Physics First Year Book

TERM ONE
PHYSICS COURSE
CODE: PH 110
Lecturer: Mr. Given Kalonga

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION TO
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES,
DIMENSIONS AND VECTORS
Intro to Quantities, Dimensions and Vectors
Objectives
At the end of this Unit, learners should be able to understand
and demonstrate the concepts:
• Identify the base quantities and their SI units.
• Identify derived quantities and their SI units.
• Identify non-SI units and convert between units
• Name and use the frequently used prefixes for SI units.
• Scientific notation
• Change units (here for length, area, and volume) by using
chain-link conversions.
• Decimal points, significant figures
• Estimates and order of magnitude
• DA analysis & homogeneity of physical equations
• Derive equations using dimensional analysis
Physical Quantities
Physical quantity is a property of a material or system that
can be measured. They are divided into two categories: base
(fundamental) quantities and derived quantities
Give Examples of physical quantities: Mass, Volume, etc.
Fundamental (base) quantities are quantities that can not

be expressed in terms of other quantities. There are 7 base
quantities as will be shown in the table.
Derived Quantities are quantities that can be expressed in

terms of fundamental quantities. They are derived from base
quantities E.g volume, density, Energy, Power, pressure, etc
Base Quantities
Derived Quantities
Some Fundamental Definitions: the Meter
• In the past one meter was defined by the length of a meter
bar that had an almost constant length over a long period of
time. The bar was called an artifact.
• The modern way of defining the meter is by using the speed

of light.
• The meter is the length of path traveled by light in vacuum

during a time duration of 1/(3 x 108) of a second.
1 m = c/(3 x 108);
where c is speed of light in vacuum; c = 3 x 108 m/s
This can be measured in a modern laboratory.
Some Fundamental Definitions: the Mass
• Just like the meter, in the past one kg was defined by the
weight of a cylindrical piece of alloy of platinum and iridium
metals that had an almost constant weight over a long
period of time. The mass piece was called an artifact.
• The modern way of defining mass is by using the weight of

the carbon 12 isotope atoms.
• The carbon-12 atom, by international agreement, has been

assigned a mass of 12 atomic mass units (amu).
• The relation between amu and kg is:
1 amu = 1.660 538 86 x 10-27 kg,
The International Unit Systems
• The SI system: International System (SI) of measurements.
These were agreed upon by all countries to be used as the
international units for base and derived quantities
• The tables in the previous slide shows base and derived
quantities with their SI units. e.g The SI unit of mass is the
kilogram (kg), for length is the meter (m)
• The SI system is also called the metric system (as based
on the meter)
• All calculations is this course must be carried out and
reported in SI units, unless otherwise indicated. Mixing
SI and non-SI units in same calculation leads to wrong
answers.
Other Non-SI Unit Systems
• The cgs (centimeters, grams, seconds) system is used in
measurements involving centimeters, grams and seconds. It
is ideal for measurements of small amount of the quantities.
• E.g. small forces (kg*m/s2) can be expressed as g.cm/s2 a
unit called the Dyne
- The SI and cgs systems belong to the metric system
• The other non-SI system of measurements is the imperial

system or British Measurement system (BMS)
- This is an old system used mainly by the British
Examples: inche (’), pound (Lb), gallon (G), pint, etc.
Other Non-SI Units
Light year
One light year is the distance travelled by light in one year (365
days) in a vacuum.
Distance travelled = velocity of light x 1 year
One light year = 3 x 108 m/s x 1 year (in seconds)
= 3 x 108 m/s x 365.25 x 24 x 60 x 60
= 9.467 x 1015 m
=> one light year = 9.5 x 1015 m
Astronomical Unit (AU)

