N/W Layer Protocols :ARP

 1)ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)

 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
 ARP is used to convert the logical address ie. IP address into physical
address ie. MAC address.
 While communicating with other nodes, it is necessary to know the
MAC address or physical address of the destination node.
 If any of the node in a network wants to know the physical address of
another node in the same network,
 the host then sends an ARP query packet. This ARP query packet consists
of IP address and MAC address of source host and only the IP address of
destination host.
 This ARP packet is then received to every node present in the network.
The node with its own IP address recognizes it and sends it MAC address
to the requesting node.
 Study material provided by: Vishwajeet Londhe

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 2)RARP
 RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
 RARP works opposite of ARP.
 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol is used to convert MAC
address ie. physical address into IP address ie. logical address.
 RARP provides with a feature for the systems and applications to get
their own IP address from a DNS( Domain Name System) or router.
 3)ICMP
 ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
 ICMP is a part of IP protocol suite.
 ICMP is an error reporting and network diagnostic protocol.
 Feedback in the network is reported to the designated host.
 Meanwhile, if any kind of error occur it is then reported to ICMP.
ICMP protocol consists of many error reporting and diagnostic
messages.
 4)IGMP
 IGMP stands for Internet Group Message Protocol.
 IGMP is a multicasting communication protocol.
 It utilizes the resources efficiently while broadcasting the messages
and data packets.
 Other hosts connected in the network and routers makes use of IGMP
for multicasting communication.
 In many networks multicast routers are used in order to transmit the
messages to all the nodes.
 Multicast routers therefore receives large number of packets that needs to
be sent. But to broadcast this packets is difficult as it would increase the
overall network load. Therefore IGMP helps the multicast routers by
addressing them while broadcasting
 Unit IV
Transport Layer
 Introduction
The transport Layer is the second layer in the TCP/IP model and the fourth layer in
the OSI model.
- At the sender’s side:
- The transport layer receives data from the Application layer .
- then performs Segmentation, divides the actual message into segments.
- adds the source and destination’s port numbers into the header of the segment
- transfers the message to the Network layer.
- -At receiver side:
- Network layer sends data to transport layer.
- Transport layer check port number.
- Send data to those port
What are the responsibilities of transport layer
 Responsibilities of a Transport Layer
 1)The Process to Process Delivery
 2)End-to-End Connection between Hosts
 3)Multiplexing and Demultiplexing
 4)Congestion Control
 5)Data integrity and Error correction
 6)Flow control
1)The Process to Process Delivery
 While Data Link Layer requires the MAC address of source-
destination hosts to correctly deliver a frame and the Network layer
requires the IP address for appropriate routing of packets,
 In a similar way Transport Layer requires a Port number to
correctly deliver of segments.
2. End-to-end Connection between Hosts
 The transport layer is also responsible for creating the end-to-end
Connection between hosts for which it mainly uses TCP and UDP.
 TCP is a secure, connection-orientated protocol. TCP ensures the
reliable delivery of messages and is used in various applications.
 UDP, on the other hand, unreliable protocol .It is suitable for
applications that have little concern with flow or error control
 3) Multiplexing and Demultiplexing:
 Multiplexing: Multiplexing(many to one) data is acquired from
several processes from the sender and merged into one packet
along with headers and sent as a single packet.
 Demultiplexing: Demultiplexing(one to many) is required at the
receiver side when the message is distributed into different
processes.
 4. Congestion Control:Congestion is a situation in which too many
sources over a network attempt to send data and the router buffers start
overflowing due to which loss of packets occurs.
 As a result, the retransmission of packets from the sources increases the
congestion further.
 In this situation, the Transport layer provides Congestion Control in
different ways.
 It uses open-loop congestion control to prevent congestion and closed-
loop congestion control to remove the congestion in a network.
 5.Data integrity and Error Correction: The transport layer checks
for errors in the messages coming from the application layer by
using error detection codes, and computing checksums
 it checks whether the received data is not corrupted and uses the ACK
and NACK services.
 6. Flow Control:The transport layer provides a flow control
mechanism between the adjacent layers of the TCP/IP model. TCP
also prevents data loss due to a fast sender and slow receiver by
imposing some flow control techniques.
 Protocols of Transport Layer
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

