MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS and EM WAVES

INTRODUCTION:
Electromagnetics is the subject that deals with the theory and
applications of electric and magnetic fields. The concept of
electromagnetics is of prime importance in almost all fields of engineering,
especially electromagnetic communication which forms the foundation of
Mobile communication, optical fiber communication etc. In all these
applications, Electric and Magnetic field properties are utilized to transfer
the information.

Fundamentals of vectors:
Physical quantities are divided into two main categories.
(i) Scalars and (ii) Vectors
Scalars are those physical quantities which possess only magnitude and no
direction in space. Eg.: Mass, time, volume, work etc.
Vectors are those physical quantities which have both magnitude and
direction. Eg.: Force, electric field, acceleration etc.
A vector can be represented by a directed line segment. The length
of the line segment is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and its
inclination is along the direction of action of the vector quantity.
Unit Vector is a vector with a magnitude of unity. It always indicates just
the direction.

Base Vectors:

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 Generally, a coordinate system is used to represent the orientation
of a vector quantity. In a Cartesian coordinate system, the position or
orientation is represented by arbitrarily choosing an origin and three
coordinates (X, Y and Z) mutually perpendicular to each other from that
origin. The unit vectors along these coordinate axes are known as base
vectors. The base vectors along X, Y and Z coordinates can be represented
as 𝑎̂𝑥, 𝑎̂𝑦 and 𝑎̂𝑧 respectively. In terms of the base vectors, 𝐴⃗ can be
written as

𝐴⃗ = 𝐴𝑥𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧𝑎̂𝑧

Scalar product or Dot Product:

Dot Product of two vectors is defined as the product of their

magnitudes and cosine of the smaller angles between them.

If 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵⃗⃗ are any two vectors inclined at an angle θ, their dot product is

given by 𝐴⃗ ∙ 𝐵⃗⃗ = |𝐴⃗||𝐵⃗⃗|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.

Vector product or Cross Product:

Cross Product of two vectors 𝐴⃗ & ⃗𝐵⃗⃗⃗ is a vector 𝐶⃗ whose magnitude
is equal to the product of their magnitudes and sine of the smaller angles
between them.

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If 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵⃗⃗ are any two vectors inclined at an angle θ, their cross product is

given by 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝐶⃗ = |𝐴⃗||𝐵⃗⃗|𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑛̂

Where 𝑛̂ is a unit vector in the direction of 𝐶⃗. The cross product of two

vectors is also a vector quantity. The direction of 𝐶⃗ is perpendicular to the

plane containing 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵⃗⃗ which can be found by right hand rule.

In terms of components of 𝐴⃗ & 𝐵⃗⃗, the vector 𝐶⃗ can be expressed as a

third order determinant,
𝑎̂𝑥 𝑎̂𝑦 𝑎̂𝑧
𝐶⃗ = 𝐴⃗ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧|
|𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
𝐵𝑥
⃗C⃗ = 𝑎̂𝑥(𝐴𝑦𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧𝐵𝑦) − 𝑎̂𝑦(𝐴𝑥𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧𝐵𝑥) + 𝑎̂𝑧(𝐴𝑥𝐵𝑦
− 𝐴𝑦𝐵𝑥)
Vector Operator, (Del):
'𝐷𝑒𝑙' is a vector differential operator represented by the symbol ∇ (Nabla).
It is an instruction to differentiate the function that follows it (i.e. to its
right).
In a Cartesian coordinate system, 𝑑𝑒𝑙 operator is given by
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= ( 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎̂𝑧) 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
When applied to a function defined on a one dimensional domain, 𝑑𝑒𝑙
denotes its standard derivative as defined in calculus. When applied to a
field (a function defined on a multi-dimensional domain), 𝑑𝑒𝑙 may denote

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the gradient of a scalar field, the divergence of a vector field, or the curl
(rotation) of a vector field, depending on the way it is applied.
Gradient:
Consider a scalar filed function which depends on more than one
variables such as temperature ‘T’ in a room. The change in 𝑇 with different
variables is given by
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑑𝑇 = ( ) 𝑑𝑥 + ( ) 𝑑𝑦 + ( ) 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
The above equation indicates the variation of 𝑇 when the variables x, y,
and z are varied by a small magnitude 𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦 and 𝑑𝑧 respectively.
𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇 𝜕𝑇
𝑑𝑇 = ( 𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑎̂𝑧) . (𝑑𝑥𝑎̂𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦𝑎̂𝑦 + 𝑑𝑧𝑎̂𝑧)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑑𝑇 = (∇⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇⃗⃗).⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗

𝑑𝑇 = |∇⃗⃗⃗⃗𝑇⃗⃗|⃗|⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗|𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Where ∇𝑇 is known as gradient of T and read as ‘grad T’.

