foliar spray of 500 g of borax along with 100 g of
urea and 100 ml of soap solution dissolved in 100 lit of water has to be taken up in an
acreofland.Sprayistoberepeatedtwotothreetimesat anintervalof20days.
Chillies
“Little leaf with intervenial chlorosis”
Symptoms
The chillies crop has high affinity for zinc nutrition and hence large amount of
zincis takenupbytheplant.Ifzincis notreplenishedperiodically,the cropis proneto
sufferfromzincdeficiencyseverely.
The entire foliage of the crop will be reduced in size with interveinal chlorosis,
whenzincis in short supplyandtheplantwill presentastuntedgrowth.
Recommendations
Foliarapplication ofzincsulphate@500gandurea@100gdissolvedin 100 lit

ofwateralongwith100 ml soapsolution istobegiventwo tothreetimesat aninterval
of20days dependingupontheextent ofseverity.
Foliarapplicationhas to besupplementedwithsoil applicationofzinc sulphate@
8 kg/acreis givenbasallyduringlastploughingofthefield.
Brinjal
“Iron Chlorosis”
Symptoms
Young as well as older leaves will exhibit chlorotic symptoms in the form of
yellwing. So there will be a decline in photosynthesis due to which fruit yield will be
greatlyreduced.
Recommendations
Foliar spray of solution containing 500g of ferrous sulphate and 100 g of urea
dissolved in 100 lit of water added with 100 ml of soap solution for an acre of land is
taken up two or three times at an interval of 20 days depending upon the degree of
severity.
Coconut
“Pencil point disease”
This is aphysiologicaldisorderaffectingcoconutpalmstoagreat extentinareas

such as Tanjore,Thiruvarur,Pattukottai,etc.Theonset ofthis disorderis broughtabout
by blockage of vascular bundles which may lead to disruption in the transpiration
process.
Thetypicalsymptomis characterizedbythe taperingoftrucktowards thecrown,

the fronds will become smaller, rigid and erect. The outer fronds will first show
yellowinganddropoff.Asaresult,thenumberoffrondswillbereduced.The nuts will
befewerinnumberand smallerinsize;most ofthenutswillbehollow.Thustheyield of
nuts is severallyaffectedoncethis disordersets in thecoconutpalm.
Recommendations
Along with the recommended fertilizer dose, 225 g each borax, zinc sulphate,
manganesesulphate,ferrous sulphate,coppersulphateand10 gofammoniummolybdate
maybedissolved in 10 litres ofwater and poured in thebasin of1.5 mradius fromthe
trunkofthe palm.
Flower crops
Jasmine
“Nematode induced chlorosis”
Symptoms
Thefoliage will exhibit interveinalchlorosis as a result of iron deficiencyin the

soil,whentheplant isinfested withnematodetheironand othernutrientavailabilityby
translocation to the plant tissues is hampered due to blockage of vascular bundles as a
result it is made to suffer from shortage of iron and other nutrients as also water. The
leaves will have fade yellow colouration; the growth of the plant is stunted which may
eventually lead to the wilting of the entire plant. The flower yield will be substantially
reduced.
Amelioration
Theiron chlorosisis a commonoccurrenceinjasmineas manyoftheareas where

itis widelygrownhas beeninfestedwith nematode.So,controlofnematodeinfestation
hastobetakenuponprioritybasis.
Afterdiggingthesoil aroundthetree,thefollowingareappliedto thesoil:10gof

Temic or 20 g of Furadon, 250 g of Neem cake and 50 g of murate of potash. It is
followed by irrigation and application of 0.1% emison solution. After one week, foliar
application of 500 g of ferrous sulphate and 100g of urea along with 100 ml of soap
solutionmixedin100 lit ofwateris donetwoto threetimes at20days interval depending
upontheextentofseverity.
Rose
Failureofbudtoblossomis aserious physiologicaldisorderinrosewhichaffects

the marketabilityoftheroseflower.
Recommendations
The fungicide Bavistin is taken @ 100 g and dissolved in water and the clear
solution is further used for dissolving 1 kg super phosphate along with 100 g urea and
100 mlofsoap solution.Theentire mixtureis addedtowaterthetotal volume ofwhich is
madeupto100litres.This volumeofwateris sufficient forsprayinanareaofoneacre
ofland.
Crossandra
“Nematode Induced Chlorosis”
Symptoms
Crossandra is also affected by nematode induced chlorosis just like jasmine. In

this crop,thetypical symptomis characterizedbythepurplecolourationoftheleaves.
Recommendations
The package of recommendation mentioned for jasmine also holds good in this
caseas well except forthefactthatitis enoughthathalfoftherecommendedchemicals
is given.
DIAGNOSIS OF NUTRITIONAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDERS IN
COLE CROP VEGETABLES AND THEIR REMEDIAL MEASURES
In most of the vegetable crops some common deficiency symptoms of macro,

secondaryandmicronutrients appearindifferentparts ofplantswhichdepends uponthe
type of crops and nutrients. The major deficiency symptoms which occur in vegetable
crops aregivenbelow.
Nitrogen: Stunted growth, young yellowish green leaves and older leaves light green
followed byyellowinganddryingorshedding.Reducedfruitsize.
Phosphorus: Young plants stunted, leaves dark blue-green (or) reddish purple colour,
stems slender.Arrestinmeristematicgrowth.Delayin maturityoffruits.
Potassium: Slow growth of plant Curling, bronzing and drying of margins. Brown spots
throughout,unevenfruit ripening.
Calcium: Weak stem and slow growth. Leaves chlorotic with necrotic spots. Tips of
youngleaves curlbackwardmargins wavedandirregular.Littleornofruiting.
Magnesium: Mottled yellowing (Veins green and leaf web tissue yellow or white) on
olderleaves.Necrosis (Brown spots)onleaves.Delayin maturity.
Sulphur: Stems often slender. Yellowing along the veins of young leaves.
Iron: Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves. Sometimes leaves are completely bleanched,
marginsand tips scorched.
Zinc: Young leaves growth affected – Rosetting. White chloritic streaks between veins in
olderleaves.Leaveschloroticandnecroticinyoungerleaves.Whiteningofupperleaves
in monocots,chlorosis oflowerleaves indicots.
Manganese: Mottled chlorosis (veins green and leaf web tissue yellow or white),
appearingfirstonyoungleaves.Littlefruit formation.
Copper: Wilting of terminal shoots followed by death. Yellowing of leaves in lettuce.
Boron: Plants dwarfed or stunted. Yellowing or browning of leaf margins. Curling of

