CBSE Class 12 Biology

Revision Notes
CHAPTER- 06
MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and RNA (Ribonucleic Acid) are two types of nucleic acid found
in living organisms. DNA acts as genetic material in most of the organisms. RNA also acts as
genetic material in some organisms as in some viruses and acts as messenger. It functions as
adapter, structural, and in some cases as a catalytic molecule

The DNA - it is a long polymer of deoxyribonucleotides. A pair of nucleotide is also known as

base pairs. Length of DNA is usually defined as number of nucleotides present in it.
Escherichia coli have 4.6 x 106 bp and haploid content of human DNA is 3.3 × 109 bp.

Structure of Polynucleotide Chain

A nucleotide has three components – a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (ribose in

case of RNA, and deoxyribose for DNA), and a phosphate group. There are two types
of nitrogenous bases – Purines (Adenine and Guanine), and Pyrimidines (Cytosine,
Uracil and Thymine).

Cytosine is common for both DNA and RNA and Thymine is present in DNA. Uracil is present
in RNA at the place of Thymine.

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A polynucleotide chain

A nitrogenous base is linked to pentose sugar with N-glycosidic linkage to form to form a
nucleoside. When phosphate group is linked 5’-OH of a nucleoside through phosphoester
linkage nucleotide is formed. Two nucleotides are linked through 3’-5’ phosphodiester
linkage to form dinucleotide. More nucleotide joins together to form polynucleotide.

In RNA, nucleotide residue has additional –OH group present at 2’-position in ribose and
uracil is found at the place of Thymine.

Structure differences

DNA RNA

(a) The sugarpresent in DNA is 2-deoxy-D - (-

(a) Thesugar present in RNAis D- (-)- ribose.
) -ribose.

(b) DNA contains cytosine and thymine as (b) RNA contains cytosine and
pyrimidine bases and guanine and adenine uracilpyrimidine bones and guanine and
is purine bases. adenine as purine bases.

(c) RNA has a single stranded α-helix

(c) DNA has double strand α-helix structure.
structure.

(d) DNA molecules are very large their (d) RNA molecules are comparatively much
molecular mass may vary from smaller with molecular mass ranging from
20,000 – 40,000.

Functional differences

(a) DNA has uniqueproperty of replication. (a) RNA usually does not replicate.

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(b) RNA controls the transmission of hereditary (b) RNA controls the synthesis of
effects. proteins.

Double Helix Model for Structure of DNA-James Watson and Francis Crick, based on X-ray
diffraction data produced by Wilkin and Rosalind proposed this model of DNA.

The silent features of this model are-

a) DNA is made of two polynucleotide chains in which backbone is made up of sugar-

phosphate and bases projected inside it.

b) Two chains have anti-parallel polarity. One 5’à3’ and with 3’à5’.

c) The bases in two strands are paired through H-bonds. Adenine and Thymine forms double
hydrogen bond and Guanine and Cytosine forms triple hydrogen bonds.

d) Two chains are coiled in right handed fashion. The pitch of helix is 3.4 nm and roughly 10
bp in each turn.

e) The plane of one base pair stacks over the other in double helix to confer stability.

Francis Crick proposed the Central dogma in molecular biology, which states that the
genetic information flows from DNA -----> RNA ------> Protein.

Packing of DNA helix-

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In prokaryotes, well defined nucleus is absent and negatively charged DNA is combined with
some positively charged proteins called nucleoids.

In eukaryotes, histones, positively charged protein organized to form 8 molecules unit called
histone octomer. Negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the histone octomer to form
nucleosome. . Histones are rich in the basic amino acid residues lysines and arginines. Both
the amino acid residues carry positive charges in their side chains.

Single nucleosome contains about 200 base pairs. Chromatin is the repeating unit of
nucleosome.

In nucleus, some region of chromatin are loosely packed (and stains light) and are
referred to as euchromatin. The chromatin that is more densely packed and stains
dark are called as Heterochromatin. Euchromatin is transcriptionally active
chromatin, whereas heterochromatin is inactive.