Gradient of a scalar function is a vector quantity. Gradient vector always
points in a direction showing maximum change of the scalar function.

Divergence:
This operation is used to evaluate the amount of physical quantity
emerging or diverging from a small volume.
Divergence of a vector field 𝐴⃗ at a given point 𝑃 is the outward flux
per unit volume as the volume goes to zero about 𝑃.

The divergence of vector function is scalar quantity. If the divergence of a

vector field is zero such field is known as solenoidal field.

Physical significance of divergence:

The divergence of the vector field 𝐴⃗ at a given point is a measure of
how much the field diverges or emerges or spreads from that point. i.e. it is
a measure of the number of lines of force representing the vector field 𝐴⃗
originating from that point.

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If there are positive electric charges at a point, then large number of field
lines diverge from that point (positive divergence). If there are negative
charges at a point, then field lines will converge at the point or negative
divergence.

Curl:
The curl of the vector field 𝐴⃗ at a given point ’P’ is a measure of the
circulation or rotation of the field around the point ‘P’.
It is defined at a point ‘P’ as the maximum circulation of a vector field

𝐴⃗ per unit area as the area shrinks to zero around ‘P’. Curl of 𝐴⃗ is a vector
with its direction perpendicular to the area around ‘P’ when the area
oriented for maximum circulation.
Physical significance of Curl:

Curl measures the tendency of a vector filed to swirl around or to rotate

around a point. Greater magnitudes to a vector field around a point means
more vigorous or larger circulation of that field about that point (Fig
below).

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Line integral:

Consider a linear path PQ in a vector field 𝐴⃗. Consider a small elementary

length ‘dl’ of this line as shown in fig. Let ‘θ’ be the angle made by tangent
to

‘dl’ at M w.r.t. the field 𝐴⃗. Then the dot product,

𝐴⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐴𝑑𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

Considering the line ‘PQ’ to be made up of a number of elemental

lengths ‘dl’ and if we integrate the all the dot products 𝐴⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ between P and
Q then it is known as line integral.

.⃗ ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗
𝑄
𝑖. 𝑒. Line integral of the path PQ = ∫𝑃 𝐴

For closed path L,

Line integral = ∮ 𝐴⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗

𝐿

This is known as closed contour integral. It is also called circulation of 𝐴⃗ around L.

Surface integral:

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Consider a surface ‘S’ in a vector field⃗ ⃗𝐴⃗⃗. The surface ‘S’ can be imagined
to be made up of a number of infinitely small surface elements of area

‘dS’. If 𝑎̂𝑛 is the unit vector normal (perpendicular) to ‘dS’, then in the

vector field the surface element acts as a vector given by ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑑𝑆𝑎̂𝑛. The
surface integral is given by

∅ = ∫ 𝐴⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆

Here the dot product represents the outward flux through the surface
element ‘dS’ and ∅ represents the total outward flux through the surface
‘S’. If the surface is a closed surface then the unit vector 𝑎̂𝑛 is chosen
outward at every point and the surface integral is given by

∅ = ∮ 𝐴⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆

Volume integral:
Consider a closed surface ‘S’ enclosing a volume ‘V’ in a vector field ⃗⃗𝐴⃗⃗. Then the volume
integral is given by

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 = ∫ 𝑇𝑑𝑉

𝑉

Where ‘T’ is a scalar quantity.

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Consider a continuous distribution charges in a volume. Let 𝜌𝑣 be the charge
density (charge per unit volume) within the volume. Consider an elementary
volume ‘dV’ at ‘M’, then

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑙 = ∫ 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑉

𝑉

The quantity on the right hand side represents the total charge enclosed by
the volume ‘V’.

Gauss Law in Electrostatics

States that “the total electric flux through a closed surface is equal to
1
()times the total charge enclosed by the surface”.
𝜀0

OR
“Total flux density through a closed surface is equal to the total charge
enclosed by the surface”.

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Let an electric charge ‘q’ be surrounded by a closed surface of arbitrary
shape. This surface is known as ‘Gaussian Surface’. Let the flux density
→

passing through the surface element ‘dS’ be D. Then the total flux through
the closed surface is

∅ = ∮ 𝐷⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆

According to Gauss law, this total flux is equal to the total charge enclosed.

