Koc. J. Sci. Eng., 3(2): (2020) 52-58 https://doi.org/10.34088/kojose.

770729
Kocaeli University

Kocaeli Journal of Science and Engineering

http://dergipark.org.tr/kojose

Size of Earthquakes
Mehveş Feyza Akkoyunlu 1, *
1
Regional Earthquake-Tsunami Monitoring Center, Kandilli Observatory and Earthquake Research Institute, Istanbul, 34684, Turkey,
ORCID: 0000-0002-4966-8218

Abstract
Article Info

Review paper Earthquake size is one of the most fundamental source parameters used in seismic catalogs. A
reliable measure of the “size” of an earthquake is essential for seismological, geological,
engineering, and scientific research. The size of a seismic source is measured using two parameters;
Received : July 17, 2020
damage caused (intensity) and energy released (magnitude). Intensity describes the strength of a
Accepted : October 25, 2020
seismic event in terms of human recognition, affected region, damage to structures. Intensity scales
are valuable not only for the pre-instrumental period for historical earthquakes but also for seismic
risk analysis. The intensity scale is classified by macroseismic scales. Intensity depends on local
geological conditions, distance from the source that make the objective estimates difficult. The
Keywords concept of magnitude was introduced by Richter to provide an objective measure of earthquake size.
Earthquakes, The advent of seismic recording systems made it possible to determine the strength of a seismic
Earthquake Size, event from instrumental data. The magnitude of an earthquake provides quick information on the
Intensity, strength of a seismic event for the public and are essential for cataloging. Changes in
Magnitude, instrumentation and magnitude formulation resulted from the calculation of different magnitude
Macroseismic Intensity Scale
scales. In order to obtain a non-saturating uniform magnitude scale, seismic moment magnitude
(Mw) is developed based on source parameters.

1. Introduction* An instrumental scale was necessary to characterize

the size of a seismic event based on instrumental records.
Macroseismic intensity scales represent the intensity According to Richter (1935) “In the course of a historical
of ground-motion in terms of human observation, damage or statistical study of earthquakes in a given region, it is
to buildings, or other observed effects at a certain location. frequently desirable to have a scale for rating these shocks
Felt reports and damage in an area are sources of intensity in terms of their original energy, independently of the
estimation of an earthquake. Macroseismic intensities are effects which may be produced at any particular point of
important for historical seismicity and assessment of observation” [2].
seismic hazard risk studies. Intensity depends on many The advent of seismic recording instruments led to
factors such as local geological conditions, distance, and quantifying the strength of a seismic event by the
depth of the earthquake. The energy released from a amplitude of the recorded signal. The magnitude concept
seismic source may be may be amplified or diminished by was first proposed in the 1930s by Wadati in Japan and
ground motion. Macroseismic intensity classifies the Richter in California. The magnitude of an event is a
severity of earthquakes depending on damage at different number that characterizes the relative size or amount of
locations and felt shaking records. These factors are energy released by an event which is independent of the
affected by the quality of construction and the density of place of observation. Magnitudes are derived from ground
the population [1]. motion amplitudes and periods or from signal duration
obtained from instrumental records and source parameters
*
Corresponding Author: feyza.ocal@boun.edu.tr of the earthquake including seismic waves.

2667-484X © This paper published in Kocaeli Journal of Science and Engineering is licensed under a Creative Commons
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 Mehveş Feyza AKKOYUNLU / Koc. J. Sci. Eng., 3(2): (2020) 52-58