The search for Genetic Material

Transforming principle – Frederick Griffith in 1928 conducted experiment on bacteria

Streptococcus pneumoniae (bacterium responsible for pneumonia). There are two types of
strain of this bacteria, some produce smooth shiny colonies (S) and others produce rough
colonies(R). Mice infected with the S strain (virulent) die from pneumonia infection but mice
infected with the R strain do not develop pneumonia.

S strain → Inject into mice → Mice die

R strain → Inject into mice → Mice live

S strain (heat-killed) → Inject into mice → Mice live

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S strain (heat-killed) + R strain (live) → Inject into mice → Mice die

Griffith concluded that R strain bacteria have somehow transformed by heat killed S strain
bacteria. Some transforming principles transferred from S strain to R strain and enabled the
R strain to synthesise a smooth polysaccharide coat and become virulent. This must be due to
the transfer of the genetic material.

Biochemical Characterisation of Transforming Principle

Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty worked out to determine the
biochemical nature of transforming principle of Griffith.
They purified biochemicals (proteins, DNA, RNA, etc.) from the heat-killed S cells to
see which ones could transform live R cells into S cells. They discovered that DNA
alone from S bacteria caused R bacteria to become transformed.So, they concluded
that DNA is the genetic material.

Experimental proof that DNA is the genetic material

Alfred Hershey and Martha Chases (1952) worked with virus that infect bacteria called
bacteriophages.

In one preparation, the protein part was made radioactive and in the other, nucleic
acid (DNA) was made radioactive. These two phage preparations were allowed to
infect the culture of E.coli. Soon after infection, before lysis of cells, the E.coli cells
were gently agitated in a blender, to loosen the adhering phage particles and the
culture was centrifuged.
The heavier infected bacterial cells pelleted to the bottom and the lighter viral
particles were present in the supernatant. It was found that when bacteriophage
containing radioactive DNA was used to infect E.coli, the pellet contained
radioactivity.
If bacteriophage containing radioactive protein coat was used to infect E.coli, the
supernatant contained most of the radioactivity.

His experiment shows that protine does not enter the bacterial cell and only DNA is the
genetic material.

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Properties of Genetic Material:
a) It should be able to generate its replica (replication)
b) It should chemically and structurally be stable.
c) It should provide the scope for slow changes (mutation) that are required for evolution.
d) It should be able to express itself in the form of ‘Mendelian Characters’.

• DNA is chemically less reactive but strcturely more stable as compare to RNA. So, DNA is
better genetic material.

• RNA used as genetic material as well as catalyst and more reactive so less stable. Therefore,
DNA has evolved from RNA.

Replication of DNA

Watson and Crick suggested that two strands of DNA separate from each other and act as
template for synthesis of new complementary strands. After the completion of replication
each DNA molecule would have one parental and one newly synthesised strand, this method
is called semiconservative replication.

• Messelson and stahl’s shows experimental evidence of semiconservative replication by

growing E .coli on nutrient media containing nitrogen salts (15NH4Cl) labeled with
radioactive 15N.

15N was incorporated into both the strands of DNA and such a DNA was heavier than
the DNA obtained from E.coli grown on a medium containing 14N. Then they

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 transferred the E.coli cells on to a medium containing 14N.
After one generation, when one bacterial cell has multiplied into two, they isolated
the DNA and evaluated its density. Its density was intermediate between that of the
heavier 15N-DNA and the lighter 14N-DNA.
This is because during replication, new DNA molecule with one 15N-old strand and a
complementary 14N-new strand was formed (semi-conservative replication) and so
its density is intermediate between the two.

Replication : Replication of DNA require Enzyme DNA polymerase that catalyse the
polymerisation in one strand 5’à3’ only after unwinding with the help of Helicase enzyme .
So, replication in one stand is continuous and other strand it is discontinuous to synthesise
okazaki fragments that are joined together by enzyme DNA ligase.

