University of Benghazi Faculty of Engineering

Department of Industrial and Manufacturing System

Engineering

Introduction to Machine Tool Design

IE224

Chapter -1-
Stress and Strain

Lecturer: Mr. Mohamed Saad

Introduction to Machine
Strength of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Tool
Date: / Design
/ . Stress and Strain

1
Stress and Strain
1.1 Normal Stress
The force per unit area, or intensity of the forces distributed over a given section, is called stress on
that section. It is denoted by  (sigma). The stress in a member of cross-sectional area A subjected
to an axial load P, as shown below, is obtained by dividing the magnitude P of the load by the area
A.
P
= (1.1)
A

As  acts in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, it is normal

stress. A positive sign (+) will be used to indicate a tensile stress
(member in tension) and a negative sign (-) to indicate to
compressive stress (member in compression).

In SI (metric) units, P is expressed in newtons (N) and A in square

meter (m2). Thus,  will be in N/m2. This unit is called Pascal (Pa):
1 kPa = 103 Pa = 103 N/m2
1 MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2 = 1 N/mm2
1 GPa = 109 Pa = 109 N/m2

When U.S. customary units are used, the force P is usually expressed in pounds (lb) or kilopounds
(kip), and the cross-sectional area A in square inches (in2). The stress  will then be expressed in
pounds per square inch (psi) or kilopounds per square inch (ksi)

The equation (1.1) is valid if the stress  is uniformly distributed over the cross section of the
member. This condition is realized if the axial force P acts through the centroid of the cross-
sectional area.

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Mr. Mansour Saad
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Introduction to Machine
Strength of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Date: / / . Stress and Strain
Tool Design
1.2 Normal Strain
The deformation per unit length of a rod under
axial loading is known as normal strain. It is
denoted by  (epsilon) and can be written as

= (1.2)
L
where L is the original length of bar and  is the deformation occurs corresponding to the applied
load P.

If the bar is in tension, the strain is called tensile strain, representing elongation or stretching of the
material. If the bar is in compression, the strain is compressive strain and bar shortens. Tensile
strain is usually taken positive (+) and compressive strain as negative (-). The strain  is called
normal strain because it is associated with the normal stress, as will be seen in Sec. 1.6.
Because normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless quantity. In practice, the
original units of  and L are sometimes attached to the strain itself, and the strain is recorded in the
forms such as mm/m, m/m, and in/in. Microstrain () is used also.

Ex. 1.1
A prismatic bar with rectangular cross section (20×40mm) and length of L = 2.8 m is subjected to
an axial tensile force of 70 kN. The measured elongation of the bar is  = 1.2 mm. Calculate the
tensile stress and strain in the bar.
Sol.

Mr.Mohamed
Mr. Mansour Saad
Nagib Elhemri Page 2 of 12
Introduction to Machine
Strength of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Tool
Date: / Design
/ . Stress and Strain
1.3 Stress-Strain Diagrams
The stress-strain diagrams are obtained by tests performed on small specimens of the material. The
tensile test is one of the most common tests applied for this purpose.
The first material that is to be discussed is the low-carbon steel, which is known as mild
steel and structural steel.

Test specimen with tensile load

As shown in this diagram, the strains are plotted on the horizontal axis and the stresses on
the vertical axis. The diagram can be divided to the following regions:
• Linear region: It starts at the origin O to the point A as a strain line which means that stress
and strain are proportional. Point A is called proportional limit. The slope of the straight line
from O to A is known as the modulus of elasticity.
• Yielding: Just after the proportional limit, rapid increase of strain and consequent decrease
of slope of the curve occur until it becomes horizontal at point B, which is called yield point.
In the region from B to C the material becomes perfectly plastic, which means that it can
deform without any increase in the applied load.
• Strain hardening: During the strain hardening, the material undergoes changes in its atomic
and crystalline structure resulting in increased resistance of the material to further
deformation. So, the stress-strain diagram has a positive slope from C to D. The maximum
stress is reached at point D which is known as ultimate tensile stress, UTS, where the stress
starts decreasing up to fracture at point E.

