Range and Endurance – I

Range: Total ground distance traversed on a full tank of fuel or Distance an airplane can fly
on a given amount of fuel.

More exactly: Horizontal straight-line distance an aircraft can travel in cruising flight
condition.

▪ All the calculations are based on steady cruise flight performance

▪ Rnage is limited by fuel capacity.
▪ Range is closely affected by engine performance especially in terms of rate of fuel
burned per unit power or per unit thrust (SFC (c) and TSFC (ct )).

Harmonic Range: Range with maximum payload.

Ferry Range: Range with zero payload and including reserve fuel.
Still Gross Air Range: Range assuming all the mission fuel is utilized for cruise flight alone.

For maximum range we are interested in determining the fuel consumed per unit distance:
dWf lbs fuel N fuel
⇒( , )
dS ft m
The fuel consumption is related to the type of power plant with which an aircraft is equipped.
The results being different depending on if the aircraft is equipped with an engine whose output
is measured in terms of thrust or in terms of power.
Thrust specific fuel consumption: The thrust specific fuel consumption can be defined
in proper units as:
lbs fuel⁄sec 1 N fuel⁄sec 1
ct = or , or
lbs thrust sec N thrust sec
Unfortunately, the numbers above are rarely given. The information is usually given in the
following terms:
lbs fuel⁄hr 1 N fuel⁄hr 1
ct = or , or
lbs thrust hr N thrust hr
Review of SFC (c) and TSFC (𝐜𝐭 ):
For a propeller driven aircraft, SFC (c) is usually used:
Ẇf
c≡
P
▪ Consistent unit: [c] = Newton/Watt*Sec
▪ Inconsistent unit: [SFC] = kg/hp*hr

For jet-propelled aircraft, TSFC (ct ) is usually used:

Ẇf
ct ≡
T
▪ Consistent unit: [c] = Newton/Newton*sec or 1/sec
▪ Inconsistent unit: [SFC] = kg/kg*hr or 1/hr

For propeller-driven aircraft, SFC and TSFC are related as follows:

cV∞
ct =
ηpr

where ηpr = Propeller efficiency

Relation between SFC and TSFC (Equivalent TSFC for Propeller-driven aircraft):

Fuel burnt for elemental time dt for Turbojet aircraft,

dWf = ct TR dt

where TR = Thrust Required = D

For propeller-driven aircraft:

THP
SHP =
ηpr
where SHP = Shaft Horse Power (Power output of the piston engine or turboprop engine),
THP = Thrust Horse Power (Power made available through the propeller), and 𝛈𝐩𝐫 =
Propeller Efficiency

Thrust Horse Power, THP = TV∞ = PA = Power Available

PA = ηpr PS

TV∞
PS =
ηpr

For level flight, we have Power Required = Power Available,

PA = PR = TV∞ = ηpr PS

Fuel burnt for elemental time dt for Propeller-driven aircraft,

TV∞ cV∞
dWf = cPS dt = c ( ) dt = ( ) Tdt
ηpr ηpr

From jet-powered aircraft,

dWf = ct TR dt

Comparing the jet-powered and propeller-driven, we get

cV∞
ct =
ηpr

General 2D equations of motion and power equation:

Unsteady curved symmetric flight:
W dV
T cos αT − D − W sin γ =
g dt
W dγ
L − W cos γ + T sin αT = V
g dt
PA − PR V dV
= RC +
W g dt
Cruise flight:
▪ Quasi steady (dV/dt = 0), quasi-rectilinear, (d𝛾/dt = 0)
▪ Weight of the aircraft is not constant
▪ Small flight path angle → cos𝛾 = 1, sin𝛾 ≠ 0
▪ Assume that the thrust vector acts in the direction of flight (αT ≅ 0)

Equations of Motion for Cruise Flight:

T=D

L=W

For straight and level flight, under our usual assumptions, T = D, and L = W. Then we can
determine the rate of fuel consumption as:

dWf
= ct T = ct D
dt

Maximum Range Flight Condition:

The maximum range flight condition can be determined by noting that in level flight, the
airspeed is given by:

dS
V=
dt

where S is the variable range. dS is the differential distance traveled by the jet during time dt.