∴ ∮𝑆 𝐷⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑞 --------- (1

This is the integral form of Gauss law.

For a distribution charges throughout the volume of the closed
surface if 𝜌𝑣 is the charge density then total charge enclosed by the surface
is

𝑞 = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑉

𝑞 = 𝜌𝑣 ∫𝑉 𝑑𝑉

𝑞 = 𝜌𝑣𝑉 ----------- (2)

From equations (1) and (2)

∮ 𝐷⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣𝑉

𝑆

1
∮ 𝐷⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣
𝑉𝑆
As the volume shrinks to zero,

∮ 𝑉𝐷⃗⃗⃗.⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆
= 𝑉lim→0 𝜌𝑣
lim
𝑉→0

⃗
i.e. ∇. 𝐷⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 (By definition of divergence)
This is the differential form of Gauss law.

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Gauss Law in Magnetostatics

Consider a closed surface of arbitrary shape in a magnetic field. Magnetic

flux lines always form a closed loop. In the case of a closed surface in a
magnetic field, every line that enters the surface, there must always be a
line emerging out of the surface. Therefore total flux over the closed
surface must be equal to zero.
→. →

i.e. =B•ds=0
In differential form (vector form) we can write
→

.B= 0

Where 𝐵⃗⃗ is the magnetic flux density.

Gauss Divergence Theorem:

States that, “the surface integral of the normal component of the flux
density (or any vector) over any closed surface is equal to the volume
integral of the divergence of the flux density throughout the volume
enclosed by the surface”.
Mathematically,

∮𝑆 𝐷⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫𝑉 ∇. 𝐷⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑉

Proof:

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Consider a Gaussian surface in certain region of space enclosing some
charges. Let ‘dV’ be an elemental volume within the surface enclosing a
charge ‘dQ’. Then the charge density is given by
𝑑𝑄
𝜌𝑣 = 𝑑𝑉

If ‘Q’ is the total charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface, then

𝑄 = ∫ 𝑑𝑄 = ∫𝑉 𝜌𝑣𝑑𝑉

From Gauss law,

∇. 𝐷⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣

∴ 𝑄 = ∫𝑉∇. ⃗𝐷⃗ 𝑑𝑉 ------ (1)

Also from Gauss law,

∮𝑆 𝐷⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑄 ------ (2)

From equations (1) and (2),

∮𝑆 𝐷⃗⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫𝑉 ∇. 𝐷⃗⃗⃗𝑑𝑉

Equation of Continuity:
States that “the amount current diverging from an volume element
(closed surface) is equal to the time rate of decrease of charge within the
volume of closed surface”

⃗
Vectorially, ∇. 𝐽 = − 𝜕 𝜌𝑣

𝜕𝑡

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Where 𝐽⃗ is the current density, 𝜌𝑣 is the charge density.
Note: This is a fundamental equation in fluid dynamics or in situations
which involves a conserved quantity such as mass, charge etc. Biot-
Savart’s Law
This law gives the magnetic flux density at a point due to a current
carrying conductor.

Consider a conductor XY carrying a current I. Consider an elemental

length ‘dl’ of the conductor at ‘O’. Let ‘P’ be a point at a distance ‘r’ from
‘O’. Let ‘θ’ be the angle made by the tangent to ‘dl’ with the line joining the
point ‘P’ and the current element ‘dl’. Then according Biot-Savart’s law
The magnitude of the flux density ‘dB’ at a point due to a current
element is directly proportional to the product of the current (I), the length
of the current element (dl) and the sine of the angle (sinθ) between the
current element and the position vector to the point from the current
element and it is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the point and the current element.
𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
∝
i.e. 𝑑𝐵 𝑟2

or 𝑑𝐵 = 4𝜇𝜋0 𝐼𝑑𝑙𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑟2

In vector form,

⃗𝑑𝐵⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇 0𝐼(𝑟𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗3⃗⃗×𝑟⃗)

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The direction of this field is perpendicular the plane containing ‘dl’ and ‘r’.

Here ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ is directed along the direction of the current.

Stoke’s Theorem:
States that ‘the net circulation of a vector field⃗ ⃗𝐴⃗⃗ over some open surface
‘S’ is

equal to the line integral of ⃗ ⃗𝐴⃗⃗ along the closed contour ‘C’ which bounds
‘S’.

In the figure shown, ‘S’ is an open surface of arbitrary shape in a vector

field⃗ ⃗𝐴⃗⃗ and ‘C’ is the closed curve/path that bounds ‘S’.