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Mr. MansourSaad
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Introduction
Strength to Machine
of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Date: /Tool Design
/ . Stress and Strain
• Necking (lateral contraction): In the vicinity of the ultimate stress, the reduction of the area
is clearly visible and known as necking. If the actual cross-sectional area at the narrow part
of the neck is used to calculate the stress, the true stress-strain curve will follow the dashed
line (CE’).

Many non-ferrous alloys, such as aluminum alloys, show stress-strain behavior fairly similar to
low-carbon steel, but without clear yield point. Thus, an arbitrary yield stress may be determined by
the offset method, where the linear strain is offset by a standard value, such as 0.002 (= 0.2%), as
illustrated below. The intersection of the offset line and the stress-strain curve is then called offset
yield stress. It is also known as proof stress.

1.4 Ductile and Brittle Materials

Materials that undergo large strains before failure are classified as ductile, such as steel and
aluminum. The ductility of a material in tension can be characterized by two percentage values:
a- Percent Elongation: which is defined as:
L f − Lo
Percent elongation =  100 (1.3)
Lf

where Lo is the original gage length and Lf is the final distance between gage marks at
fracture. For structural steel values of 25% to 30% are common. In case of aluminum alloys
the elongation varies between 1% and 45% depending on composition and treatment.
b- Percent Reduction in Area: which measures the amount of necking that occurs and is
defined by:

Ao − A f
Percent reduction in area =  100 (1.4)
Ao
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Mr. Mansour Saad
Nagib Elhemri Page 4 of 12
Introduction
Strength to Machine
of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Tool
Date: / Design
/ . Stress and Strain
in which Ao is the original cross-section area and Af is the final area at the fracture section. For
ductile steels, the reduction is about 50%.

Materials that fail in tension at relatively low values of strain are known as brittle materials.
Examples are cast iron, concrete, stone, glass, ceramic materials, and many common metallic alloys.

1.5 Elasticity and Plasticity

When material is loaded statically in tension or compression within the elastic region, it follows the
stress-strain curve. So, if it is unloaded it returns to the original dimensions (at point O). But if it
passes the elastic limit at loading, some residual (permanent) strain will appear during unloading
with some elastic recovery.

1.6 Hooke’s Law (after Robert Hooke 1635-1703)

The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression can be
expressed by the equation:
 = E (1.5)
where E is the constant of proportionality known as modulus of elasticity. It is often called
Young’s modulus, after Thomas Young (1773-1829). For steel E is about 200 GPa (29.0×106 psi),
and it is about 70 GPa (10.1×106 psi) for aluminum. More flexible materials have lower values of E;
typical values of plastics range from 0.7 to 14 GPa (0.10×106 to 2.03×106 psi).

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Mr. Mansour Nagib
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Introduction
Strength to Machine
of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Date: /Tool Design
/ . Stress and Strain
1.7 Poisson’s Ratio (after Denis Poisson 1781-1840)
It is defined as the ratio of the strain in lateral direction to the
strain in the axial direction and denoted by the Greek letter 
(nu). Some references denote it by  (mu). Thus;
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜈=− 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

y 
So,  =− =− z (1.6)
x x
and consequently;
x  x
x = and y = z = −
E E
Poisson’s ratio ranges from 0.25 to 0.35 for many materials and can be obtained from tables.

Ex.1.2
A 500-mm-long, 16-mm-diameter rod made of a
homogenous, isotropic material is observed to
increase in length by 300 m, and to decrease in
diameter by 2.4 m when subjected to an axial
12-kN load. Determine the modulus of elasticity
and Poisson’s ratio of the material.
Sol.

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Mr. Mansour Saad
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 Introduction to Machine
Strength of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Date: /Tool Design
/ . Stress and Strain
1.8 Shear Stress and Strain
Shear stress is resulted from the shear force acting parallel to the cross-
sectional area. In the case shown, it is called direct shear stress. Shear
stress can be resulted from other ways such as torsion or bending. Shear
stress is usually denoted by the Greek letter  (tau). The average shear
stress on a cross-sectional areal A is obtained by
𝑉
𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐴 (1.9)

where V is the applied shear force.

Ex. 1.3
For bolted connections shown in (a) and (b), find the average shear stress.

Sol.

