Anatomy of the Visual

System
Coding and Analysis of Visual Information
Objectives:

Introduction Coding of Visual

1 3 Information

Anatomy of the Analysis of Visual

2 Visual System 4 Information
 1
Introduction
Light

Light can be thought of in two different ways:

as discrete particles of energy, called photons,
traveling through space at about 300,000
kilometers (186,000 miles) per second (Isaac
Newton), or as waves of energy (Thomas
Young), or both (Albert Einstein).

Light is sometimes defined as waves of

electromagnetic energy between 380 and 760
nanometers (billionths of a meter) in length.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light and Eyes

Our eyes detect the presence of light.

Electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength
between 380 nm and 760 nm is visible to us. Other
animals can detect different ranges of
electromagnetic radiation.
For example, rattlesnakes can see infrared waves,
which are too long for humans to see; as a result,
they can see warm blooded prey in what for us
would be complete darkness. Honeybees can detect
differences in ultraviolet radiation reflected by
flowers that appear white to us.
Three dimensions of Light
Hue Saturation Brightness

Length of the Relative purity of Amplitude of

wave. Long the light being the wave-how
wavelengths are perceived. A high or low the
found at the red highly saturated
end of the visible red, would
wave is. Higher
spectrum, shorter contain only red the wave,
wavelengths are wavelengths, a brighter the
found at blue end. less saturated red light. Lower
The visible might contain a wave, dimmer
spectrum displays mixture of light.
the range of hues wavelengths.
that our eyes can
detect.
Quiz Time
Which of the following is largely determined by the length of a light
wave?

A. color
B. brightness
C. saturation
D. duration
Quiz Time
Which of the following terms refers to the psychological effect of the
amplitude of light waves?

A. Color
B. Brightness
C. Saturation
D. Hue
 2
Anatomy of the
Visual System
Structure of the Eye

The eyes are suspended in

the orbits, bony pockets in
front of the skull. Their
movements and positions
are regulated by muscles
attached to the tough,
white coat of the eye
called sclera.
Three Layers of the Eye

Outer Layer Middle Inner Layer

Also called Layer Known as retina,
fibrous layer, contains
Called choroid,
made up of photoreceptors
includes ciliary
cornea and and network of
body and iris
sclera interconnected
neurons
Parts of the Eye
Conjunctiva: Membranes that line the eyelid and fold back to
attach the eye, thus preventing a contact lens that has slipped off
from falling “behind the eye”.

Sclera: The outer layer of most of the eye, is opaque and does not
permit the entry of the light.

Cornea: The outer layer at the front of the eye, is transparent and
admits light.

Iris: Coloured part of the eye, muscles situated behind the cornea.

Ciliary Body: Muscles that surround the lens.

Pupil: Opening in the iris. The amount of light that enters is

regulated by the size of the pupil.

Lens: Situated immediately behind the iris, a clear structure whose

shape adjusts to permit us to focus on objects at varying
distances.
Aqueous Humor: Clear liquid that nourishes the eye; found between cornea and lens.

Vitreous Humor: Clear, jelly-like fluid, nourishes the eye and gives it shape; found between lens and
retina.

Retina: Interior lining of the back of the eye. It consists of special receptor cells called photoreceptors.

Rods: 120 million, responsible for non-colour sensitivity to low levels of light; for scotopic
vision.

Cones: 60 million, responsible for colour vision and sharpness of vision; for photopic vision.

Fovea: Central region of retina, containing only cones, mediates our most acute vision; also
called yellow spot.

Optic Disk: The location of the exit point from where the axons conveying visual information gather
together and leave the eye through the optic nerve.

Blind Spot: Produced by the optic disk, no receptors are present here.

Optic Nerve: Bundles of axons form optic nerve which leads to the brain.
H ow do the parts of the eye work together?
Light energy is converted into the signals that our brain can understand. In the eye, the
light energy is converted into a neural code understandable to our nervous system. Light
rays first pass through conjunctiva, cornea, and then enter the eye through pupil.

The size of the pupil varies with lighting conditions: the less light present, the wider the
pupil opening. These adjustments are executed by the iris.

After entering through the pupil, light rays pass through the lens, a clear structure whose
shape adjusts to permit us to focus on objects at varying distances. When we look at a
distant object, the lens becomes thinner and flatter; when we look at a nearby object, the
lens becomes thicker and rounder.

Light rays leaving the lens are projected on the retina at the back of the eyeball. The lens
bends light rays in such a way that the image projected onto the retina is actually upside
down and reversed; but the brain reverses this image, letting us see objects and people
correctly.
The retina contains two types of light-sensitive receptor cells, rods and cones. Cones, located
primarily in the center of the retina in an area called the fovea, function best in bright light and
play a key role both in color vision and in our ability to notice fine detail. In contrast, rods are
found only outside the fovea and function best under lower levels of illumination, so rods help us
to see in a darkened room or at night. At increasing distances from the fovea, the density of
cones decreases and the density of rods increases.