 What is TCP:
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented
protocol for communications that helps in the exchange of
messages between different devices over a network. The Internet
Protocol (IP), which establishes the technique for sending data
packets between computers, works with TCP.
 What is IP:
 IP is a method that is useful for sending data from one device to
another from all over the internet. It is a set of rules governing
how data is sent and received over the internet. It is responsible for
addressing and routing packets of data
 Working of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
 When a user requests a web page on the internet, the server processes
that request and sends back an HTML Page to that user.
 The server makes use of a protocol called the HTTP Protocol.
The HTTP then requests the TCP layer to set the required connection.
 Now, the TCP breaks the data into small packets and forwards it toward
the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. The packets are then sent to the
destination through different routes.
 Features of TCP/IP:
1)Segment Numbering System:
2)Connection Oriented:
3)Full Duplex: Full duplex communication is a type of data transfer
where two or more devices can send and receive data at the same
time
4)Flow Control:
5)Error Control:
6)Congestion Control:
 Advantages of TCP
 It is a reliable protocol.
 It provides an error-checking mechanism.
 It gives flow control.
 It makes sure that the data reaches the proper destination in the exact order
that it was sent.
 It works in conjunction with IP (Internet Protocol) to establish connections
between devices on a network.
 Disadvantages of TCP
 TCP is made for Wide Area Networks
 TCP runs several layers so it can slow down the speed of the network.
 It is not generic in nature. Meaning, it cannot represent any protocol stack other
than the TCP/IP suite. E.g., it cannot work with a Bluetooth connection.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
 User Datagram Protocol

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core protocols of the

Internet Protocol (IP) suite.
 It is a communication protocol used across the internet for
time-sensitive transmissions such as video.
 ,UDP is connectionless and does not guarantee delivery, order,
or error checking
 UDP Header
 UDP header is an 8-byte fixed and simple header,
 The first 8 Bytes contain all necessary header information and the
remaining part consists of data.
Hexadecimal conversion to decimal
 F A 8.2

F A 8 .2
16^2 16^1 16^0 .16^-1
(16^2 *15) (16^1 *10) (16^0 * 8) .(16^-1 *2)

3840 160 8 .125

4008.125
 Explain UDP header.the following is a dump of a UDP header in
hexadecimal format )0632 000D 001C E217
 1.What is source port number?= (0632)H->434
 2.What is destination port number?=(000D)H->13
 3.What is the total length of the user datagram?=(001C)->30
 4.What is the length of the data?=(total length-header)=(30-8)=22
 5.Is the packet directed from a client to server or vice versa?

Source Destination

 Well known port number start from 0-1023=packet travel from client to
server
 Explain UDP header.the following is a dump of a UDP header in
hexadecimal format )CB84 000D 001C 001C
 1.What is source port number?=
 2.What is destination port number?=
 3.What is the total length of the user datagram?=
 4.What is the length of the data?=(total length-header)=
 5.Is the packet directed from a client to server or vice versa?
 Given a DUMP of a UDP header in hexadecimal format 0421 00
0B 002A E217. Find the following:-
 Source port number?
 Destination port number?
 Length of user datagram?
 Length of the data?
 Given a DUMP of a UDP header in hexadecimal format 0361 10
1A 104C E242.
 Find the following:-
 Source port number?
 Destination port number?
 Length of user datagram?
 Length of the data?
 Advantages of UDP
1.Speed: UDP is faster than TCP
2.Simplicity: UDP has a simpler protocol design than TCP
3.Broadcast support: UDP supports broadcasting to multiple
recipients,
4.Smaller packet size: UDP uses smaller packet sizes than TCP
Disadvantages of UDP
1.No reliability:
2.No congestion control:
3.Limited use cases: UDP is not suitable for applications that
require reliable data delivery, such as email or file transfers,
 SCTP stands for Stream Control Transmission Protocol.
 It is a connection- oriented protocol in computer networks
which provides a full-duplex association
 i.e., transmitting multiple streams of data between two end
points at the same time .It is sometimes referred to as next
generation TCP .
 SCTP makes it easier to support telephonic conversation on
Internet.
 A telephonic conversation requires transmitting of voice along
with other data at the same time on both ends.
 Characteristics of SCTP :
 Unicast with Multiple properties –
It is a point-to-point protocol which can use different paths to reach end host.
 Reliable Transmission –
It uses SACK and checksums to detect damaged, corrupted, discarded, duplicate
and reordered data.
 Message oriented –
Each message can be framed and we can keep order of datastream
 Multi-homing –
It can establish multiple connection paths between two end points
 Security –
Another characteristic of SCTP that is security.
 Advantages of SCTP :
1)It is a full- duplex connection i.e. users can send and receive data
simultaneously.
2)The message’s boundaries are maintained and application
doesn’t have to split messages.
3)It has properties of both TCP and UDP protocol.
 Disadvantages of SCTP :
1)One of key challenges is that it requires changes in transport stack
on node.
2)Applications need to be modified to use SCTP instead of
TCP/UDP.
3)Applications need to be modified to handle multiple simultaneous
streams.

What is socket
 A socket is endpoint ,nodes
 provides a two way communication link between two programs
running on the network.
 Shows How applications are communicate with each other
 sockets is created using ‘socket’ system call. The socket provides
bidirectional FIFO Communication facility over the network.
 Each socket has a specific address. This address is composed of an
IP address and a port number.
Function Call Description

To create a socket.Activate the end point.