• Astronomical unit is the mean distance from the centre of
the sun to the centre of the earth.
• 1 AU = 1.5 x 1011 m
Conversion Between Units
Conversion of units can be done from one system to the other.
For instance, conversion factors between the S.I and U.S
customary systems is as follows
• 1mi = 1609m = 1.609km
• 1m = 39.37 in = 3.281ft
• 1ft = 0.3048m = 30.48 cm
• 1in = 0.0254m = 2.54cm
Example:
Convert 28.0m/s to mi/s
ANS: 1.74 x 10−2 mi/s
More on Conversion
• Convert the following:
i. 0.2 m/s into cgs system.
ii. 100 g into kg
iii. 0.005 N into cgs system.
iv. 500 Dyne into N.
v. 10 cm into m.
vi. 0.1 cm2 into m2
vii. 0.1 liters into cm3.
viii. 2.5 x 10-10 m into μm
Common Prefixes
Prefixes are used to express multiples and submultiples of
numbers. Pre stands for before. E.g. centi-meter (cm)
Use of Common Prefixes
Example:
Convert
(1) 5 x 10-7 m to millimeters (mm)
(2) 5 x 10-7 m to picometers (pm)
Solutions:
Use cross multiplications
(1) 1 mm = 10-3 m
x = 5 x 10-7 m => x = (5 x 10-7 m x 1 mm) /10-3 m
= 5 x 10-7+3 mm = 5 x 10-4 mm
Example:
Convert
(1) 5 x 10-7 m to millimeters (mm)
(2) 5 x 10-7 m to picometers (pm)
Solutions:
(2) 1 pm = 10-12 m
x = 5 x 10-7 m => x = (5 x 10-7 m x 1 pm)/ 10-12 m
= 5 x 10-7+12 pm = 5 x 105 pm
Exercise:
Convert
(1) 5 x 10-7 m to micrometers (μm)
(2) 1 mg to kg
(3) 1 μg to kg
(4) 500 g to μg
Ans: (1) 5 x 10-1 μm (2) 10-6 kg (3) 10-9 kg (4) 5 x 108 μg

Decimal Points and Significant Figures
These are rules used for rounding off figures.
Decimal Points (DP)
Starts to count after the decimal point placement.
Examples:
0.03 is to 2 decimal points
Exercise: Round off the following to 3 DP:

0.00208
2.43549
2.69152
Significant Figures (SF)
NB: The digit zero can be significant or none depending on
where it is placed in a number.
Rule 1: All digits (figures), apart from zero, are significant
regardless of where they are placed.
Example: 234.5 has 4 SF
2345 has 4 SF
Rule 2: leading zeroes are none significant.
Example: 0.03o has 2 SF i.e. the last two are significant
0.123 has 3 SF i.e. the last three are significant
Rule 3: zeroes placed between other numbers are significant
Example: 0.103 has 3 SF i.e. the last three are significant
1003 has 4 SF i.e. all are significant
Rule 4: zeroes placed after decimal point are significant if they
are preceded by some other numbers.
Example: 1.030 has 4 significant figures
1.000 has 4 significant figures
0.000 has 0 significant figures
Rule 5: trailing zeroes in whole numbers are none significant
Example: 300 has 1 SF i.e. only 3 is SF
3 x 105 has 1 SF
Exercise: Round off the following to 2 SF
2.43549
2.69152
30200 = 3.02 x 10^4
3.012 x 105
Reporting Answers with Correct SF and DPs
• In multiplying (or dividing) two or more quantities, the
number of significant figures in the final product (quotient)
is the same as the number of significant figures in the least
accurate of the factors being combined, where least
accurate means having the lowest number of significant
figures.
Example: 14.71 m x 3 7 m = 544.27 𝑚 2 => 540 𝒎𝟐
OR 4.822 m x 5.1 m = 24.59 𝑚 2 => 25 𝒎𝟐
• When numbers are added (subtracted), the number of
decimal places in the result should equal the smallest
number of decimal places of any term in the sum
(difference).
Example: 123 + 5.35 = 128 (zero decimal places)
and not 128.35 (two decimal places)
Estimates and Order of Magnitude Calculations
• Getting an exact answer to a calculation may often be
difficult or impossible, either for mathematical reasons or
because limited technology or limited information, e.g
temperature of the sun, distance from earth to the sun.
• For some measurements, knowing the approximate value of
a quantity — within a factor of 10 or so — is sufficient.
• Hence order of magnitudes follow the pattern : 𝟏𝟎𝒏 where n
is an integer.
• This approximate value is called an order-of-magnitude
estimate and requires finding the power of 10 that is
closest to the actual value of the quantity.
• For example, 75 kg ~ 102 kg or 100 kg, where the symbol ~
means “the order of” or “is approximately.”
• Increasing a quantity by three orders of magnitude means
that its value increases by a factor of 103 = 1000.
Estimates and Order of Magnitude Calculations
• In developing these estimates, you can take considerable
liberties with the numbers.
• For example simple estimates:
π ~ 100 or 1
27 ~ 101 or 10
65 ~ 102 or 100.
• To get a less crude estimate, it’s permissible to use slightly
more accurate numbers (guided by knowledge of the
parameters). Example:
π ~ 3,
27 ~ 30,
65 ~ 70.
• Better accuracy can also be obtained by systematically
underestimating as many numbers as you overestimate.
Example: How many Brain Cells do you have?
STRATEGY:
• Estimate the volume of a human brain and divide by the
estimated volume of one cell.
Solution:
• The brain is located in the upper portion of the head, with a
volume that could be approximated by a cube length l = 20
cm on a side.
• Brain cells, consisting of about 10% neurons and 90% glia,
vary greatly in size, with dimensions ranging from a few
microns to a meter or so. As a guess, take d = 10 microns as a
typical dimension and consider a cell to be a cube with each
side having that length.
Example 1: How many Brain Cells do you have?
SOLUTION
• Estimate the volume of a human brain:
𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝑙3 = (0.2𝑚)3
= 8 x 10−3𝑚 3 ~ 10 x 10−3𝑚 3 = 1 x 10−2𝑚 3
𝑉𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑑 3 = (10 x 10−6 𝑚)3 = 1 x 10−15𝑚 3
𝑉𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 1 x 10−2𝑚3
Estimate number of cells = 𝑉 = 1 x 10−15 𝑚3
𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙
= 1 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 cells
Example 2: Stacked up One Dollar Bills
How many one - dollar bills, stacked flat one on top of