Differences between leading and Lagging strands for DNA replication.

Characters Leading strand Lagging strand

1. It is formed continuously as In the beginning it is formed in the form of

Fragments single fragment. small fragments called okazaki segments.

2. RNA It requires only one primer Every fragment requires separate RNA primer
primer to initiate the growth. to initiate.

3. DNA
Not required. Required to join DNA fragments.
ligase

4. Direction Of complete strand it is . However for

of growth okazakifragments it is .

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Transcription

It is the process of copying genetic information from one strand of DNA into RNA. In
transcription only one segment of DNA and only one strand is copied in RNA. The
Adenosine forms base pair with Uracil instead of Thymine.

• Transcription of DNA includes a promoter, the structural gene and a terminator. The
strands that has polarity 3’à5 act as template and called template strand and other strand is
called coding strand.

Template Stranc Coding Strand

It is a DNA strand with 3' 5' Polarity. DNA Strand with 5' 3' Polarity

Acts as template for transcription and Does not code for any region of RNA during
codes for RNA transcription.

Promoter is located at 5’ end and that bind the enzyme RNA polymerase to start
transcription. Sigma factor also help in initation of transcription .The terminator is located at
3’end of coding strand and usually defines the end of transcription where rho factor will
bind to terminate transcription.

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Exons are those sequences that appear in mature and processed RNA. Exons are interrupted
by introns. Introns do not appear in mature and processed RNA.

In eukaryotes, there are three different RNA polymerase enzymes I, II and III, they
catalyse the synthesis of all types of RNA.

RNA polymerase I – rRNAs

RNA polymerase II - mRNA
RNA polymerase III – tRNA

The m-RNA provide the template, t-RNA brings the amino acids and read the genetic code,
the r-RNA play structural and catalytic role during translation.

DNA Replication RNA Transcription

Two new molecules of double- One new molecule of single-stranded RNA is

stranded DNA are produced. produced.

Adenine on one strand binds to

Adenine on DNA binds to uracil on the new RNA
thymine on the new DNA strand
strand being created.
being created.

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 Only a small portion of the DNA molecule is
The entire chromosome is transcribed to RNA, and this varies based on the cell's
replicated. needs at the time.

Enzymes: DNA polymerase Enzymes: RNA polymerase

Occurs in nucleus. Occurs in nucleus.

The primary transcript contains both exon and intron and is non-functional. It undergoes the
process of splicing in which introns are removed and exons are joined in a defined order.

The hnRNA (heterogeneous nuclear RNA) undergo additional processing called as capping
and tailing. In capping in unusual nucleotide (methylguanosine triphosphate) to the 5’end of
hnRNA. In tailing polyadenylatelate tail is added at 3’end in a template at independent
manner.

Genetic Code : Genetic Code is the relationship of amino acids sequence in a polypeptide and
nucleotide/base sequence in mRNA. It directs the sequence of amino acids during synthesis
of proteins.

George Gamow suggested that genetic code should be combination of 3 nucleotides to code
20 amino acids.

H.G. Khorana developed chemical method to synthesising RNA molecules with defined
combination of bases.

Marshall Nirenberg’s cell free system for protein synthesis finally helped the code to be
deciphered.

Salient features of Genetic Code are-

i. The code is triplet. 61 codons code for amino acids and 3 codons do not code for any amino
acids called stop codon (UAG, UGA and UAA).

ii. Codon is unambiguous and specific, code for one amino acid.

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iii. The code is degenerate. Some amino acids are coded by more than one codon.

iv. The codon is read in mRNA in a contiguous fashion without any punctuation.

v. The codon is nearly universal. AUG has dual functions. It codes for methionine and also
act as initiator codon.

Mutations and Genetic code

A change of single base pair (point mutation) in the 6th position of Beta globin chain of
Haemoglobin results due to the change of amino acid residue glutamate to valine. These
results into diseased condition called sickle cell anaemia.