youngerleaves.Flowerdevelopmentorseedproductionnormallyimpaired.
Molybdenum: Light yellow chlorosis of leaves
The nutritional or physiological disorders which would occur at different

phonological stages of crop growth are caused either due to deficiency or toxicity and
unfavourable environmental conditions in which the crops are cultivated. In order to
maintain or increase the yield of crops, these deficiencies and disorders need corrective
measures andfollowingarethecommonmethods tocorrectthesesymptoms invegetable
crops. Apart from there normal deficiency symptoms, sometimes complex symptoms
causeddueto more than oneorsometimethedeficiencyofsomenutrients maylead to
pathogens attack, and in such cases, the exact disorders should be diagnosed and
necessary correction measures are followed. In addition to these above mentioned
nutritionaldeficiencies anddisorders,somespecificnutrientdisorders wouldoccuronly
in specificcrops.Inotherwords,whenaparticularelementis notavailableto thespecific
crops for their metabolic functions, due to disruption of metabolic activities, the crops
would manifest certain deficiency symptoms and these crops are called as „indicator
plants‟.Thecommon andveryspecificnutritional disorders and theirsymptoms occurin
someofthe temperature(cole)vegetables arelisted below:
Deficiency Soil application (kg ha -)1 Foliar spray (per cent)
Nitrogen i.Applicationof50kgurea(or) Sprayingof1%urea
ii.Applicationof50 kgDAP
Phosphorus Applicationof25-50kgDAP(or)50 g Sprayingof2%DAP orSP

SP
Potassium ApplicationofCalciumchlorideat 60to SprayingofKcl 1%

80 kgha-1orCANat50kg
Calcium ApplicationofCalciumchlorideat 60to Spraying of 0.5% CaNO3

80 kgha-1orCANat50kg (or) CaCl2 (or) Calcium
ammoniumnitrate
Sulphur ApplicationofGypsumat 50kgha-1 Sprayingof0.5%gypsum
Magnesium Application of magnesium sulphate 25- Sprayingof0.5%MgSO4+
50 kgha-1 1% urea
Iron Application of ferrous sulphate 50-100 SprayingofFeSO4 1to2%

kg
Zinc Applicationofzincsulphate25kg Sprayingof0.5%ZnSO4
Manganese Application of 25 kg manganese Sprayingof0.5%MnSO4

sulphate
Copper Application of 5 to 10 kg copper Sprayingof0.1%CuSO4

sulphate
Boron Application of sodium tetraborate or Sprayingofboraxat0.05%

boraxat 10kg
Molybdenum Application of sodium molybdate or Spraying of 0.01% sodium

ammoniummolybdate at0.5%to1.0 g orammoniummolybdate
1. Cabbage
The savoy cabbage is highly sensitive to molybdenum deficiency. Visual

symptomsincludemottling,scorching,wiltingand frequent cuppingofolderandmiddle
leaves malformation or death of the growing point also occur (Hewit and Bolle-Jones,
1952). Incabbagetipburnappearsas necroticspots orareasinthemarginsoftherapidly
expandingleaves in themiddlepart ofthe head.
2. Cauliflower
Cauliflower is one of the most important cole crops of India. It requires high
nitrogen,boronandmolybdenum.
Nitrogen: Causes marked reduction in growth. Leaves small in size young leaves are
pole green in colour, while old leaves turn purple. The curd formation is delayed
(Mehtrotraand Misra,1974).
Calcium: Physiological disorder related to lack of calcium in the affected organ are
common in the cole crops. Necrosis of the edges of young, rapidlyexpandingleaves is
characterized bytipburndisorder.Tipburnofcaulifloweralsoappears in themargin of
immature leaves near, the developing curd (Rosen, 1999) and the curd may be
discolouredifthedeadleaftissuetouchesit.Ingreenhouse andgrowthchambers result
in more severe calcium deficiency disorder, the production of translucent or “glassy”
curds.
Boron: Mehrotra and Misra (1974) observed stiff Stem with hollow core, curled leaves,
leathery due to born deficiency. Delay in curd formation which turns to dirty pale to
brownincolour.
Zinc: Leaf number of size reduced. Leaves become mottled and necrotic (Mehrotra and
Misra,1974).
Copper: Under copper deficient conditions according to Mehrotra and Misra (1974) the
leaves becomesmall andbluishincolour.
Iron: Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves and latter wholly bleached.
Manganese: Wild gray interveinal mottling and necrosis of older leaves. Young leaves
remainnormal,butturnchloroticbetweenveins andspread graduallyto olderleaves.
Molybdenum: Blindness is the loss of growing point and is reported to be associated