Once stimulated, the rods and cones transmit neural information to other neurons called bipolar
cells. These cells, in turn, stimulate other neurons, called ganglion cells.

Axons from the ganglion cells converge to form the optic nerve and carry visual information to
the brain. Interestingly, no receptors are present where this nerve exits the eye, so there is a
blind spot at this point in our visual field.

Light filters through layers of retinal cells before striking receptors (rods and cones) located at
the back of the eye and pointed away from the incoming light. The rods and cones then
stimulate bipolar cells, which, in turn, stimulate the ganglion cells. The axons of these cells form
the fibers of the optic nerve.
Quiz Time
Which of the following represents the correct path of light through the
eye?

A. Iris, cornea, lens, retina

B. Cornea, vitreous humor, iris, lens, aqueous humor, retina
C. Cornea, pupil, lens, vitreous humor, retina
D. Cornea, lens, pupil, iris, retina
Quiz Time
Which of the following is responsible for controlling how much light
enters the eye?

A. Cornea
B. Lens
C. Retina
D. Iris
Quiz Time
Which type of retinal cell forms the optic nerve?

A. Rods
B. Cones
C. Ganglion cells
D. Bipolar cells
Quiz Time
Where does the transduction of light take place in the eye?

A. the lens and the ciliary muscles

B. the blind spot and optic nerve
C. the rods and cones
D. the aqueous and vitreous humors
Connections between the Eye and the Brain
There are two types of ganglion cell. P ganglion cells seem to respond to color and are
used for the recognition of fine detail, whereas M ganglion cells are better at responding
to large objects or to movement.

The axons of the retinal ganglion cells bring information to the rest of the brain. They
ascend through the optic nerve and reach the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus.

The lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) receives input from both eyes. It is a six layered
nucleus and the input to each of the layers is organized by eye. Furthermore, the layers of
the LGN receive inputs from only one or other of the two types of retinal ganglion cell.
Layers 1 and 2 receive input only from M ganglion cells and so are responsive to
movement and large objects. This is the magnocellular system (hence the label ‘M cells’).
Layers 3–6 receive information from the P ganglion cells and so are responsive to color
and fine detail. This is the parvocellular system.
Light entering the eyes can be separated into the left and right visual fields. Light from the
right visual field falls on the left side of each eye’s retina; light from the left visual field falls
on the right side of each retina. Light travels in a straight line through the cornea and lens,
resulting in the image projected on the retina actually being upside down and reversed
from left to right as compared to the visual fields.

The areas of the retina can be divided into halves, with the halves toward the temples of
the head referred to as the temporal retinas and the halves toward the center, or nose,
called the nasal retinas. The inner half portion of the eye (towards the nose), taking the
center of fovea as mid-point, is called the nasal half. The outer half portion of the eye
(towards the temple) from the center of fovea is called the temporal half.

The information from the left visual field (falling on the right side of each retina) goes to
the right visual cortex, while the information from the right visual field (falling on the left
side of each retina) goes to the left visual cortex. This is because the axons from the
temporal halves of each retina project to the visual cortex on the same side of the brain,
while the axons from the nasal halves cross over to the visual cortex on the opposite side
of the brain. The optic chiasm is the point of crossover.
Light falling on the left side of each eye’s
retina (from the right visual field, shown in
yellow) will stimulate a neural message that
will travel along the optic nerve to the
thalamus and then on to the visual cortex in
the occipital lobe of the left hemisphere.

Notice that the message from the temporal

half of the left retina goes to the left
occipital lobe, while the message from the
nasal half of the right retina crosses over to
the left hemisphere (the optic chiasm is the
point of crossover).
The optic nerve tissue from both eyes joins together to form the left optic tract
before going on to the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus, the optic
radiations, and then the left occipital lobe. For the left visual field (shown in blue),
the messages from both right sides of the retinas will travel along the right optic
tract to the right visual cortex in the same manner.

Several other regions of the brain, including hypothalamus and midbrain also
receive visual information. These regions help to regulate activity during the
day-night cycle, coordinate eye and head movements, control attention to visual
stimuli, and regulate the size of the pupils.
 3
Coding of Visual
Information
Coding of Light and Dark
Rods allow the eyes to adapt to low light because they work well in low levels of light.
Dark adaptation occurs as the eye recovers its ability to see when going from a brightly
lit state to a dark state. It is the recovery of the eye’s sensitivity to visual stimuli in
darkness after exposure to bright lights.

The light-sensitive pigments that allow us to see are able to regenerate or “recharge” in
the dark. The brighter the light was, the longer it takes the rods to adapt to the new
lower levels of light (Bartlett, 1965). This is why the bright headlights of an oncoming car
can leave a person less able to see for a while after that car has passed.