Insertion and deletion of three or its multiple bases insert or delete one or multiple codons
hence one or more amino acids and reading frame remain unaltered from that point
onwards. Such mutations are called frame-shift insertion or deletion mutations.

tRNA– the Adapter Molecule

The t-RNA called as adaptor molecules. It has an anticodon loop that has bases
complementary to code present on mRNA and also has an amino acid acceptor to which
amino acid binds. t-RNA is specific for each amino acids.

The secondary structure of t-RNA is depicted as clover-leaf. In actual structure, the t-RNA is a
compact molecule which look like inverted L.

Translation process: Translation is the process of polymerisation of amino acids to form a

polypeptide. The order and sequence of amino acids are defined by the sequence of bases in
the mRNA. Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds. It involved following steps-

a) Charging of t-RNA.

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b) Formation of peptide bonds between two charged tRNA.

• The start codon is AUG. An mRNA has some additional sequence that are not translated
called untranslated region (UTR).

• For initiation ribosome binds to mRNA at the start codon. Ribosomes moves from codon to
codon along mRNA for elongation of protein chain. At the end release factors binds to the
stop codon, terminating the translation and release of polypeptide form ribosome.

Regulation of Gene Expression:

All the genes are not needed constantly. The genes needed only sometimes are called
regulatory genes and are made to function only when required and remain non-functional at
other times. Such regulated genes, therefore required to be switched ‘on’ or ‘off’ when a
particular function is to begin or stop.

The Lac Operon

Lac operon consists of one regulatory gene (i ) and three structural genes (y,z and a). Gene i
code for the repressor of the lac operon. The z gene code for beta-galactosidase, that is
responsible for hydrolysis of disaccharide, lactose into monomeric units, galactose and
glucose. Gene y code for permease, which increases permeability of the cell. Gene a encode
for transacetylase.

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Lactose is the substrate for enzyme beta-galactosidase and it regulates switching on and off
of the operon, so it is called inducer.

Regulation of Lac operon by repressor is referred as negative regulation. Operation of Lac

operon is also under the control of positive regulation.

Human Genome Project was launched in 1990 to find out the complete DNA sequence of
human genome using genetic engineering technique and bioinformatics to isolate and clone
the DNA segment for determining DNA sequence.

Goal of HGP-

a) Identify all the genes (20,000 to 25,000) in human DNA.

b) Determine the sequence of the 3 billion chemical base pairs that make up human DNA.
c) Store this information in data base.
d) Improve tools for data analysis.
e) Transfer related information to other sectors.
f) To address the legal, ethical and social issues that may arise due to project.

• The project was coordinated by the US Department of Energy and the National Institute of
health.
• The method involved the two major approaches- first identifying all the genes that express
as RNA called Express sequence tags(EST).The second is the sequencing the all set of genome
that contained the all the coding and non-coding sequence called sequence Annotation.

Salient features of Human Genome:

a) The human genome contains 3164.7 million nucleotide bases.

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b) The average gene consists of 3000 bases, but sizes vary greatly, with the largest known
human gene being dystrophin at 2.4 million bases.
c) Less than 2 per cent of the genome codes for proteins.
d) Repeated sequences make up very large portion of the human genome.
e) Repetitive sequences are stretches of DNA sequences that are repeated many times,
sometimes hundred to thousand times.
f) Chromosome 1 has most genes (2968), and the Y has the fewest (231).
g) Scientists have identified about 1.4 million locations where single base DNA differences
(SNPs – single nucleotide polymorphism) occur in humans.

DNA finger printing is a very quick way to compare the DNA sequence of any two individual.
It includes identifying differences in some specific region in DNA sequence called as
repetitive DNA because in this region, a small stretch of DNA is repeated many times.

Depending upon the base composition, length of segment and number of repetitive units
satellite DNA is classified into many categories.

Polymorphism in DNA sequence is the basis for genetic mapping of human genome as well
as fingerprinting.