The circulation of the field ⃗ ⃗𝐴⃗⃗ over a surface element, ‘dS’ is given by(∇

× 𝐴⃗). 𝑑𝑆. Therefore total curl (circulation) over the entire surface is given

by

∫ (∇ × 𝐴⃗). ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑆

Dividing the boundary of the surface into a number of small length

elements

‘dl’ in the vector field⃗ ⃗ 𝐴⃗⃗ and integrating the dot product 𝐴⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ over the
closed path we get

∫ 𝐴⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗
𝐶

According Stoke’s theorem, ∫𝑆 (∇ × 𝐴⃗). ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∫𝐶 𝐴⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗

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Current Density ‘𝑱⃗’
It defined as the current per unit area of cross of an imaginary surface held
normal to the direction of current in a current carrying conductor.
𝐼
𝐽⃗ =
𝐴
Where ‘A’ is the area of cross section normal to the current. In terms of

charge density 𝑱⃗ = 𝝆𝒗⃗⃗ where 𝑣⃗ is the velocity of the charges at a given

point.

Ampere’s Law:
States that ‘the line integral of magnetic field taken about any closed path
is equal to 𝜇0 times the current enclosed by that path.

Consider a closed loop in a magnetic field enclosing certain current I.

Consider an elemental surface area ‘dS’ normal to the current. If ⃗ 𝐽⃗ is the

current density then the total current enclosed by the surface/loop is

𝐼 = ∫𝑆 𝐽⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ ---- (1)

⃗
∮ 𝐵⃗.
⃗ ⃗
The line integral of the magnetic field over the entire closed loop is

𝑑𝑙⃗⃗

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 ⃗ ⃗ ⃗
∴ According to Ampere’s law, ∮ 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗⃗ = 𝜇0𝐼
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
i.e. ∮ 𝐵⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 ∫𝑆 ⃗𝐽. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗ --- (2)
Applying Stokes theorem,

∫𝑆 (∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗). ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∮ 𝐵⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗

∴ (2) becomes ∫𝑆 (∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗). ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 ∫𝑆𝐽⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗

Differentiating both sides

∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜𝐽⃗
This is known as Ampere’s Circuital law in differential form.

Displacement Current:
When a dielectric material is subjected to an electric field, it gets
polarized. Even though charges cannot flow freely in a dielectric, the
charges in molecules can move a little under the influence of an electric
field. The positive and negative charges in molecules separate under the
applied field, causing an increase in the state of polarization. A changing
state of polarization in the dielectric due to the displacement of charges
within the molecules of a dielectric give rise to a current known as
displacement current.

Consider a parallel plate capacitor as shown in the figure. Let 𝑉

= 𝑉0𝑒𝑗𝜔𝑡’ be the alternating potential difference applied across the plates of

15
the capacitor. Due to the applied potential difference, the charges will
accumulate on the plates of the capacitor.
If ‘dq’ is the charge stored on the plates of the capacitor in time ‘dt’, then
𝑑𝑞
Displacement current, 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑑𝑡 − − − − − − − (1)

We have, 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉
𝜀𝐴
For a parallel plate capacitor, 𝐶 =
𝑑
𝜀𝐴𝑉
∴ 𝑞=
𝑑

𝑞 = 𝜀𝐴𝐸⃗⃗ (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝑉)

𝑑

Equation (1) becomes

𝜕𝑞 𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜕𝑡 = 𝜀𝐴 𝜕𝑡
Displacement current density is

⃗𝐽⃗⃗𝑑⃗ = 𝑖𝐴𝑑 = 𝜕(𝜕𝑡𝜀𝐸⃗⃗)

i.e. ⃗𝐽⃗⃗𝑑⃗ = 𝜕 (𝐷⃗⃗⃗)

𝜕𝑡 (Since 𝐷⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜀⃗𝐸⃗⃗⃗, 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦)

Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction:

Through various experiments Faraday proved that a change in
magnetic flux linked with a closed circuit results in an emf induced in the
circuit which give rise to the flow of current. The law states that
“the magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal to the rate of
change of magnetic flux through it. The induced emf will be in a direction
which opposes the change which causes it.”

i.e. 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = − 𝑑 ∅
------ (1)
𝑑𝑡

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where ′∅′ is the flux linkage with the circuit. Negative sign is in accordance
with the Lenz’s law.