with: low temperature, molybdenum deficiency, which cause whiptail disorder.
Cauliflower requires high molybdenum. It is an indicators crop for this nutrient (Falkl
and Podleasak, 1983). Young plants show chlorotic and may turn white along the leaf
margins,also becomecuppedandwither.Inolderplants,thelaminaofthenewlyformed
leaves areirregularinshape, frequentlyconsistingofonlyalarge midrib andhencethe
name whiptail. At low soil pH of 4.6, a mixed syndrome of Mo deficiency and Mn
toxicityappearonthesameplant(Plant,1956).
3. Brussels sprouts
Calcium: In this crop the calcium deficiency disorder is turned as internal browning
(Millikand ndHanger,1966).Severalcalciumdeficiencyinthis also occuras a marginal
necrosis oftheyoungleaves neartheshoot.
Manganese: This crop is highly sensitive to Mn toxicity. Leaves show chlorotic and crop
stunted.
Molybdenum: Interveinal chlorosis, stunted and straggely older leaves drop off.
Sometime „whiptail‟disorderis alsoseen.
4. Broccoli
InIndiaitis hardlyconsideredasacommercial crop.
Hollowstemofbroccoli is relatedtohigherdose ofnitrogen.
Sulphur: Severe stunted growth, leaf blade become thickened.
Molybdenum: Whiptail disorder.
5.Carrot
The cavity spot in carrot, a typical calcium deficiency disorder caused by high
potassium application especially under water logged conditions, where ammonium is
mainlyresponsibleforreducedcalciumuptake(Dekocket al.,1981)andalso related to
weather.
Physiological disorder (a) Forking: Damage to the tap root of carrot seedlings cause
forking(i.e.splitting).
Damage and cracking: Splitting (longitudinal cracking) and transverse breakage which
occurs afterharvest.
6. Radish
Nitrogen: Marked reduction in growth: Size and number of leaves are reduced. Pale
greencolourofleaves turntoyellow.Roots aretheir,stiffandfibrous.(RoyChoudhury
et al.,1982).
Phosphorus: Stunted plant growth. Small leaves, distorted in shape, pink tinge colour
alongtheleafmargins and veins.
Potassium : Colour of leaves change from green to pale yellow, brown scorches appear
ontheleaves atlaterstages violet streaks appearon root.
Calcium: Fewer leaves with small roots in size. Chlorosis of young leaves.
Magnesium: Roy Choudhury et al. (1982) reported that magnesium deficient plants
showchlorosis onmatureleaves whichabscissisclater.Theroots aresmall insize,stiff
andpaleincolour.
Sulphur: Yellowing of margin of young leaves and spread towards inside.
Iron: Chlorosis of young leaves. Storage roots are reduced in size and become pale in
colour.
Lead: The toxicity symptoms lead include wilting, chlorosis, necrosis, and banding of
roots.
7. Pea
Zinc: Leaves are narrow, pointed and curled in wards. Yellow mottling on the lamina
started from the base of the midrib and move upwards. Poor pod set and seed
development.
Iron: Chlorosis of young leaves.
Copper: Thin and weak stem bend upward. Lower leaves are narrow and pointed but
upperones arebroad and large.Olderleaves yellowand shed.Poorfruit set.
Manganese: Marsh spots (Minute brown spots) on the older leaves during flowering
which becomeyellowmottledin theinterveinal areas.Flowers shedafterfadingandseed
development is affected.
Boron: Stunted growth with small and thick leaves followed by death of the apical
growingpoint resultsindevelopment oflateral branches.Chlorosisofmarginsofleaves,
later turn to dirty yellow and roll inward. Delayed flowering, shedding of flower poor
fruit / pot set.
Molybdenum: Mottling of leaves accompanied by death of most of the interveinal leaf
tissue (Meagher et al., 1952). Yellowing of older leaves and curving upwards from the
margins resulting in cup shaped appearance also occur. Flowering and fruiting reduced
considerably.
8. Spinach
Nitrogen: Restricted growth, leaves are stiff and small in size, yellowing delayed
flowering.
Phosphorus: Stunted growth and leaves become dark green in colour.
Potassium: Fewer small leaves, stunted growth, leaves pale yellow, dry spots on the leaf
lamina.
Magnesium: Chlorosis of mature leaf, reduced leaf number.
Calcium: Chlorosis of leaves at early stage of development.
Iron: Yellowing of leaves, leaf size small, interveinal chlorosis of young leaves.
9. Celery
Blachheart disorder: This physiological disorder is mainly due to calcium deficiency.

Burningoftipoftheyoungdevelopingleavesbecomenecrotic,firstat the tip thenspread
all over the leaf. In severe cases, all the interior leaves (Heart) can become rotten
(Geraldson,1954).
Petiole pithiness: Petiole pithiness is a widespread disorder in stalk celery, the petiole of
the croparenaturallyhollowduetothebreakdown ofparenchymacells. Leavinglarger
spaces in the parenchyma which under severe conditions may merge with one another
andformahollowpetiole.
Boron: Brown cracking caused due to boron deficiency.
Ex. No.14. Identification of physiological and nutritional and correction measures in
vegetable crops
Vegetables are very often subjected to nutrient stresses because of their rapid
growth, high nutrient requirement and intensity of production. The requirement of
nutrients for vegetable crops is considerablyhigher than that of field crops. It has been
observed that nitrogen should be high in fertilizers for leafy foliage crops, that
phosphorusshould be highforfruit crops andpotashhighforrootcrops.
Symptoms of nutrients deficiencies that develop in vegetablecrops grown in the

field often vary from those produced in plants grown under controlled greenhouse
conditions. Disease and insects often produce plant symptoms closely resembling those
resultingfromnutrientdeficiencies.
Cauliflower
“Brown heart disorder”
Borondeficiencyin cauliflower, turnip, radish, cauliflower and other root crops,

commonlycausewhat is knownas brownheart.Itis manifestedfirst bydark spots onthe
roots, usually on the thickest parts. The plant gradually becomes stunted or dwarfened.
Theleaves aresmallerthannormalandfewer.
In the case of cauliflower, the flower head will show hollow stem and bronzing
duetothe decayofthecoretissuesofthestalk.
Recommendations
To ameliorate this disorder, foliar spray of 500 g of borax along with 100 g of
urea and 100 ml of soap solution dissolved in 100 lit of water has to be taken up in an
acreofland.Sprayistoberepeatedtwotothreetimesat anintervalof20days.
Chillies
“Little leaf with intervenial chlorosis”
Symptoms
The chillies crop has high affinity for zinc nutrition and hence large amount of
zincis takenupbytheplant.Ifzincis notreplenishedperiodically,the cropis proneto
sufferfromzincdeficiencyseverely.
The entire foliage of the crop will be reduced in size with interveinal chlorosis,
whenzincis in short supplyandtheplantwill presentastuntedgrowth.
Recommendations
Foliarapplication ofzincsulphate@500gandurea@100gdissolvedin 100 lit

ofwateralongwith100 ml soapsolution istobegiventwo tothreetimesat aninterval
of20days dependingupontheextent ofseverity.
Foliarapplicationhas to besupplementedwithsoil applicationofzinc sulphate@