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Mr. MansourSaad
Mohamed Nagib Elhemri Page 7 of 12
 Introduction
Strength to Machine
of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Date: / Tool /Design. Stress and Strain
Shear strain can be represented by considering a small element under shear stress. For its moment
equilibrium the shear stress should applied over the element as shown below in (a). This will result
in distortion shown in (b). Thus, the shear strain is defined by the angle  (gamma) as a measure of
distortion, or change in shape, of the element.
For many materials, the initial part of the shear stress-strain diagram is
a straight line. For this linearly elastic region, the shear stress and shear strain
are calculated by using Hooke’s Law in shear:
𝜏 = 𝐺𝛾 (1.10)
Which G is shear modulus of elasticity (or modulus of rigidity). For mild steel
it is about 75 GPa and for aluminum about 28 GPa.
Both moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by the
following equation which contains the main mechanical properties of a given
material in elasticity;
𝐸
𝐺 = 2(1+𝜈) (1.11)

Ex. 1.4
A punch with a diameter of 19 mm is used to punch a hole in a 6 mm steel plate. A force P = 116
kN is required. What are the average shear stress in the plate and the average compressive stress in
the punch?
Sol.

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Mr. Mansour Nagib
Saad Elhemri Page 8 of 12
 Introduction
Strength to Machine
of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Date: /Tool Design
/ . Stress and Strain
1.9 Allowable Stress and Allowable Load
If structural failure is to be avoided, the loads that a structure actually can support must be greater
than the load it will be required to sustain when in service. The ratio of the actual strength to the
required strength is called factor of safety (n):
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑛 =
𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
The factor of safety must be greater than 1.0 if failure is to be avoided.
In actual practice, there are several ways in which factors of safety are defined. A common
method of design is to use factor of safety based on the yield stress of the structure. So, allowable
stress, or working stress, is
𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦
Y
or  all = (1.12)
n
This method is used for ductile materials such mild steel, but for brittle materials like cast iron, the
allowable stress is obtained by using the ultimate stress in tension or compression according to type
of lead considered.
U
 all = (1.13)
n
The factor of safety is normally much greater with respect to the ultimate stress than with respect
yield stress.
Another method involves the application of loads instead of stresses and factor of safety, or load
factor, is defined as the ratio of the ultimate load which produces failure to the service load which
the structure must support.
𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑛 =
𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

In aircraft design, margin of safety is commonly used, and it is defined as:

𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = 𝑛 − 1
So, when the margin of safety is reduced to zero or less, structure will fail.

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Mr. MansourSaad
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Introduction
Strength to Machine
of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Date: /Tool Design
/ . Stress and Strain
Ex. 1.5
A short, hollow, circular cast iron cylinder is to support an axial
compressive load P = 580 kN. The ultimate stress in compression
is u = 240 MPa. It is decided to design the cylinder with a wall
thickness t = 25 mm and a factor of safety of 3.0. Compute the
minimum required outside diameter d of the cylinder.
Sol.

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Mr. MansourSaad
Mohamed Nagib Elhemri Page 10 of 12
Introduction
Strength to Machine
of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Tool
Date: / Design
/ . Stress and Strain
Ex. 1.6
A steel bar of rectangular cross section (10×40 mm) carries a
tensile load P and attached to a support by means a round pin
of diameter 15 mm. The allowable stresses for the bar in
tension and pin in shear are all = 120 MPa and all = 60 MPa,
respectively. What is the maximum permissible value of the
load P?
Sol.

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Mr. Mansour Nagib
Saad Elhemri Page 11 of 12
 Introduction
Strength to Machine
of Materials I IE224
ME222 Chapter 1
Date: /Tool Design
/ . Stress and Strain
1.10 Bearing Stress in Connections
Bolts, pins and rivets create stresses in the members they connect along the bearing surface, or
surface of contact. Since the distribution of these stresses is quite complicated, an average nominal
value b of stress is used and called the bearing stress. It is obtained by dividing the load by the
projected area of the connection, as shown below.
𝑃 𝑃
𝜎𝑏 = 𝐴 = 𝑡𝑑 (1.14)
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗

Ex. 1.7
In the Ex. 1.6 compute the maximum permissible load P considering the bearing stress in the bar at
the connection with the round pin. Assume all = 120 MPa.
Sol.

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Mr. Mansour Saad
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