the other, would reach the Moon?
Given the distance to the moon is about 400000 km?
Strategy: Estimate the number of dollar bills in a millimeter,
and multiply the distance by this number, after converting to
consistent units.
Solution:
We estimate 10 dollar bills will fill a millimeter.
Convert to number of bills per km:
10 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑠 1 x 103 𝑚𝑚 1 x 103𝑚 1 x 107 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑠
= 1𝑚𝑚 ( 1 𝑚 )( 1 𝑘𝑚 ) = 1 𝑘𝑚
Multiply this number by total distance:
5 1 x 107 𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑠 𝟏𝟐
# bills = (4 x 10 km) x 1 𝑘𝑚 = 4 x 𝟏𝟎 𝒃𝒊𝒍𝒍𝒔
Replace bills with human beings standing on top of each other
Summary-Estimates and Order of Magnitude
• Estimates can yield useful approximate answers that can
determine whether a more precise calculation is necessary.
• If a large answer is expected but a small exact answer is
obtained, then there’s an error somewhere.
Advantages of Estimates
• Estimates serve as a partial check if the exact calculations
are correct.
• Calculations can be carried out where limited information is
available
• Can be used where it is difficult or impossible to get an exact
answer in a calculation
• Disadvantages
• It does not give precise answers
• Values close to each other cannot easily be estimated apart
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS (DA)
Dimension is the physical nature of a quantity. E.g Length,
mass, time.
The symbols used to specify the dimensions of length,
mass and time, are L or [L], M or [M] and T or [T] respectively.
Dimensional analysis (DA) is a tool that use algebraic

expressions by symbols of their base quantities.
• DA uses base quantity symbols as units of measurements.
• It is mainly used for deriving equations and for checking
whether a physical equation is homogeneous i.e. to check if the
RHS is equal to the LHS.
• Principle of Homogeneity: states that the powers of
fundamental units on the RHS of the equation must equal to
the respective powers on the LHS.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Velocity = Length/Time = [L]/[T] = L/T