2. Macroseismic Intensity Scales Table 1. MMI Scale of 1993 (Stover and Coffman, after
Wood and Neumann, edited by Musson).
The size of seismic sources is characterized by the I Not or rarely felt under especially
macroseismic intensity scale before the advent of seismic favourable circumstances. Under certain
recording instruments. The intensity or macroseismic conditions, at and outside the boundary of
intensity is an integer quantity that depends on earthquake the area in which a great shock is felt:
distance, ground conditions, and strength of shaking. sometimes birds, animals, reported uneasy
Intensities are defined in macroseismic scales. or disturbed; sometimes dizziness or nausea
The first studies took place in Italy at the end of the experienced; sometimes trees, structures,
th
18 century. The Ten-degree Rossi-Forel scale (1883) was liquids, and bodies of water may sway,
the first scale to be used internationally. The first 12-degree doors may swing very slowly.
scales were introduced by Sieberg, and Mercalli, Cancani II Felt by few sensitive, or by nervous persons
and Sieberg (1912, 1923, 1932, MCS scale). The Modified indoors, especially on upper floors. Also, as
Mercalli Scale (MM scale) was revised by Richter in 1956 in grade I, and often more noticeably:
(MM56 scale) and used in the USA. In Europe, MSK-scale sometimes hanging objects may swing,
is developed by Medvedev, Sponheuer, and Karnik (1964) especially when delicately suspended;
was widely used. In 1988 MSK-scale is revised by sometimes trees, structures, liquids, bodies
European Seismological Commission and European of water may sway; doors may swing very
Macroseismic Scale (EMS-98) is released in 1998 and slowly; sometimes birds, animals reported
widely adopted all over the world. Earthquake intensities uneasy or disturbed; sometimes dizziness or
in Japan contain 7–degree (later upgraded to 10-degree) by nausea experienced.
Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA). Macroseismic III Usually rapid vibration motion felt indoors
intensity is dependent on the local geological conditions, by several people. Sometimes not
the distance from the source, quality of the construction recognized to be an earthquake at first.
and, density of the population. Continuity estimated in some cases.
The intensities generally decrease with distance from Vibration occures due to the passing of
the source and are site-dependent. They represent the light, or lightly loaded trucks, or heavy
severity of ground-motion during a seismic event on the trucks some distance away. Hanging objects
basis of observational effects of the region, human may swing slightly. Movements may be
perception, and damage to buildings. appreciable on upper levels of high
Intensity is a measure of the strength of the seismic structures. Rocked standing motor cars
source and a description of common observations of an slightly.
earthquake. Instead of describing the effect of an IV Felt by all. Many get frightened. Trees and
earthquake-like “the event was felt by very few people bushes shake slightly. Buildings shake
indoors”, the shaking is shortly defined as “intensity 2”. moderately to heavily. Walls creak loudly.
Each intensity degree is expressed by a series of diagnostic Observers described the shaking as "strong."
that describes the effects of ground motion. Intensity data Few get awakened, especially light sleepers.
are mapped in contour lines for different degrees called No one is frightened, unless apprehensive
isoseismals. The largest observed intensity is the epicentral from previous experience. Vibration
intensity I0 near to the epicenter or barycenter of the happens due to the passing of heavy or
highest intensities. The most recent scales are the Modified heavily loaded trucks. Sensations like
Mercalli Scale (MMI) and European Macroseismic Scale heavy body striking building or falling of
(EMS-98) which are easily adaptable for the use to heavy objects are seen inside. Rattling of
building stock anywhere in the world. In Table 1, MMI dishes, windows, doors; glassware and
Scale of Stover and Coffman edited by Musson is shown crockery clink and clash. Hanging objects
as an example for the intensity scale [3]. swung, in numerous instances. Liquids in
open vessels disturb slightly. Standing
motor cars rock noticeably.

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Table 1. (Cont.) MMI Scale of 1993 (Stover and Coffman, Table 1. (Cont.) MMI Scale of 1993 (Stover and Coffman,
after Wood and Neumann, edited by Musson). after Wood and Neumann, edited by Musson).

V Buildings tremble during the quake. Dishes, VIII Slight damage in structures (bricked) built
glassware break to some extent. Windows especially to withstand earthquakes. Partial
crack - in some cases, but not generally. collapse considerable in ordinary substantial
Vases, small or unstable objects overturne in buildings. Wooden houses rack, tumble
many instances. Hanging pictures fall. down in some cases, panel walls in frame
Doors, shutters, open, or close abruptly. structures thrown out, and decayed pilings
Pendulum clocks stop, start or run fast, or break off. Fall of walls. Solid stone walls
slow. Small objects, furnishings, move the crack and break seriously. Chimneys,
latter to a slight extent. Trees, bushes, shake columns, monuments, also factory stacks,
moderately to strongly. People have towers fall or twist. Very heavy furniture
difficulty in standing or walking. People feel move or overturn conspicuously. Trees
moderately in moving vehicles. shake strongly - branches, trunks, break off,
especially palm trees.

VI Damage is slight in poorly built buildings.