The technique of fingerprinting was initially developed by Alec Jeffrey. He used a satellite
DNA as probe to so high polymorphism was called Variable Number of Tendon Repeats
(VNTR).

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 CBSE Class 12 Biology
Revision Notes
CHAPTER- 07
EVOLUTION

Evolutionary biology is the study of history of life forms on earth. The evolution of life on
earth, different changes in flora and fauna around earth that co-exist along with human
beings also forms parts of evolution.

Origin of Life

The origin of life is considered unique events in the history of universe. Huge cluster of
galaxies comprises the universe. Galaxies contain stars and clouds of dust and smoke.

Big Bang Theory attempts to explain the origin of universe. According to this theory, a huge
explosion occurs that forms the different galaxies.

In solar system of Milky Way galaxies, earth has been supposed to be formed about 4.5
billion years ago. There was no atmosphere in early earth. Water vapour, methane, carbon
dioxide and ammonia released from molten mass covered the earth surface.

UV rays from sun splits the water into hydrogen and oxygen. Life appeared 500 million years
after the formation of earth.

There are different theories regarding the origin of life on earth-

Some scientist believes that life comes from other planets. Early Greek thinker
thoughts that unit of life is called spores transferred from other planets.
According to other theory, life comes out of dead and decaying matters like straw and
mud. This theory is called theory of spontaneous origin.
Louis Pasture experimentally proved that life arises only from pre-existing life.
Spontaneous theory of origin of life is dismissed after that.
Oparin and Haldane proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-
existing non-living organic molecules like RNA and protein etc. The formation of life
preceded by chemical evolution. At that time condition on earth were- high

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 temperature, volcanic eruption, reducing atmosphere containing CH4and NH3.

Miller experiment of Origin of Life- S.L. Miller in 1953, conducted an experiment to show the
origin of life on earth in the physical environment similar to condition prevails at that time.

Miller created similar condition of temperature and pressure in laboratory scale. He created
electric discharge in a flask containing CH4, H2 and NH3 and water vapour at 8000C.

He observed formation of amino acids in flask after 15 days of electric discharge. Similar
experiment by other scientist found formation of sugars, nitrogen bases, pigments and fats.

Analysis of meteorite content also reveals similar compounds that reveal that similar process
are occurring elsewhere in the space. This experimental evidence about the origin of life is
called chemical evolution of life.

Experimental representation of Miller’s experiment

The first non-cellular forms of life could have originated 3 billion years back. They could
have been giant molecules like RNA, Protein, and Polysaccharide etc.

The cellular form of life was probably single cell and originates in water medium. The theory
that first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces from non-living molecules is
called biogenesis.

Evidence of Evolution: Evidence that evolution of life forms has taken place on earth have
many proofs as mentioned below-

1. Paleontological evidence- different aged rock sediments contain fossils of different life

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forms that probably died during the formation of particular sediment. Fossils are remains of
hard parts of life-forms found in rocks .The study showed that different form varied over
time and certain life forms are restricted geological time span. Hence, new forms of life have
arisen at different times in history of earth.

2. Homologous organs- those organs that perform different function but have similar origin
and structure are called homologous organs. For example human, cheetah, bat and whales
share similarities in pattern of bones of forelimbs although these forelimbs perform
different functions in these animals. In these animal similar structure developed along
different directions due to adaptation of different needs. This is called divergent evolution.

Homologous structures Analogous structures

Similar in anatomy Dissimilar in anatomy

Doing dissimilar functions Doing similar functions

Develop in related animals Develop in unrelated animals

Inherited from a common ancestor Not inherited from common ancestor

Similar developmental pattern Developmental pattern is not similar

Similar structure and Origin Dissimilar in structure and origin

3. Analogous structures-they are not anatomically similar organs but perform similar
function. For example eyes of mammals and octopus or flippers of penguin and dolphins.
This is due to similar habitat that resulted in similar adaptive features in different groups of
organisms. This that of evolution is called convergent evolution.