Fortunately, this is usually a temporary condition because the bright light was on so
briefly and the rods readapt to the dark night relatively quickly.
Full dark adaptation, which occurs when going from more constant light to
darkness, such as turning out one’s bedroom lights, takes about 30 minutes. As
people get older this process takes longer, causing many older persons to be less
able to see at night and in darkened rooms (Klaver et al., 1998). This age-related
change can cause night blindness, in which a person has difficulty seeing well
enough to drive at night or get around in a darkened room or house.

Some research indicates that taking supplements such as vitamin A can reverse or
relieve this symptom in some cases. It has been found that people who suffer from
vitamin A deficiency do not achieve dark adaptation at all, and find it really difficult
to move in the dark. This condition is generally known as night blindness.

When going from a darkened room to one that is brightly lit, the opposite process
occurs. The cones have to adapt to the increased level of light, and they accomplish
this light adaptation much more quickly than the rods adapt to darkness—it takes a
few seconds at most (Hood, 1998).
Coding of Color
Although experts in the visual system have been studying color and its nature
for many years, at this point in time there is an ongoing theoretical discussion
about the role the cones play in the sensation of color.

Two theories about how people see colors were originally proposed in the
1800s.

The first is called the trichromatic (“three colors”) theory. First proposed by
Thomas Young in 1802 and later modified by Hermann von Helmholtz in 1852,
this theory proposes three types of cones: red cones, blue cones, and green
cones, one for each of the three primary colors of light.
Most people probably think that the primary colors are red, yellow, and blue, but these are the
primary colors when talking about painting—not when talking about light. Paints reflect light, and
the way reflected light mixes is different from the way direct light mixes.

For example, if an artist were to blend red, yellow, and blue paints together, the result would be a
mess—a black mess. The mixing of paint (reflected light) is subtractive, removing more light as
you mix in more colors. As all of the colors are mixed, more light waves are absorbed and we see
black. But if the artist were to blend a red, green, and blue light together by focusing lights of
those three colors on one common spot, the result would be white, not black. The mixing of direct
light is additive, resulting in lighter colors, more light, and when mixing red, blue, and green, we
see white, the reflection of the entire visual spectrum.

In the trichromatic theory, different shades of colors correspond to different amounts of light
received by each of these three types of cones. These cones then fire their message to the brain’s
vision centers. It is the combination of cones and the rate at which they are firing that determine
the color that will be seen. For example, if the red and green cones are firing in response to a
stimulus at fast enough rates, the color the person sees is yellow. If the red and blue cones are
firing fast enough, the result is magenta. If the blue and green cones are firing fast enough, a kind
of cyan color (blue-green) appears.
The trichromatic theory would, at first glance, seem to be more than adequate to explain how
people perceive color. But there’s an interesting phenomenon that this theory cannot explain. If a
person stares at a bright, multicolored picture for a little while—say, a minute—and then looks
away to a blank white wall or sheet of paper, that person will see an afterimage. Afterimages
occur when a visual sensation persists for a brief time even after the original stimulus is removed.

Example: http://brainden.com/images/bw-color-castle.gif

The phenomenon of the color afterimage is explained by the second theory of color perception,
called the opponent-process theory. . In opponent-process theory, there are four primary colors:
red, green, blue, and yellow. The colors are arranged in pairs, with each member of the pair as
opponents. Red is paired with its opponent green, and blue is paired with its opponent yellow. If
one member of a pair is strongly stimulated, the other member is inhibited and cannot be
working—so there are no reddish-greens or bluish-yellows.
Both theories play a part in color vision. Trichromatic theory can explain what is happening with
the raw stimuli, the actual detection of various wavelengths of light. Opponent-process theory can
explain afterimages and other aspects of visual perception that occur after the initial detection of
light from our environment.
Color Blindness
It is caused by defective cones in the retina of the eye and, as a more general term,
color-deficient vision is more accurate, as most people with “color blindness” have two types
of cones working and can see many colors.

There are really three kinds of color-deficient vision. In a very rare type, monochrome color
blindness, people either have no cones or have cones that are not working at all. Essentially,
if they have cones, they only have one type and, therefore, everything looks the same to the
brain—shades of gray.

The other types of color-deficient vision, or dichromatic vision, are caused by the same kind
of problem—having one cone that does not work properly. So instead of experiencing the
world with normal vision based on combinations of three cones or colors, trichromatic vision,
individuals with dichromatic vision experience the world with essentially combinations of two
cones or colors.
Red-green color deficiency is due to the lack of functioning red or green cones. In both of
these, the individual confuses reds and greens, seeing the world primarily in blues, yellows,
and shades of gray.

In one real world example, a November 2015 professional American football game had one
team in all green uniforms and the other in all red uniforms. The combination caused
problems for some viewers, who were unable to tell the teams apart!