Fall of plaster is seen in a small amount. IX Damage considerable in (masonry)
The plaster layer cracks somewhat, structures built especially to withstand
especially fine cracks in chimneys in some earthquakes: break of some plumb wood-
instances. Dishes, glassware, in frame houses built especially to withstand
considerable quantity, also some windows earthquakes; great extent damage in
break. Fall of knickknacks, books, pictures. substantial (masonry) buildings, some
Furniture overturne in many instances. collapse in large part; or wholly shifted
Furnishings of moderately heavy kind frame buildings off foundations and racked
move. Small bells ring - church, chapel, frames.
school, etc. The intensity can only be
assessed as VI if damage to buildings is
observed, unless many small objects fall X Damage serious to dams, dykes,
from shelves or many glasses or dishes embankments. Severe to well-built wooden
break. structures and bridges, some destroyed.
Dangerous cracks develop in excellent brick
walls. Most masonry and frame structures,
VII Damage neglected in buildings of good as well as their foundations, destroy.
design and construction, from slight to
moderate in well-built ordinary buildings,
considerable in poorly built or badly XI Damage severe to wood-frame structures,
designed buildings, adobe houses, old walls especially near shock centres. Great to
(especially where laid up without mortar), dams, dikes, embankments often for long
spires, etc. Chimneys get cracked to a distances. Few, if any (masonry) structures
considerable size, and walls to some extent. remained standing. Destroyed large well-
Fall of plaster in considerable to large built bridges by the wrecking of supporting
amount, also some stucco. Numerous piers, or pillars. Less affected yielding
windows and some furniture break. wooden bridges.
Loosened brickwork and tiles shake down.
Weak chimneys break at the roofline
(sometimes roofs damaged). Fall of cornices XII Total damage - practically all parts of
from towers and high buildings. Bricks and construction wholly damage or destroy.
stones dislodge.

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The simplified short form of EMS-98 (abstracted) [3] Table 2. (Cont.) Short Description of EMS-98
is shown in Table 2. (Abstracted).
IX Destructive General panic. Many weak
Table 2. Short Description of EMS-98 (Abstracted). constructions collapse. Even
I Not felt Not felt well-built ordinary buildings
II Scarcely felt Felt only by very few show very heavy damage:
individuals at rest in their serious failure of walls and
homes. partial structural failure.
III Weak Felt indoors by a few people. X Very Many ordinary well-built
People at rest feel a swaying destructive buildings collapse.
or light trembling. XI Devastating Most ordinary well-built
IV Largely Felt by many people indoors, buildings collapse; even
observed but by very few outdoors. A some with good earthquake
few people are awakened. resistant design are
Windows, doors and dishes destroyed.
rattle. XII Completely Almost all buildings are
V Strong Felt by most indoors, by few devastating destroyed.
outdoors. Many sleeping
people wake up. A few are Macroseismic data is gathered by several methods.
frightened. Buildings The main source of the data is the collection of the
tremble in the meantime. questionnaires. The questionnaires are important to collect
Hanging objects swing data from a large number of observations. A web-based
considerably. Small objects program called “Did you Feel It?” by USGS [4] is an
are shifted. Doors and international questionnaire. Field studies should be held to
windows swing open or shut. collect information on earthquake damages of the
VI Slightly Many people are frightened buildings. [5]. In Figure 1, the intensity map of 24 January
damaging and run outdoors. Some 2020 Sivrice-Elazığ earthquake is given as an example [6].
objects fall. Some houses
suffer slight non-structural
damage like hair-line cracks
and fall of small pieces of
plaster.
VII Damaging Most people are frightened
and run outdoors. Furniture
is shifted and objects fall
from shelves in large
numbers. Many well-built
ordinary buildings suffer
moderate damage: small
cracks in walls, fall of
plaster, parts of chimneys
fall down; older buildings
may show large cracks in
walls and failure of fill-in
walls
VIII Heavily Many people find it difficult Figure 1. Screenshot from the KOERI website, showing
a macroseismic display of 24 January 2020 Sivrice-
damaging to stand. Many houses have
Elazığ earthquake.
large cracks in walls. A few
well-built ordinary buildings
3. Earthquake Magnitude Scales
show serious failure of
walls, while weak and older
Earthquake magnitude is a parameter used in
ones may collapse.
seismology to quantify the size of an earthquake based on