4. Biochemical evidences - similarities in proteins and genes performing a given function

among diverse organisms give hints to common ancestry. These biochemical similarities

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point to the same shared ancestry as structural similarities among diverse organisms.

DIVERGENT EVOLUTION CONVERGENT EVOLUTION

1. Development of different functional Development of similar adaptive functional
structures from a common ancestral form is structures in unrelated groups of organisms is
called divergent evolution. called convergent evolution.
2. Homologous organs show divergent
Analogous organs show convergent evolution.
evolution.
examples. Australian Marsupials and Placental
Examples.: Darwin's Finches, Australian
mammals, various equatic vertebrate and
Marsupials, locomotion in mammals.
wings of insect bird and bat.

Evolution by natural selection- Industrial melanism

A case of natural selection was seen in England in 1850s, i.e., before industrialisation in a
peppered moth (Biston betularia). This moth had two forms: grey colour and black colour
(Carbonaria). In the early part of the nineteenth century , before industrialization only the
grey coloured forms of moths were present; the dark forms were rare. The grey coloured
moths were seen on the tree trunks covered with lichens and so they were able to escape
from their enemies. Later on in 1920, due to the development of industries, post
industralization, the lichens were killed and the tree trunks looked dark due to the
deposition of industrial soot. Birds, now were able to spot these moths and feed upon them.
So the grey coloured moths were eaten by the birds and the dark coloured moths escaped
from the birds. Then now the coal is replaced by the industries and oil and electricity is used.
This has reduced the soot production and ultimately less deposition of soot on the tree
trunks. These tree trunks have, now, again become grey in colour. Consequently, grey
coloured moths have again increased in number. This example clearly brings out the action
of natural selection.

Evolution by anthropogenic action - Resistance of mosquitoes to pesticides.

When DDT was introduced to control mosquitoes it was tremendously successful. Most of the
mosquitoes were sensitive to DDT and were therefore killed. In that population of
mosquitoes, few mosquitoes became resistant to DDT and survived. They multiplied and now
almost total population of mosquitoes became resistant to DDT.

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Same pattern has been observed in bacteria which are multidrug resistant due to excess use
of drugs and medicines.

Adaptive Radiation- the process of evolution of different species in given geographical area
starting from a point and radiating to other areas of geography (habitat) is called adaptive
radiation. Darwin’s finches represent one of the best examples of adaptive radiation.
Australian marsupials, each with different from other evolved from one ancestral stock, but
all within Australian island continents.

When more than one adaptive radiation appeared to have occurred in an isolated
geographical area (representing different habitats), we can call this convergent evolution e.g
Placental mammals and Australian marsupials.

Biological Evolution – the nature select for fittest and fitness is based on characteristics
which are inherited. Some organisms are better adopted to survive in otherwise hostile
environment. Fitness is the end result of the ability to adopt and get selected by nature.

Lamarck had said that evolution of life form had occurred but driven by use and disuse of
organs. He gave the example of giraffe to evolve their neck by foraging leaves on tall trees
and had to adapt by elongation of their necks.

Branching descent and natural selection are the two key concepts of Darwinian Theory of
Evolution .Darwin theory of natural selection was based on certain observations like-

Limited natural resources.

Over population
Competition for resources
Struggle for existence
Survival of the fittest.

Mechanism of Evolution

Hugo deVries based on his work on evening primrose brought forth the idea of mutation.
Mutation is the large difference arising suddenly in a population.

Mutations are random and directionless while Darwin variations are small and directional.
Hugo deVries believed that mutation causes speciation and hence called saltation (single step

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large mutation).

Difference Amongst Lamarckism, Darwinism and Mutation Theory

Properties Lamarckism Darwinism Mutation Theory

The theory believes that

every organism has an
Darwinism does not believe No internal vital force is
Vital force internal vital force that
in internal vital force. involved.
tends to increase its size
upto a certain limit.