A lack of functioning blue cones is much less common and causes blue-yellow color
deficiency. These individuals see the world primarily in reds, greens, and shades of gray.
Color Blindness and Sex Differences
Colour blindness is more common in men than in women Genotype Result

because the genes responsible for the color blindness are

XY Unaffected man
located on the X chromosome. Males have only one X
chromosome whereas females have two X chromosomes.
Xd Y Affected man
In males, only one defective X chromosome is enough to
cause colour blindness. In females, two defective X .
XX Unaffected woman
chromosomes are required to cause colour blindness. This
type of inheritance pattern is called X-linked inheritance Carrier woman
Xd X
or sex-linked inheritance and it primarily affects males.

XdG XdR Carrier woman with 2 defective X

XdG XdG or XdR Affected woman

XdR
Quiz Time
Which theory accounts better for the afterimage?

A. Trichromatic theory
B. Opponent-process theory
C. Both of the above
D. None of the above
Quiz Time
Which set of colors are the primary colors when mixing light?

A. Red, yellow, blue

B. Red, blue, green
C. Blue, green, yellow
D. Red, green, yellow
 4
Analysis of Visual
Information
Processing Visual Information
Our rich sense of vision does not result from the output of single neurons, but instead from the overall
pattern of our sensory receptors.

At one time it was believed that visual scenes in our environment were impressed onto our retinas,
much like images on photographic plates, and then sent directly to the brain. We now know this view is
wrong, however. The visual world we perceive results from a complex division of labor that only begins
in the retina. In other words, it is only light that enters our eyes—we really see with our brains.

Hubel and Wiesel (1979) conducted studies on feature detectors—neurons at various levels in the visual
cortex, an area located at the back of the brain, that respond primarily to stimuli possessing certain
features. Their work revealed the existence of three types of feature detectors.

One group of neurons, known as simple cells, responds to bars or lines presented in certain orientations
(horizontal, vertical, and so on). A second group, complex cells, responds maximally to moving stimuli,
such as a vertical bar moving from left to right or a tilted bar moving from right to left. Finally,
hypercomplex cells respond to even more complex features of the visual world, such as length, width,
and even aspects of shape such as corners and angles.
These findings led scientists to the intriguing possibility that the brain processes visual information
hierarchically. According to this view, groups of neurons analyze simpler aspects of visual information
and send their results to other groups of neurons for further analysis. At successive stages in this
process, increasingly complex visual information is analyzed and compiled—eventually producing the
coherent and flowing scenes that constitute our perception of the world around us (Zeki, 1992).

Consistent with this view, some evidence seems to point to the possibility that various regions within the
cortex may be highly specialized to process only certain types of visual information—one region for
color, another for depth perception, yet another for motion, and so on. In fact, more than thirty distinct
visual areas have been identified (Felleman & Van Essen, 1991). Other studies have shown, however, that
destruction of areas thought to be specialized for specific functions—for example, processing color
information—doesn’t necessarily eliminate color perception. Research now suggests another intriguing
possibility: that cells in our visual cortex may play a dynamic role in processing visual information; in
other words, their function may not be fixed, but instead may change depending on what captures our
attention or the personal relevance of a visual stimulus (Schiller, 1994).
Additional clues suggesting that the brain processes various aspects of visual information separately
come from case studies of persons with visual disorders like blindsight, a rare condition that results
from damage to the primary visual cortex. Studies of persons with blindsight have revealed some
startling facts about how the brain processes visual information. Persons with blindsight are able to
respond to certain aspects of visual stimuli, such as color or movement, as if they could see; yet,
paradoxically, they are completely unaware of the stimuli and deny having “seen” anything (Gazzaniga,
Fendrich, & Wessinger, 1994; Weiskrantz, 1995). A related disorder, termed prosopagnosia, provides
further evidence that the visual system operates much like a computer, assembling bits of visual
information at various locations in the brain. In prosopagnosia, persons lose the ability to recognize
well-known faces but still retain relatively normal vision in other respects (Schweinberger, Klos, &
Sommer, 1995). This “computer” model explains why we can lose certain visual abilities—like recognizing
faces—while other abilities, including the ability to perceive form, motion, or color, remain largely
unaffected (Barbur et al., 1993; Zeki, 1992).

Taken together, these findings have important implications for our understanding of visual perception.
First, they suggest that the visual system is quite selective; certain types of visual stimuli stand a greater
chance of reaching the brain and undergoing further processing. Second, since nature is rarely wasteful,
the existence of cells specially equipped to detect certain features of the external world suggests that
these feature detectors may be the building blocks for many complex visual abilities, including reading
and identifying subtly varied visual patterns such as faces. Finally, as illustrated by disorders such as
blindsight and prosopagnosia, “seeing” the world is a complex process—one that requires precise
integration across many levels of our visual system.