8 kg/acreis givenbasallyduringlastploughingofthefield.
Brinjal
“Iron Chlorosis”
Symptoms
Young as well as older leaves will exhibit chlorotic symptoms in the form of
yellwing. So there will be a decline in photosynthesis due to which fruit yield will be
greatlyreduced.
Recommendations
Foliar spray of solution containing 500g of ferrous sulphate and 100 g of urea
dissolved in 100 lit of water added with 100 ml of soap solution for an acre of land is
taken up two or three times at an interval of 20 days depending upon the degree of
severity.
Coconut
“Pencil point disease”
This is aphysiologicaldisorderaffectingcoconutpalmstoagreat extentinareas

such as Tanjore,Thiruvarur,Pattukottai,etc.Theonset ofthis disorderis broughtabout
by blockage of vascular bundles which may lead to disruption in the transpiration
process.
Thetypicalsymptomis characterizedbythe taperingoftrucktowards thecrown,

the fronds will become smaller, rigid and erect. The outer fronds will first show
yellowinganddropoff.Asaresult,thenumberoffronds willbereduced.Thenuts will
befewer in numberand smallerinsize; most ofthenuts willbehollow.Thus the yield
ofnuts is severallyaffectedoncethis disordersets inthecoconutpalm.
Recommendations
Along with the recommended fertilizer dose, 225 g each borax, zinc sulphate,
manganesesulphate,ferrous sulphate,coppersulphateand10 gofammoniummolybdate
maybedissolved in 10 litres ofwater and poured in thebasin of1.5 mradius fromthe
trunkofthe palm.
FLOWER CROPS
Jasmine
“Nematode induced chlorosis”
Symptoms
Thefoliage will exhibit interveinalchlorosis as a result of iron deficiencyin the

soil,whentheplant isinfested withnematodetheironand othernutrientavailabilityby
translocation to the plant tissues is hampered due to blockage of vascular bundles as a
result it is made to suffer from shortage of iron and other nutrients as also water. The
leaves will have fade yellow colouration; the growth of the plant is stunted which may
eventually lead to the wilting of the entire plant. The flower yield will be substantially
reduced.
Amelioration
Theiron chlorosisis a commonoccurrenceinjasmineas manyoftheareas where

itis widelygrownhas beeninfestedwith nematode.So,controlofnematodeinfestation
hastobetakenuponprioritybasis.
Afterdiggingthesoilaroundthetree,thefollowingare appliedto thesoil:10 g
of Temic or 20 g of Furadon, 250 g of Neem cake and 50 g of murate of potash. It is
followed by irrigation and application of 0.1% emison solution. After one week, foliar
application of 500 g of ferrous sulphate and 100g of urea along with 100 ml of soap
solutionmixedin100 lit ofwateris donetwoto threetimes at20days interval depending
upontheextentofseverity.
Rose
Failureofbudtoblossomis aserious physiologicaldisorderinrosewhichaffects

the marketabilityoftheroseflower.
Recommendations
The fungicide Bevistin is taken @ 100 g and dissolved in water and the clear
solution is further used for dissolving 1 kg super phosphate along with 100 g urea and
100 mlofsoap solution.Theentire mixtureis addedtowaterthetotal volume ofwhich is
madeupto100litres.This volumeofwateris sufficient forsprayinanareaofoneacre
ofland.
Crossandra
“Nematode Induced Chlorosis”
Symptoms
Crossandra is also affected by nematode induced chlorosis just like jasmine. In

this crop,thetypical symptomis characterizedbythepurplecolourationoftheleaves.
Recommendations
The package of recommendation mentioned for jasmine also holds good in this
caseas well except forthefactthatitis enoughthathalfoftherecommendedchemicals
is given.
Diagnosis of nutritional and physiological disorders in cole crop vegetables and their
remedial measures
In most of the vegetable crops some common deficiency symptoms of macro,
secondaryandmicronutrients appearindifferentparts ofplantswhichdepends uponthe
type of crops and nutrients. The major deficiency symptoms which occur in vegetable
crops aregivenbelow.
Nitrogen: Stunted growth, young yellowish green leaves and older leaves light green
followed byyellowinganddryingorshedding.Reducedfruitsize.
Phosphorus: Young plants stunted, leaves dark blue-green (or) reddish purple colour,
stems slender.Arrestinmeristematicgrowth.Delayin maturityoffruits.
Potassium: Slow growth of plant Curling, bronzing and drying of margins. Brown spots
throughout,unevenfruit ripening.
Calcium: Weak stem and slow growth. Leaves chlorotic with necrotic spots. Tips of
youngleaves curlbackwardmargins wavedandirregular.Littleornofruiting.
Magnesium: Mottled yellowing (Veins green and leaf web tissue yellow or white) on
olderleaves.Necrosis (Brown spots)onleaves.Delayin maturity.
Sulphur: Stems often slender. Yellowing along the veins of young leaves.
Iron: Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves. Sometimes leaves are completely bleanched,
marginsand tips scorched.
Zinc: Young leaves growth affected – Rosetting. White chloritic streaks between veins in
olderleaves.Leaveschloroticandnecroticinyoungerleaves.Whiteningofupperleaves
in monocots,chlorosis oflowerleaves indicots.
Manganese: Mottled chlorosis (veins green and leaf web tissue yellow or white),
appearingfirstonyoungleaves.Littlefruit formation.
Copper: Wilting of terminal shoots followed by death. Yellowing of leaves in lettuce.
Boron: Plants dwarfed or stunted. Yellowing or browning of leaf margins. Curling of