Socket() (Domain,Type,Protocol)
Type(TCP(SOCK_STREAM),UDP(SOCK_DGRAM))

It’s a socket identification like a telephone

Bind()
number to contact(IP+Port No)

Ready to receive a connection from

Listen()
client(queue)

Connect() Ready to act as a sender

Confirmation, it is like accepting to receive a

Accept()
call from a sender

Write() To send data

Read() To receive data

Close() To close a connection

 Types of Sockets : There are two types of Sockets:
the datagram socket and the stream socket.
 Datagram Socket : This is a type of network which has connection
less point for sending and receiving packets. It is similar to
mailbox. The letters (data) posted into the box are collected and
delivered (transmitted) to a letterbox (receiving socket).
 Stream Socket network socket which provides a connection-
oriented, sequenced, and unique flow of data without record
boundaries with well defined mechanisms for creating and
destroying connections and for detecting errors. It is similar to
phone. A connection is established between the phones (two
ends) and a conversation (transfer of data) takes place.

What is Silly Window Syndromes.& what are solutions of the silly window
syndrome? 8M
 Silly window syndrome are associated with ineffective utilization of
bandwidth & resources
 1)Window size is full
 2)Slower Sender
 3)Slower Receiver

 Solution is:Reset the connection.

 2)Slower Sender
AL
 Solution:Nagles Algorithm
TL
 Wait for RTT to send data.
NL

DLL

PL
 3)Slower Receiver

 Solution:Clark’s Solution
 Don’t send ACK till the maximum segment size or 0.5 buffer
is free
 Quality of Service (QoS) is an important concept, particularly when working with
multimedia applications. Multimedia applications, such as video conferencing,
streaming services, and VoIP (Voice over IP), require certain bandwidth,
latency, jitter, and packet loss parameters. QoS methods help ensure that these
requirements are satisfied, allowing for seamless and reliable communication.
 QoS Parameters
 Packet loss: This occurs when network connections get congested, and routers
and switches begin losing packets.
 Jitter: This is the result of network congestion, time drift, and routing changes.
Too much jitter can reduce the quality of voice and video communication.
 Latency: This is how long it takes a packet to travel from its source to its
destination. The latency should be as near to zero as possible.
 Bandwidth: This is a network communications link’s ability to transmit the
majority of data from one place to another in a specific amount of time.
 Mean opinion score: This is a metric for rating voice quality that uses a five-
point scale, with five representing the highest quality.
 How does QoS Work?
 Quality of Service (QoS) ensures the performance of critical
applications within limited network capacity.
 Packet Marking: QoS marks packets to identify their service
types. For example, it distinguishes between voice, video, and data
traffic.
 Virtual Queues: Routers create separate virtual queues for each
application based on priority. Critical apps get reserved
bandwidth.
 Handling Allocation: QoS assigns the order in which packets are
processed, ensuring appropriate bandwidth for each application
 Differences between TCP and UDP

Basis Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. UDP is the Datagram-oriented

Connection orientation means that the communicating protocol. This is because there is no
Type of Service devices should establish a connection before transmitting overhead for opening a connection,
data and should close the connection after transmitting the maintaining a connection, or
data. terminating a connection..

TCP is reliable as it guarantees the delivery of data to the The delivery of data to the destination
Reliability
destination router. cannot be guaranteed in UDP.

TCP provides extensive error-checking mechanisms. It is

Error checking UDP has only the basic error-checking
because it provides flow control and acknowledgment of
mechanism mechanism using checksums.
data.

Acknowledgment An acknowledgment segment is present. No acknowledgment segment.

Sequencing of data is a feature of Transmission There is no sequencing of data in UDP.

Sequence Control Protocol (TCP). this means that packets arrive in If the order is required, it has to be
order at the receiver. managed by the application layer.

UDP is faster, simpler, and more

Speed TCP is comparatively slower than UDP.
efficient than TCP.
 Real Time Transport Protocol (RTP)
 A protocol is designed to handle real-time traffic (like audio and
video) of the Internet, is known as Real Time Transport
Protocol (RTP).
 RTP must be used with UDP.
 It does not have any delivery mechanism like multicasting or port
numbers.
 RTP supports different formats of files like MPEG and MJPEG.
 Applications of RTP :
 RTP mainly helps in media mixing, sequencing and time-
stamping.
 Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
 Video Teleconferencing over Internet.
 Internet Audio and video streaming.
 Version : This 2-bit field defines version number.
 X – The length of this field is also 1-bit. If value of this field is set to 1, then its
indicates an extra extension header
 Contributor count – This 4-bit field indicates number of contributors
 M – The length of this field is 1-bit and it is used as end marker
 Payload types – This field is of length 7-bit to indicate type of payload.
 Sequence Number – The length of this field is 16 bits. It is used to give serial
numbers to RTP packets.
 Time Stamp – The length of this field is 32-bit. It is used to find relationship
between times of different RTP packets.
 Synchronization Source Identifier – This is a 32-bit field used to identify and
define the source.
 Contributor Identifier – This is also a 32-bit field used for source identification
where there is more than one source present in session.