Consider a stationary loop of a conducting material placed in a changing

magnetic field 𝐵⃗⃗. The normal component of the magnetic flux through an
elemental surface area dS is

𝑑∅ = 𝐵⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗.
The total flux over any surface ‘S’ in a magnetic field is given by

∅ = ∫𝑆 𝐵⃗⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − − − − − − − − (2)

By definition, emf is the work done per unit charge in moving the charges

around closed path. The corresponding force ⃗𝐸⃗⃗⃗ must be acting tangential to
the closed loop at every point on it. Total work done by this force is

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = ∮𝐿 𝐸⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗

Where is ′𝒅𝒍′ the elemental length of the loop.

∴ 𝑒𝑚𝑓 = ∮𝐿 𝐸⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗---------- (3)

From equation (1) and (3),

∮𝐿 𝐸⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑑
𝑑𝑡
∅

𝐿 𝜕𝑡 𝑆 [From (2)]

∮ ∫
𝐿 𝐸⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ = − 𝑆𝜕 (𝐵⃗𝜕𝑡⃗.𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗)

⃗⃗

17
 ∮ ⃗. ⃗ ⃗
𝐿 𝐸⃗ 𝑆 𝜕𝑡 . 𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗ --------- (4)
This is the integral form of Faraday’s law.
Using Stoke’s theorem,

∮𝐿 𝐸⃗⃗. ⃗𝑑𝑙⃗⃗⃗ = ∫𝑆 (∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗) . ⃗𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗
. ⃗ 𝑑𝑆⃗⃗⃗⃗
[From (4)]
𝑆 𝜕𝑡 𝑆

Differentiating both sides ∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝜕 𝐵⃗⃗

----------- (5)

𝜕𝑡

This is the differential form Faraday’s law

Ampere-Maxwell’s law:
The Ampere law is given by

∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜𝐽⃗
which holds good under static conditions. But for time varying fields, the
law does not holds good.
Taking divergence on both sides of above equation

∇. (∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗) = 𝜇0(∇. 𝐽⃗)

From the rules of vector analysis, the divergence of a curl for any vector
field is equal to zero. Therefore

∇. 𝐽⃗ = 0
But according to the equation continuity
𝜕𝜌𝑣
∇. 𝐽⃗ = −
𝜕𝑡
Thus, Amperes law yields a result which is not in accordance with equation
of Continuity. Maxwell fixed this contradiction by adding a term to include
timevarying fields. The modified Ampere’s law is given by

∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝑜 (𝐽⃗+ 𝜕
𝜕𝑡
𝐷⃗⃗⃗
) [ 𝜕
𝜕𝑡
𝐷⃗⃗⃗
is the displacement current
density]
18
This equation is known as Ampere-Maxwell’s law. It States that “the line
integral of magnetic field taken about any closed path is equal to 𝜇0 times
the sum of the current enclosed by that path and the rate change of electric
flux through any surface bounded by that path”.

Maxwell’s equations
For time-varying fields, the Maxwell’s equations in differential form

are 1. ∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝜕 𝐵⃗⃗

𝜕𝑡

2. ∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐽⃗+ 𝜕
𝜕𝑡 )
𝐷⃗⃗⃗

3. ∇. 𝐷⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣

4. ∇. 𝐵⃗⃗ = 0
For static fields, the Maxwell’s equations in differential form are

1. ∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = 0

2. ∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇0𝐽⃗

3. ∇. 𝐷⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣

4. ∇. 𝐵⃗⃗ = 0

Maxwell’s equations in word form:

1. The electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the rate of
change of magnetic flux through the surface bounded by the path
2. The magneto motive force around a closed path is equal to the sum

of conduction current (𝐽⃗) and the rate of change of electric

displacement

(𝐷⃗⃗⃗) through the surface bounded by the path.

3. The total electric flux density through a closed surface enclosing a

volume is equal to the total charge within the volume.
4. The total magnetic flux emerging through any closed surface is zero.

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 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Wave Equation in differential form in terms of Electric
field
For time-varying fields we have the Maxwell’s equations in differential
form given by

∇. 𝐷⃗⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣 ---------- (1)

∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝜕 𝐵⃗⃗
----------

(2)

𝜕𝑡

∇. 𝐵⃗⃗ = 0 ----------- (3)

∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐽⃗+ 𝜕
𝜕𝑡 ) ------ (4)
𝐷⃗⃗⃗

Consider a non-conducting medium of permittivity

′𝜺′ and permeability′𝝁′. For such a medium 𝜎 = 0 which means that 𝐽⃗ =
0. Therefore the fourth Maxwell’s equation reduces to

∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇 (𝜕𝐷⃗⃗⃗)
𝜕𝑡

∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗ = 𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
-------- (5)
𝜕𝑡

Taking curl on both sides of equation (2)

∇ × (∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗) = ∇ × (− 𝜕𝐵⃗⃗
)
𝜕𝑡

∇ × (∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗) = − 𝜕 (∇×𝐵⃗⃗)
---------- (6)
𝜕𝑡

From the rules of vector analysis,

∇ × (∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗) = ∇(∇. 𝐸⃗⃗) − ∇2𝐸⃗⃗

Where ∇2 is the Laplacian operator.