youngerleaves.Flowerdevelopmentorseedproductionnormallyimpaired.
Molybdenum: Light yellow chlorosis of leaves
The nutritional or physiological disorders which would occur at different

phonological stages of crop growth are caused either due to deficiency or toxicity and
unfavourable environmental conditions in which the crops are cultivated. In order to
maintain or increase the yield of crops, these deficiencies and disorders need corrective
measures andfollowingarethecommonmethods tocorrectthesesymptoms invegetable
crops. Apart from there normal deficiency symptoms, sometimes complex symptoms
causeddueto more than oneorsometimethedeficiencyofsomenutrients maylead to
pathogens attack, and in such cases, the exact disorders should be diagnosed and
necessary correction measures are followed. In addition to these above mentioned
nutritionaldeficiencies anddisorders,somespecificnutrientdisorders wouldoccuronly
in specificcrops.Inotherwords,whenaparticularelementis notavailableto thespecific
crops for their metabolic functions, due to disruption of metabolic activities, the crops
would manifest certain deficiency symptoms and these crops are called as „indicator
plants‟.Thecommon andveryspecificnutritional disorders and theirsymptoms occurin
someofthe temperature(cole)vegetables arelisted below:
Deficiency Soil application (kg ha -)1 Foliar spray (per cent)
Nitrogen i.Applicationof50kgurea(or) Sprayingof1%urea
ii.Applicationof50 kgDAP
Phosphorus Applicationof25-50kgDAP(or)50 g Sprayingof2%DAP orSP

SP
Potassium ApplicationofCalciumchlorideat 60to SprayingofKcl 1%

80 kgha-1orCANat50kg
Calcium ApplicationofCalciumchlorideat 60to Spraying of 0.5% CaNO3

80 kgha-1orCANat50kg (or) CaCl2 (or) Calcium
ammoniumnitrate
Sulphur ApplicationofGypsumat 50kgha-1 Sprayingof0.5%gypsum
Magnesium Application of magnesium sulphate 25- Sprayingof0.5%MgSO4+

50 kgha-1 1% urea
Iron Application of ferrous sulphate 50-100 SprayingofFeSO4 1to2%

kg
Zinc Applicationofzincsulphate25kg Sprayingof0.5%ZnSO4
Manganese Application of 25 kg manganese Sprayingof0.5%MnSO4

sulphate
Copper Application of 5 to 10 kg copper Sprayingof0.1%CuSO4

sulphate
Boron Application of sodium tetraborate or Sprayingofboraxat0.05%

boraxat 10kg
Molybdenum Application of sodium molybdate or Spraying of 0.01% sodium

ammoniummolybdate at0.5%to1.0 g orammoniummolybdate
1. Cabbage
The savoy cabbage is highly sensitive to molybdenum deficiency. Visual

symptomsincludemottling,scorching,wiltingand frequent cuppingofolderandmiddle
leaves malformation or death of the growing point also occur (Hewit and Bolle-Jones,
1952). Incabbagetipburnappearsas necroticspots orareasinthemarginsoftherapidly
expandingleaves in themiddlepart ofthe head.
2. Cauliflower
Cauliflower is one of the most important cole crops of India. It requires high
nitrogen,boronandmolybdenum.
Nitrogen: Causes marked reduction in growth. Leaves small in size young leaves are
pole green in colour, while old leaves turn purple. The curd formation is delayed
(Mehtrotraand Misra,1974).
Calcium: Physiological disorders related to lack of calcium in the affected organ are
common in the cole crops. Necrosis of the edges of young, rapidlyexpandingleaves is
characterized bytipburndisorder.Tipburnofcaulifloweralsoappears in themargin of
immature leaves near, the developing curd (Rosen, 1999) and the curd may be
discolouredifthedeadleaftissuetouchesit.Ingreenhouse andgrowthchambers result
in more severe calcium deficiency disorder, the production of translucent or “glassy”
curds.
Boron: Mehrotra and Misra (1974) observed stiff Stem with hollow core, curled leaves,
leathery due to born deficiency. Delay in curd formation which turns to dirty pale to
brownincolour.
Zinc: Leaf number of size reduced. Leaves become mottled and necrotic (Mehrotra and
Misra,1974).
Copper: Under copper deficient conditions according to Mehrotra and Misra (1974) the
leaves becomesmall andbluishincolour.
Iron: Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves and latter wholly bleached.
Manganese: Wild gray interveinal mottling and necrosis of older leaves. Young leaves
remainnormal,butturnchloroticbetweenveins andspread graduallyto olderleaves.
Molybdenum: Blindness is the loss of growing point and is reported to be associated

with: low temperature, molybdenum deficiency, which causes whiptail disorder.
Cauliflower requires high molybdenum. It is an indicators crop for this nutrient (Falkl
and Podleasak, 1983). Young plants show chlorotic and may turn white along the leaf
margins,also becomecuppedandwither.Inolderplants,thelaminaofthenewlyformed
leaves areirregularinshape, frequentlyconsistingofonlyalarge midrib andhencethe
name whiptail. At low soil pH of 4.6, a mixed syndrome of Mo deficiency and Mn
toxicityappearonthesameplant(Plant,1956).
3. Brussels sprouts
Calcium: In this crop the calcium deficiency disorder is turned as internal browning
(MillikanandHanger,1966).Several calciumdeficiencyinthis also occursasamarginal

necrosis oftheyoungleaves neartheshoot.
Manganese: This crop is highly sensitive to Mn toxicity. Leaves show chlorotic and crop
stunted.
Molybdenum: Interveinal chlorosis, stunted and straggely older leaves drop off.
Sometime „whiptail‟disorderis alsoseen.
4. Broccoli
InIndiaitis hardlyconsideredasacommercial crop.
Hollowstemofbroccoli is relatedtohigherdose ofnitrogen.
Sulphur: Severe stunted growth, leaf blade become thickened.
Molybdenum: Whiptail disorder.
7. Carrot
The cavity spot in carrot, a typical calcium deficiency disorder caused by high
potassium application especially under water logged conditions, where ammonium is
mainlyresponsibleforreducedcalciumuptake(Dekocket al.,1981)andalso related to
weather.
Physiological disorder (a) Forking: Damage to the tap root of carrot seedlings cause
forking(i.e.splitting).
Damage and cracking: Splitting (longitudinal cracking) and transverse breakage which
occurs afterharvest.
8. Radish
Nitrogen: Marked reduction in growth: Size and number of leaves are reduced. Pale
greencolourofleaves turntoyellow.Roots aretheir,stiffandfibrous.(RoyChoudhury