The fuel burned per unit range as follows:

dWf dWf ⁄dt ct T D

= = = ct
dS dS⁄dt V V
 dWf
dS =
D
(ct V)

Then, it is clear that the maximum range occurs when D/V is a minimum.

If we take the minimum value of the angle so that it is just tangent to the drag curve we can see
that:

When θ is a minimum (or tangent to the drag curve) then the tangent point will be the maximum
range flight condition.

D D
tan θ = ⇒ θmin = ( )
V V min
For the general case we have:
⁄
D 0.5ρV 2 SCD 1 1 2W 1 2W CL3 2
= = ρVSCD = ρS√ C = ρS√
V V 2 2 ρSCL D 2 ρS CD
3⁄2
C
Then for a given altitude and weight, the range is maximized when ( CL ) is a minimum. This
D
is a general result
Maximum Range, Low Performance Parabolic Drag Polar:
For the special case of a low performance aircraft (drag parameters constant) with a parabolic
drag polar, we can find the flight condition for the maximum range of a jet type aircraft.
 ⁄
d(CD ⁄CL1 2 ) d CD d CD0 + kCL2
= ( 1⁄2 ) = ( ⁄
)=0
dCL dCL C
L
dCL C1 2 L

If y = u/v, then from quotient rule

𝐝𝐲 𝐝 𝐮 𝐯. (𝐝𝐮⁄𝐝𝐱) − 𝐮. (𝐝𝐯⁄𝐝𝐱)
= ( )=
𝐝𝐱 𝐝𝐱 𝐯 𝐯𝟐

⁄ ⁄2
d CD0 + kCL2 (CL1 2 )(2kCL ) − (CD0 + kCL2 )(1⁄2)CL−1
( ⁄
)=0⇒ =0
dCL C1 2 L
CL

Maximum Range Flight Conditions for Engine Performance Measured in Terms of

Thrust

CD0 4
CL,max range = √ and CD,max range = CD0
3k 3

Generalized range equation:

Some weight notation:
W0 = Gross weight of aircraft including full fuel and payload
W1 = Empty weight of aircraft (No fuel)
W = Instantaneous weight of aircraft
Empty weight, W1 = W0 − Wfuel
The change in aircraft weight during flight is due to fuel consumption:
dW dWf
= <0
dt dt
(dWf ⁄dt) is always a negative number to keep SFC (c) and TSFC (ct ) positive,

For aircraft in steady straight level flight in stationary atmosphere (no wind):
dS = Vg dt = V∞ dt
From the thrust specific fuel consumption relation.
dWf dWf dWf
− = ct T = ct D ⇒ dt = − =−
dt ct T ct D
Substitute the dt relation into ds, we get
dWf
dS = V∞ dt = V∞
ct D
In head or tail wind condition,
VG = V − VH or V − VT
where 𝐕𝐇 = Head wind and 𝐕𝐓 = Tail wind
In the steady straight level flight,
L = W and T = D
Since dWf = dW
dW
dS = −V∞
ct D
Multiply and divide by W, we get
1 W dW 1 L dW
dS = −V∞ = −V∞
ct D W ct D W
Integrating the above equation from full fuel condition (W0 ) until minimum fuel mandatorily
to be retained at the end of the cruise (W1 ), we get

W1 W1 W0
1 L dW 1 L dW
R=∫ dS = ∫ −V∞ = ∫ V∞
W0 W0 ct D W W1 ct D W

- S = 0 when W = W0
- S = R when W = W1

For constant speed, angle of attack and constant (L/D) cruise (applicable for “Cruise
Climb”):
1L W0 1 CL W0
R = V∞ ln ( ) = V∞ ln ( )
ct D W1 ct CD W1
This is called Breguet Range Formula.
To maximize the range,
⁄
➔ Maximize V∞ (CL ⁄CD ) or equivalently maximize CL1 2 ⁄CD
➔ Minimize TSFC (ct )
 ➔ Higher range can be achieved by higher fuel capacity (W0 ⁄W1 ), higher V∞ and lower
ct .