From equation (1) we have ∇. 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜌𝑣

.

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 𝜀

For non-conducting medium 𝜌𝑣 = 0 and hence ∇. 𝐸⃗⃗ = 0

∴ ∇ × (∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗) = −∇2𝐸⃗⃗
Equation (6) becomes

2
𝐸⃗⃗ = − 𝜕(∇ × 𝐵⃗⃗)
−∇
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸⃗⃗
𝜕 (𝜇𝜀 )
𝜕𝑡
∇ 𝐸⃗⃗ =
2

𝜕𝑡
⃗
∇2𝐸⃗ = 𝜇𝜀 𝜕 2 𝐸 ⃗⃗
𝜕 𝑡 2

𝜕 𝐸⃗⃗
2

∇2𝐸⃗⃗ − 𝜇𝜀 𝜕𝑡2 = 0

This is the 3-D wave equation in 𝐸⃗⃗

For free space;
𝜕 𝐸⃗⃗
2

∇2𝐸⃗⃗ − 𝜇 𝜀 = 0 --------- (7)

𝜕𝑡

In terms of magnetic field, the wave equation in free space is

𝜕 𝐵⃗⃗
2

∇2𝐵⃗⃗ − 𝜇 𝜀 = 0 ------ (8)

𝜕𝑡

The classical wave equation is represented as

∇2𝜑 − 1 𝜕2𝜑
= 0 --------- (9)
𝑣 𝜕𝑡

From equation (7) and (9) we have the velocity of the EM wave

Plane EM Wave:

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 Plane electromagnetic waves are the electromagnetic waves in which
electric and magnetic fields are uniform over a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. They possess variation only in the direction of
propagation.
An electromagnetic wave propagation along x-axis is said to be a
plane wave if the electric field (and magnetic field) is independent of y and
z-axes but is a function of x and t (time) only. For such a there will be no field
component in the direction of propagation.
For a plane electromagnetic wave of wavelength 𝜆 propagating along

positive x-axis, the electric field (𝐸⃗⃗𝑦) and magnetic field (𝐵⃗⃗𝑧) components
varying along y and z directions respectively at any instant of time ‘t’ can be
written as

2𝜋
𝐸⃗⃗𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 [ (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)] 𝑎̂𝑦
𝜆
and 𝐵⃗⃗𝑧 = 𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠 [2 𝜆𝜋 (𝑥 − 𝑐𝑡)] 𝑎̂𝑧; where A is the
1

amplitude

of the wave and c is the velocity of the wave in vacuum.

The ratio of the magnitudes of 𝐸⃗⃗𝑦 and 𝐵⃗⃗𝑧 in the above equations is

𝐸𝑦
𝑐=
𝐵𝑧

TRANSVERSE NATURE OF EM WAVES:

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 In an electromagnetic wave, electric and magnetic field vectors are
perpendicular to each other and at the same time are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of wave. This nature of electromagnetic wave is
known as Transverse nature.
Consider a uniform plane wave propagating along X direction in a medium
where there are no free charges.
From Maxwell’s equation

∇. 𝐷⃗⃗⃗ = 0 (Since 𝜌𝑣 = 0)

i.e ∇. 𝜀𝐸⃗⃗ = 0

∇. 𝐸⃗⃗ = 0

𝜕𝐸𝑥 𝜕𝐸𝑦 𝜕𝐸𝑧

For free space, + + = 0 ------- (1)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

As the wave is propagating along X direction, 𝐸𝑦 and 𝐸𝑧 remain constant

along Y and Z direction respectively.

∴ Ey =0= Ez

y z
Ex 0
From (1) =
x
 Ex =Constant
For a plane wave Ex cannot be a constant as it is periodic.

Ex =0

This means that a uniform plane wave progressing in the x direction

has no X component of electric field. It indicates that electric field is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation. Thus electromagnetic wave
has transverse nature.
A similar analysis would show that the X component of magnetic field
is also zero.

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