et al., 1982).
Phosphorus: Stunted plant growth. Small leaves, distorted in shape, pink tinge colour
alongtheleafmargins and veins.
Potassium: Colour of leaves change from green to pale yellow, brown scorches appear
ontheleaves atlaterstages violet streaks appearon root.
Calcium: Fewer leaves with small roots in size. Chlorosis of young leaves.
Magnesium: Roy Choudhury et al. (1982) reported that magnesium deficient plants
show chlorosis on mature leaves which abscissic later. The roots are small in size, stiff
andpaleincolour.
Sulphur: Yellowing of margin of young leaves and spread towards inside.

Iron: Chlorosis of young leaves. Storage roots are reduced in size and become pale in
colour.
Lead: The toxicity symptoms lead include wilting, chlorosis, necrosis, and banding of
roots.
7. Pea
Zinc: Leaes are narrow, pointed and curled in wards. Yellow mottling on the lamina
started from the base of the midrib and move upwards. Poor pod set and seed
development.
Iron: Chlorosis of young leaves.
Copper: Thin and weak stem bend upward. Lower leaves are narrow and pointed but
upperones arebroad and large.Olderleaves yellowand shed.Poorfruit set.
Manganese: Marsh spots (Minute brown spots) on the older leaves during flowering
which becomeyellowmottledin theinterveinal areas.Flowers shedafterfadingandseed
development is affected.
Boron: Stunted growth with small and thick leaves followed by death of the apical
growingpoint resultsindevelopment oflateral branches.Chlorosisofmarginsofleaves,
later turn to dirty yellow and roll inward. Delayed flowering, shedding of flower poor
fruit / podset.
Molybdenum: Mottling of leaves accompanied by death of most of the interveinal leaf

tissue (Meagher et al., 1952). Yellowing of older leaves and curving upwards from the
margins resulting in cup shaped appearance also occur. Flowering and fruiting reduced
considerably.
8. Spinach
Nitrogen: Restricted growth, leaves are stiff and small in size, yellowing delayed
flowering.
Phosphorus: Stunted growth and leaves become dark green in colour.
Potassium: Fewer small leaves, stunted growth, leaves pale yellow, dry spots on the leaf
lamina.
Magnesium: Chlorosis of mature leaf, reduced leaf number.
Calcium: Chlorosis of leaves at early stage of development.
Iron: Yellowing of leaves, leaf size small, interveinal chlorosis of young leaves.
9. Celery
Blachheart disorder: This physiological disorder is mainly due to calcium deficiency.

Burningoftipoftheyoungdevelopingleavesbecomenecrotic,firstat the tip thenspread
all over the leaf. In severe cases, all the interior leaves (Heart) can become rotten
(Geraldson,1954).
Petiole pithiness: Petiole pithiness is a widespread disorder in stalk celery, the petiole of
the croparenaturallyhollowduetothebreakdown ofparenchymacells. Leavinglarger
spaces in the parenchyma which under severe conditions may merge with one another
andformahollowpetiole.
Boron: Brown cracking caused due to boron deficiency.
Ex.No.15. Diagnosis of deficiencies through rapid tissue
testing
The nutrient requirement for growth of the plants at different stages is an

important factor for crop productivity. The nutrient status of the plant at a particular
stage shouldbeanalysedsoastosupplythedeficient nutrient inproperquantityforgood
cropyield. Whennutrient deficiencyproblemarises,theplants will manifest symptoms
of deficiency for example, whiptail of cauliflower (Mo deficiency), little leaf disease
(Zndeficiency)inrice.
Plant tissue analysis could directly reflect the nutrient status or nutrient
requirement of plants themselves. In recent years probably as a result of advances in
knowledge and understanding of the role and function of nutrient elements, new
approaches to diagnosis are being developed which differ in principle from plant
analyticaltechniques. Theseare basedonspecificphysiologicalorbiochemical changes
causedbydeficiencies oralternatively,onspecificresponses thatcanbeinduced in plants
or plant tissue by the addition of a deficient element. There are two types of plant
analysisforconfirmationofdifferent symptoms and also forassessingthenutrient status
at particularstageofthe plant.
There are two types of plant analysis
1. Tissuetesting
2. Wholeplant analysis
Tissue testing is done usually with fresh leaves of the plant in the field itself
whereas the total plant analysis is performed in the laboratory. These plant analysis
methods are based on the assumptions that the particular element is an indicator of the
supply of that particular nutrient. The whole plant analysis methods involve elaborate
equipment and alot ofchemicals andcannot beperformedin thefield itself. However,
tissuetestingis donein thefield itselfand alsoveryrapid. The testis madewithfresh
plantsaps andveryusefulin quickdiagnosis oftheneeds ofgrowingplant. Inthis test,
the sapfromthecell istestedforunassimilated NandK. Test forFe,CaandMgisalso
used frequentlyinvarietyofcrops. Ingeneral,itis necessarytotest that specifiedpart of
the plant,whichwill givethebestindicationofthenutritional status.
Crop Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
Maize Stem,midribs Leafblade Leafblade
Soybean Petiole Leafblade Petiole
Blackgram Petioleandlamina Leafblade Leafblade
Cotton Petiole Petiole Petiole
Papaya Petiole Petiole Petiole
Tomato Petiole Petiole Petiole
Banana Lamina Lamina Lamina
Nitrogen
Reagents
0.1%ofDiphenylamineinconcentratedsulfuric acid
Procedure
Small bits of leaf or petiole are taken in a petridish and a drop of 0.1%
diphenylamineis added. The developmentofbluecolorindicates the presenceofnitrate
nitrogen. Depending on the intensity of blue color the nutritional status may be
diagnosedassufficientornotsufficient.
Darkblue - Sufficient
Lightblue - Slightlydeficient
Nocolor - Highlydeficient
Phosphorus
Reagents:
Ammonium molybdate reagent:
8 g of ammonium molybdate is dissolved in 200ml of distilled water. To this