For maximum (L/D) condition,

𝐂𝐃 √𝐂𝐃𝟎 ⁄𝐤 𝟏
𝐂𝐋,𝐨𝐩𝐭 = √ 𝟎 , 𝐂𝐃,𝐨𝐩𝐭 = 𝟐𝐂𝐃𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 (𝐂𝐋 ⁄𝐂𝐃 )𝐦𝐚𝐱 = =
𝐤 𝟐𝐂𝐃𝟎 𝟐√𝐂𝐃𝟎 𝐤

We know that,

2W
V∞ = √
ρSCL

Therefore, the differential range equation becomes,

2W 1 W dW 2W 1 CL dW
dS = −√ = −√
ρSCL ct D W ρSCL ct CD W

W1 W1 W0
2W 1 CL dW 2W 1 CL dW
R=∫ dS = ∫ −√ =∫ √
W0 W0 ρSCL ct CD W W1 ρSCL ct CD W

⁄
If 𝛒∞ , 𝐒, 𝐜𝐭 and 𝐂𝐋𝟏 𝟐 ⁄𝐂𝐃 are constants, then we get the range for constant altitude and
constant angle of attack

⁄ ⁄
W0
2 1 CL1 2 dW 2 2 CL1 2
R=∫ √ = √ (√W0 − √W1 )
W1 ρS ct CD W 1⁄2 ct ρS CD

To maximize the range,

⁄
➔ Fly at maximum CL1 2 ⁄CD
➔ Fly at high altitude (small density) → limited by absolute ceiling
➔ Minimize TSFC (ct )

➔ Maximize fuel capacity (maximize (√W0 − √W1 ))

For constant angle of attack and constant airspeed (“Cruise Climb”),

Under this flight schedule (V, 𝛼 = const), we see as fuel is used up and the vehicle gets lighter,
the density is required to decrease. Therefore, the altitude must increase as fuel is burned up
and the aircraft gets lighter. In addition, it may be required to adjust the throttle so that the
airspeed remains constant in the stratosphere, where the temperature is constant, if the thrust
available is proportional to the density, the engine thrust will drop off with altitude at the same
rate that the drag is reduced with altitude (with constant CD and CL ) so that the throttle can
remain unchanged. This flight technique is called the “drift up” flight schedule.

2W W
V∞ = √ = constant ⇒ V∞ = √
ρSCL ρ

Cruise Climb: In cruise flight with constant speed and constant (L/D)max, the aircraft weight
reduces with burning of fuel, the lift required to support the weight reduces. This results in
gradual gain in flight altitude. Such a flight is known as Cruise Climb.

Altitude gain in Cruise Climb:

The change in altitude in cruise climb can be obtained by using the density ratio (σ0 ) at the
initial cruise altitude and the aircraft weight ratio (W0 ⁄W1 ).

Consider L = W condition for initial (W0 ) and final flight (W1 ) conditions as,

1
W0 = (σ0 ρSL )V02 SCL,opt
2

1
W1 = (σ1 ρSL )V02 SCL,opt
2

Thus, we get

W0 W1
=
σ0 σ1

For the density ratio (σ1 ) we can obtain the altitude h1 using the following relationship between
σ and h in (km):

𝐡 = 𝟒𝟒. 𝟑(𝟏 − 𝛔𝟎.𝟐𝟑𝟓 )

change in altitude in the cruise climb is 𝐡𝟏 − 𝐡𝟎 .

For propeller-driven aircraft:

For propeller-driven aircraft, it is more convenient to express range in terms of SFC rather than
TSFC,

cV∞
ct =
ηpr
 W1 W1 W0 W0 η
1 L dW 1 L dW pr CL dW
R=∫ dS = ∫ −V∞ = ∫ V∞ =∫
W0 W0 ct D W W1 ct D W W1 c CD W

ηpr CL W0
R= ln ( )
c CD W1

To maximize the range:

➔ Fly at maximum (L/D)
➔ Maximize propeller efficiency (ηpr )
➔ Minimize SFC (c)
➔ Maximize fuel capacity (maximize (W0 ⁄W1 ))
Summary:
Generalized Range Equation:
W0
V∞ L dW
R=∫
W1 ct D W