Animals with well

developed nervous No conscious reaction is
Conscious Darwinism does not involve
system react consciously believed to take part in
Reaction any conscious reaction.
to any change in the process of evolution.
environments

The theory considers

appetency or desires on
the part of animals an It is not a constituent of the Appetency in not
Appetency
important force in the theory. involved.
development of
modifications.

The organs put to more

use are believed to
Use and The theory is silent about The theory is silent
develop more while
Disuse use and disuse of organs. about it.
organs not used begin to
degenerate.

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Inheritance The characters acquired According to Darwin, all the Only those variations
of by an organism during living cells produce minute are transferred to the
Acquired its life are believed to get particles or pangenesis, offspring which
Characters transferred the next which pass into germ cells originate in germ cells
generation. for transmission to the or in the cells which
offspring. form germ cells.

Organisms produce more

The theory does not
Struggle offspring than the available The theory believes in
clearly spell out struggle
for food and space so that a the struggle for
for existence in relation
Existence struggle for existence existence.
to high biotic potential.
ensues amongst them.

Variations appear in
organisms in response to
Variations appear due
Origin of change in environment, Variations appear
to change in genetic
Variations conscious reaction, automatically.
make up.
desire r use and disuse
of organs.

The theory is silent

about them though it It is based on the origin and The theory is based on
Continuous
believes in a continuous selection of continuous discontinuous
Variations
modification of organs variations. variations or mutations.
in a particular direction.

The theory does not take Mutations theory

Darwinism is based on
Natural into account natural believes in natural
natural selection or survival
Selection selection or survival of selection or survival of
of the fittest.
the fittest. the fittest.

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 Evolution is a Evolution is a continuous Evolution is a jerky
continuous process process, the direction of process, the direction of
Progress of
which moves in a which is governed by which is unpredictable
Evolution
direction governed by nature. though ultimately it is
environment and governed by nature.
appentency.

Hardy- Weinberg Principle- in a given population, frequency of occurrence of alleles or

genes can be finding out. These frequencies remains fixed and even remain the same
through generation. This fact was represented by Hardy-Weinberg principles using algebraic
equation.

This principle states that allele frequencies in a population are stable and is constant from
generation to generation. The gene pool remains constant. This is called genetic equilibrium
and sum total of all the allelic frequencies is 1.

Binomial expansion of (p+q)2 = p2+2pq+q2=1 where p and q represent the frequency of allele
A and allele a in a population . The frequency of AA individuals in a population is simply p2 .
This is simply stated in another ways, i.e., the probability that an allele A with a frequency of
p appear on both the chromosomes of a diploid individual is simply the product of the
probabilities, i.e., p2 . Similarly of aa is q2 , of Aa 2pq. Hence, p2+2pq+q2=1.

When frequency is measured, the actual value varies that indicates the extent of
evolutionary changes. Change of frequency in a alleles (Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium) in a
population resulted due to evolution.

The factors that affect Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium are-

• Gene migration or gene flow.
• Genetic drift
• Mutation
• Genetic recombination
• Natural selection.

During genetic drift ,sometimes change in alleles frequency is so different in a sample of

population that they become a different species. The original drifted population becomes

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founder and that effect is called founder effect.

Brief Account of evolution

About 2000 million ago first cellular form of life appeared on earth.

Slowly single-celled organisms became multi-cellular forms and by the time 500 mya,
invertebrates were formed and active.
Jawless fish evolved around 350 mya.
Organisms started to invade from water to land. Fish with stout and strong fins could
move on land and go back to water These animals called lobefins evolved into the first
amphibians.
Later, these amphibians evolved into reptiles. They lay shelled eggs. Then reptiles of
different shapes and sizes dominated on earth , fish like reptiles e.g. Ichthyosaurs and
the land reptiles e.g dinosaurs. The biggest of them was Tyrannosaurus rex.
Some of the reptiles evolved into birds and later some of them to mammals. Mammals
were viviparous and more intelligent in sensing and avoiding danger .

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