solution,amixtureof126mlconcentratedhydrochloric acidand74ml ofdistilledwateris
addedslowlybyconstant stirring.This stocksolutionis kept in anambercoloredbottle
andatthetimeofuse,it is dilutedintheratio of1:4withdistilled water.
Procedure:
Small fine bits oftheplantmaterialaretakenin atest tubeand10ml ofdilutedreagentis

addedandshaken continuouslyfora minute. Tothis a pinchofstannouschloridepowder
is added. Thecontents aremixedthoroughlyandobservedforcolordevelopment.
Darkblue - Richinphosphorus
Lightblue - Moderatelysufficient
Green orbluishgreen - Deficient
Nocolororyellow - Highlydeficient
Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium and Chloride
With Morgan‟s reagent, the following elements would be detected as soluble

potassium,calcium,magnesiumandchloride.
Morgan‟s reagent
10gofsodiumacetateis dissolvedin30ml ofglacialaceticacid(pH4.8)andusedforthe

extraction.
Preparation of plant extract
4gofplantsampleis takenand15mlofMorgan‟s reagent is added. Apinchof

Darco is added and filtered through muslin cloth. This extract could be subsequently
used fordetection.
Potassium
Reagents
35% sodiumcobalt nitrite
50% Glycerin
Isopropylalcohol
Procedure
2ml of Morgan‟s reagent extract is taken in a test tube and to this 0.2ml of
sodiumcobaltnitrite,1ml of50% glycerin and 2ml ofisopropylalcohol areaddedand
observedforcolordevelopment.
Clearreddishbrown - Insufficient
Deepcanaryyellowturbidity - Sufficient
CALCIUM
Reagents
50%Glycerin
Ammoniumoxalate
Procedure
To 2ml of Morgan‟s reagent extract, 2ml of 50% glycerin and 5ml of saturated
ammoniumoxalate areadded
Colorless - Insufficient
Greenishwhiteturbidity - Sufficient
Magnesium
Reagents
0.15%Titan yellow
2%Hydroxylamine hydrochloride
5%Sucrose
10%Sodiumhydroxide
Procedure
2ml of Morgan‟s reagent extract is taken in a test tube. To this 2ml of Titan
yellow,0.5ml ofhydroxylaminehydrochloride,0.5ml ofsucroseand 2ml of10%sodium
hydroxide areaddedandobservedforcolordevelopment.
Strawyellow - Insufficient
Salmonpinkcolor - Sufficient
Chloride
Reagents
N/50silvernitrate
Concentrated Nitric acid
Procedure
To 2ml of Morgan‟s reagent extract, 2ml of N/50 AgNO and 3 d3rops of

concentratednitricacid areaddedand kept forcolordevelopment.
Colorless - Insufficient
Whiteturbidity - Sufficient
IRON
Reagents
Concentratedsulfuric acid
Concentratednitricacid
20% Ammoniumthiocyanateinamyl alcohol
Procedure
0.5g of the material to be tested is taken in a test tube and 1ml of concentrate
sulfuricacid is added and allowedtostandfor15 minutes. Afterthat,10ml of distilled
waterand2-3drops ofconcentratednitricacidareadded. After2minutes,10mlofthis
solution is added with 5ml of 20% Ammonium thiocyanate solution and observed for
colordevelopment.
Brickred: Sufficient
Faint color: Deficient
Manganese
Sensitivetestfordeficient leaves
Reagents
Saturatedsolution ofPotassiumperiodate
1%tetramethyldiaminodiphenyl methane
Procedure
To finely chopped leaf bits, 2ml of potassium periodate and 0.4ml of 1%

tetramethyl diamino diphenyl methane reagent are added. The contents are shaken
vigorouslyandobserved forcolordevelopment.
Paleblue - Insufficient
Deepblue - Sufficient
Ex.No.16. Seed viability by tetrazolium test
Seed physiology
Structure of seed
Atrueseed is a fertilized matureovulethat possesses anembryonicplant,stored

food material and aprotectivecovering(seed coat ortesta).Theovuleafterfertilization
consists of embryo sac, zygote and surrounded by nucellus and integuments. In the
transformationofanovuleintoaseedtheinteguments becomeseedcoat,thus sealingoff
the enclosed seedpartsfromtheenvironment.
As a result of cell division the endosperm becomes a multicultural endosperm

tissueandserves as astorehouseofreservefood fortheembryo. Thezygotedevelops
intoembryo. Astheembryoincreasesin size,it absorbs foodfromthe endosperm.The
growth of both the endosperm and zygote takes place at the expense of the nucellus,
which graduallydisappears. Ifit remains,itbecomes a thinlayerofcells insidetheseed
coat. Thus a youngseed consists ofa protectiveseed coat,an embryo and stored food,
i.e.endospermwhichsupplies food to theembryonicaxis. Theendospermmayor may
notbepresent inallseeds.Whenitispresentthe seedis calledalbuminousandwhenit is
absent theseed isexalbuminous.
Examples of Albuminous Seeds
Monocots : Rice,Wheat,Maize
Dicots : Castor,Opium
Examples of Exalbuminous Seeds
Monocots : Orchids
Dicots : Pea,Bean,Blackgram,Greengram
Theembryosoonbecomes differentiatedintoarudimentaryshoot or"Plumule",a

rudimentary root or "Radicle", the structure connecting the plumule, and radical known
as "hypocotyl"andoneormoreseedleaves called "cotyledons".Plumule,hypocotyls and
radical constitute the axis of the seedling; the cotyledons are temporary embryonic
structures.
Seed viability
Viabilitymeans aseedis capable ofgerminatingand producinganormalseedling.