Breguet Range Equation (Constant Speed) – Jet Aircraft:

1L W0 1 CL W0
R = V∞ ln ( ) = V∞ ln ( )
ct D W1 ct CD W1
Range Equation – Propeller-driven Aircraft:
ηpr CL W0
R= ln ( )
c CD W1

Range Equation (Constant Altitude) – Jet Aircraft:

⁄
2 2 CL1 2
R= √ (√W0 − √W1 )
ct ρS CD

Constant Airspeed and constant Altitude:

W2
V dW
R = −∫
W1 ct D

CD = CD0 + kCL2

1 2 1 2 2
1 2 1 2 L2
D = ρV SCD = ρV S(CD0 + kCL ) = ρV SCD0 + ρV S (k )
2 2 2 2 1 2 2
(2 ρV S)

1 2 L2 1 2 kW 2
D = ρV SCD0 + k = ρV SCD0 +
2 1 1
(2 ρV 2 S) 2 (2 ρV 2 S)
 W2 W2
V dW V dW
R = −∫ 2 = −∫ 2
W1 ct 1 2 kW W1 ct E + FW
ρV SCD + 1
2 0
(2 ρV 2 S)

V F F
R= [tan−1 (√ W1 ) − tan−1 (√ W2 )]
ct √EF E E

Consequences of Assumptions:
Case 1: Constant Angle of Attack and Airspeed:
1L W0 1 CL W0
R = V∞ ln ( ) = V∞ ln ( )
ct D W1 ct CD W1
➔ V and CL are constant

2W W
V=√ ⇒ V ∝ √ = constant
ρSCL ρ

The fuel is used up and the vehicle gets lighter, the density is required to decrease. Therefore,
the altitude must increase as fuel is burned up and the aircraft gets lighter. In addition, it may
be required to adjust the throttle so that the airspeed remains constant. If the thrust available is
proportional to the density, the engine thrust will drop off with altitude at the same rate that the
drag is reduced with altitude (with constant CD and CL ) so that the throttle can remain
unchanged.
Case 2: Constant Angle of Attack and Altitude:
⁄
2 2 CL1 2
R= √ (√W0 − √W1 )
ct ρS CD

➔ α and ρ are constant

2W
V=√ ⇒ V ∝ √W
ρSCL

Here as the flight continues and the fuel is burned up, the airspeed decreases. Generally, to fly
this schedule, the throttle must be reduced as the fuel is consumed and the weight decreases.
Case 2: Constant Altitude and Airspeed:

V F F
R= [tan−1 (√ W1 ) − tan−1 (√ W2 )]
ct √EF E E
 ➔ V and ρ are constant

2W
V=√ ⇒ CL ∝ W
ρSCL

Here the lift coefficient is proportional to the weight in order to satisfy the constant airspeed
and constant altitude constraint. As the weight decreases, so must the lift coefficient.
Consequently, the angle-of-attack must decrease as the flight continues. As a result, the drag
will decrease slightly (smaller induced drag, zero-lift drag is unchanged) and the throttle may
have to be continually reduced during the flight.
Range for Propeller-based aircraft:
For propeller-driven aircraft, SFC and TSFC are related as follows:

cV∞
ct =
ηpr

where ηpr = Propeller efficiency

DV
PA = ηp Ps ⇒ TV = ηp Ps ⇒ DV = ηp Ps ⇒ Ps =
ηp

Ẇf dWf dWf DV

c≡ ⇒ = cPs ⇒ = c( )
Ps dt dt ηp

Range equation:
DV
c(η )
dWf dWf ⁄dt p cD
= = =
dS dS⁄dt V ηp

The range integral can be established as,

W2 η W2 η W2 η
p dW p W dW p L dW
R = −∫ = −∫ = −∫
W1 c D W1 c W D W1 c D W

Constant Angle of attack and constant Airspeed or Altitude:

For constant altitude or constant airspeed, the range will be the same:
ηpr CL W0
R= ln ( )
c CD W1