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the measurement of the maximum ground motion recorded Surface wave magnitude scale uses the maximum
by a seismograph. There is no scale limitation to ground motion amplitude of surface wave at a period of
magnitudes as in macroseismic intensity scales. 20s. In general, Rayleigh wave amplitude is used for the
Magnitudes are commonly derived from ground motion calculation of Ms. The formula for this surface-wave
amplitudes and periods or from duration of seismic signals magnitude is defined as
measured on instrumental records. The same earthquake
might have different magnitude values on different scales. (4)
The magnitude scales above are dependent on a certain
signal frequency. As the size of the earthquake increases, the low-frequency
The magnitude of an event is based on and corrected part of its spectrum relative to the higher frequencies is
for the decay of amplitudes with epicenter distance and stronger. This will cause magnitude saturation for large
source depth. earthquakes. Seismic moment calculation was introduced
Charles F. Richter (1935) introduced Richter by Kanamori [8] to provide a non-saturating magnitude
magnitude [7] or local magnitude (ML) and defined it as: scale for large earthquakes termed as moment magnitude
“The magnitude of a shock is defined as the logarithm (Mw ) based on seismic moment (M0). The seismic moment
of the calculated maximum trace amplitude, expressed in M0 can be determined by seismic data, geodetic data or
microns, with which standard short-period torsion geological data [9].
seismometer (T0=0.8, V=2.8000, h=0.8) would register Seismic moment can be found accurately from
that shock at the epicentral distance of 100 km).” seismic data [9]. The seismic moment calculation
Richter scale termed as ML and applicable local constitutes the fault area, slip, and strength of the material
earthquakes are formulated as: which represents the physical measure of an earthquake. It
can be obtained from amplitudes of seismic waves or from
(1) the field estimations of the slip and fault area of the
earthquake. For a finite source with area of fault plane (S),
where Amax is the seismogram amplitude measured on a on which the averaged slip is D (offset, in km) and  (Gpa)
Wood-Anderson record and the distance to the source. is shear or the rigidity modulus of the material surrounding
Generally all magnitude scales are a form of the fault, the M0, scalar seismic moment is given as

(2)  (5)

In cgs units, the seismic moment is given in dyn cm and in

where T is the period of the signal, is a correction
SI units it is in Nm.
for epicentral distance and hypocenter depth. Empirical
correction values for the source region and the receiver site
are added. In Richter’s formula, as all the seismographs
were of the same type dependence on T was missing,
maximum amplitude always had the same dominant
period.
For global earthquake size calculations, the local
magnitude scale is not practical. Gutenberg and Richter
designed magnitude scales for global magnitude scales. Figure 2. Diagram of an area of the fault rupture on
Body-wave magnitude (mb) is calculated by maximum earthquake area [10].
ground-motion amplitude of P, PP, or S body waves, and
defined as The moment magnitude (Mw ) and seismic moment
(M0) relation is defined as by the following [9]. M 0 is a
static parameter that does not represent dynamic properties
(3)
of the source unless the use of scaling relations exist. M 0 or
Mw can be used as a useful parameter for the earthquake
where Q is an empirically determined distance and depth damage effects [9].
correction, depending on the phase used. If the body-wave
magnitude is determined from P wave at a period of 1s, it
(6)
is generally abbreviated as mb. When determined from
long-period instruments at periods between 5-15 seconds,
Magnitude scales are affected by not only
it is noted as mB.

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observational errors but also fault geometry, size and for the same earthquake due to the magnitude calculation
source depth of the earthquake. The magnitude scales methods. There is no scale limitation to magnitudes
determined at different periods represent different parts of whereas macroseismic scale is limited to 10 or 12-degree
the seismic source spectrum. Various magnitude scales scale. Different macroseismic scales can be used in
[Ms, mb, ML, Mw) calculated for earthquake catalogues will different countries depending on the regional properties.
be useful for research purposes [9]. As the range of period Earthquake magnitude scale is not uniform due to changes
for different magnitude scale change, magnitude scales in instrumentation, the data reduction method and the
saturate differently. The relations between various magnitude formula. Various magnitude scales have been
magnitude scales are summarized in a graphical form developed. The magnitude scales change with the range of
representing the saturation of mb, mB, ML, Ms by [11-12] in period of the signal used during magnitude determination.
Figure 2. and Figure 3. Seismic moment magnitude is one the most reliable,
uniform type of non-saturating magnitude for earthquakes
derived from seismic moment that uses source parameters
of the earthquake region.

References

[1] Bormann P., Wendt S., DiGiacomo D., 2013. Seismic

Sources and Source Parameters. In: Bormann P.
(Ed.), New Manual of Seismological Observatory
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[2] Bormann P., 2011. Earthquakes, Intensity in

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[3] Musson R. M., Cecić I., 2012. New Manual of

Seismological Observatory Practice 2 (NMSOP-2).
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H., 1999. Relationships Between Peak Ground
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Encyclopedia of Solid Earth Geophysics, Springer,
Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
3. Conclusions
[6] 24 Ocak 2020 Elazığ Sivrice Depremi Basın Bülteni,
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[10] Earthquake Glossary Seismic moment,

https://earthquake.usgs.gov/learn/glossary/?term=
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[11] Campbell K.W., 1985. Strong Motion Attenuation

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