Seed viabilitytest plays an important rolein determiningtheseed quality. Thestandard
practiceto test theseed viabilityis todeterminethepercentageofseedgermination.This,
however, is sometimes a very time consuming process. For example, seeds of many
plants showpost-harvestdormancy,i.e.,theygerminateonlyafteracertainperiodofdry
storage,whichmayvaryfromfewdays toseveral monthsoreven years.Numerous tests
exist fordeterminingseedviability.
Tetrazolium test
Tetrazoliumis asimpleand quickbiochemical methodtodeterminetheviability

of seeds, which is based on the reduction of a colourless soluble tetrazolium salt to a
reddishinsolublesubstancecalledformazan inthepresenceofdehydrogenases.Even in
dormant stage, viable seeds show detectable dehydrogenase activity. Therefore, it
implies that the seeds when treated with tetrazolium salt turn red are viable and will
readilygerminatewhen seeds areprovidedwithnecessaryenvironment.
Principle
Thetetrazoliumtestdistinguishes betweenviableand dead tissues oftheembryo

on the basis of their relative respiration rate in the hydrated state. The highly reduced
state of dehydrogenases gives off hydrogen ions to oxidized colourless totrazolium salt
solutionwhichis changedintoredformazan.
Materials
DryseedsofPhaseolus,Helianthus,Zea,RicinusCucumis etc.
2,3,5-Triphenyltetrazoliumchloridesolution(1%)
Petridishes,filterpaper,Incubator
Procedure
Soak 50 seeds overnight in water. Cut seeds into half by a sharp scalpel, place
themin apetri dish withthecut surface incontact with filterpapersoaked in sufficient
amount of tetrazolium salt and incubate at 20-25°C in the dark. Repeat the experiment
usingseeds which havebeenpreviouslyheated at 100°Cforat least30min.
Results
Determineafter24 hoursthe percentageofseeds that haveturned reddueto the

accumulation of formazan.Notethattheseeds which were killed byheatingwill fail to
turnreddue tothelackofdehydrogenaseactivity.
Althoughthetissues oflivingseeds stainred,estimationofviabilityrequiresskill

andexperience. Embryotissues absorbtetrazoliumslowlyandtend todevelopalighter
colourthanembryosthat arebruised,aged,frozenordisturbed otherwise.
Methods of seeds preparation for TZ test
Examples: 1. Corn and Sorghum - Soak the seed in warm water for 3-4 hours at 30°C.
Bisect theseed andplaceinTZsolution
2. Groundnut: Soak the seed overnight in warm water at 20°C-30°C, remove
seed coatanduseit.
3. Green gram: Soak the seed overnight in warm water at 20°C-30°C and use
it
S.No Crop % of viable seeds (Stained) % of non-viable seeds (unstained)
Ex.No.17. Practical Examination
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Plant Propagation and

2. Plant Propagation and Nursery Management (HPH 200) 2(1+1)

Propagation: Need and potentialities for plant multiplication,

Success of seed propagation depends upon fulfilling the following

1. Using seed of proper genetic characteristics to produce the cultivar

iii) Hot water scarification

iv) Warm moist scarification

Table 3.1. Effect of seed stratification period on per cent germination of

Kind of fruit Stratification

individual chromosome (aneuploidy), or the multiplication of entire set of

Abscisic Acid (ABA)

Different types of fruits react differently with exogenous application of ethylene. In

2. Plumular Hook Formation

4. Formation of Adventitious Roots and Root Hairs

5. Inhibition of Root Growth

Ethylene is known to inhibit linear growth of roots of dicotyledonous plants.

Ethylene enhances senescence of leaves and flowers in plants. During senescence,

10. Abscission of leaves

11. Breaking Dormancy of Seeds and Buds

Ethylene is known to break dormancy and initiate germination of seeds. Seed

 First Step: In the first step, an adenosine group (i.e.adenine+ribose) is transferred to

Synthesis of ACC is rate limiting step in ethylene biosynthesis in plant tissues.

Factors Stimulating Ethylene Biosynthesis

 Inhibition of seed germination

 Jasmonate derivatives induce the accumulation of so-called jasmonate-induced-

 Jasmonate-induced-proteins are lacking in roots, in bleached leaves, and in leaves of

Influence in fruit culture

 n-Propyl dihydrojasmonate (PDJ) treatment at 91 days after full bloom (DAFB)

Influence in fruit culture

 Paclobutrazol treated trees have greater tolerance to environmental stresses and

 Increased concentration of paclobutrazol (1000ppm) suppressed the root length and

 Paclobutrazol increased root:shoot ratio

Google search-www.anilrana13014.webbly.com Page 34

b. Fruit ripening and dormancy of seeds and buds

Ans: d. Cell elongation

3. Which of the following is not an antigibberellin or growth retardant?

Ans: d. Benzyl adenine

Ans: c. floriculture industry

Ans: c. both a and b

c. 1-Aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC)

Ans: d. None of these

Ans: a. silver ions

Ans: b. Cis form

b. indirectly through carotenoid breakdown

c. through shikimic acid pathway

Ans: b. indirectly through carotenoid breakdown

c. ABA-glycosyl ester d. all of these

Ans: d. all of these

 Senescence is characterized by increased respiration, declining photosynthesis

 At the cellular level, chloroplasts are the first organelles to be disintegrated.

 Expression of senescence down-regulated genes (SDGs) decreases. Such genes

 Expression of senescence associated genes (SAGs) increase. Such genes encode

 Brilliant Colours are developed in leaves of many plants during senescence.

Programmed Cell Death (PCD)

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Flowering: Floral development-factors affecting flowering

Other aspects of reproductive development:

The Day-length Requirements for Flowering in Three Categories of Plants

16 hours dark 8 hours light

A. Short Day Plant flowers short day plant flowers