Advantages and Disadvantages of DA
Advantages
1. It does not use number values in calculations hence does
not require use of calculators
2. Can be used where SI unit is not known
3. Checks for homogeneity of equation i.e. the correctness of a
relation.
4. Used to derive equations of the product and division form
Disadvantages
1. Cannot be used to quantify a calculation
2. The value of dimensionless constants cannot be determined
3. Cannot be applied to equations involving exponential and
trigonometric functions
4. Cannot derive a linear equation
5. Difficult derive equations containing more than 3 variables
Note that for the RHS to be equal to the LHS:
(1) The symbols must all agree on both sides of the equation
(2) The powers of the symbols must all be the same on both sides
of equation
Example 1:
Let Force = mass x acceleration,
Using DA prove that the centripetal force equation below is
homogeneous (dimensionally correct)
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= 𝑟
Where m is mass, v is velocity and r is radius.
𝑚𝑣 2
Sol: 𝐅 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠. 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑟
[𝑀] 𝐿 𝐿
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 = [𝑀]; 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙 = ;𝑣= ; 𝑟 = [𝐿]
𝑇2 𝑇
Hence
[𝑀] 𝐿 [𝑀] 𝐿 2 [𝑀] 𝐿 𝑀 [𝐿]2 [𝑀] 𝐿 𝑀 [𝐿]
= => = => =
[𝑇]2 𝑇 2 [𝐿] [𝑇]2 𝑇 2 [𝐿] [𝑇]2 𝑇 2
Hence RHS = LHS
Symbols and powers on both sides are equal
Example 2:
Show that the equation below is dimensionally correct
𝑃 = 𝑝0 + ρ𝑔ℎ , where P is overall pressure, 𝑝0 is the constant
pressure, ρ is density, 𝑔 is acceleration due to gravity and h is
height.
Sol.
𝐹 𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑀
𝑃= = = ; 𝑝0 = ;ρ= = ;
𝐴 [𝑇]2[𝐿]2 [𝑇] 2 𝐿 [𝑇]2 𝐿 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 [𝐿]3
𝐿
𝑔=
[𝑇]2
; h = [L]
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀 𝐿 𝑀 𝑀 𝐿
Hence = + . . [L] = + . . [L]
[𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝐿]3 [𝑇]2 [𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝐿]3 [𝑇]2
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
=> = + Hence shown.
[𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝑇]2 𝐿 [𝐿][𝑇]2
Example 3:
Newton’s law of gravitational force is given by
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹= 𝑟2
. Use DA to find the SI units of the universal constant G.
Sol.
𝐿 2 2
𝐹= 𝑀 2 ; 𝑀 = [𝑀]; 𝑚 = [𝑀]; 𝑟 = [𝐿]
[𝑇]
𝐹𝑟 2 𝐿 [𝐿] 2 [𝐿]3 𝒎𝟑
Hence 𝐺 = = 𝑀 . = =
𝑀𝑚 [𝑇]2 [𝑀]2 [𝑀][𝑇]2 𝒌𝒈.𝒔𝟐
Derive an equation by using DA.
Example 4:
Find a relationship between an acceleration of constant
magnitude a, speed v, and distance r from the origin for a particle
traveling in a circle.
Sol.
• Start with the term having the most dimensionality, a. Find its
dimensions, and then rewrite those dimensions in terms of the
dimensions of v and r.
• next page
Sol.
𝐿
𝑎=
[𝑇] 2
The dimensions of time will have to be eliminated with v, because
that’s the only quantity (other than a, itself) in which the
dimension of time appears:
Solve the dimensions of speed for time, [T].
𝐿 𝐿
𝑣= => [𝑇] = , substitute
[𝑇] 𝑣
𝐿 [𝐿][𝑣] 2 [𝑣]2
𝑎= 𝐿 2 = [𝐿] 2
= [𝐿]
[ ]
𝑣
We know 𝑟 = [𝐿], hence we can substitute directly

𝒗𝟐
𝒂= 𝒓
Hence derived.
Using DA to find powers in an equation
Example 3
If acceleration in a circular motion is directly proportional to
velocity raised to power θ and directly proportional to the radius
raised to power ϕ, and taking the constant of proportionality k =1.
(i) Write down the expression
(ii) Find the values of θ and ϕ.
Sol.
(i) 𝑎 = 𝑘𝑣 𝜃 𝑟 ϕ = 𝑣 𝜃 𝑟 ϕ , for k=1.
𝑣2
(ii) We know 𝑎 = = 𝑣 2 𝑟 −1
𝑟
= > 𝑣 2 𝑟 −1 = 𝑣 𝜃 𝑟 ϕ i.e. 𝜃 = 2; ϕ = −1
Examples of DA
Given that:
Force = mass x acceleration,
Using DA prove that the centripetal force equation below is
correct
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹= 𝑟
Where m is mass, v is velocity and r is radius.
𝑚𝑣 2
Sol: 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠. 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑟
[𝑀] 𝐿 𝑚𝑣 2 [𝑀] 𝐿 𝑀 [𝐿]2 [𝑀] 𝐿 𝑀 [𝐿]
[𝑇]2
= 𝑟
=> [𝑇]2
= 𝑇 2 [𝐿]
=> [𝑇]2
= 𝑇 2
Hence the proof the powers on RHS = LHS
Exercise on DA
Given that energy (E) is directly proportional to mass and
length squared and inversely proportional to time squared.
Use dimensional analysis to derive a relationship for energy in
terms of mass m and speed v, up to a constant of
proportionality. Hint: Set the speed equal to c, the speed of
light, and the constant of proportionality equal to 1.
UNIT 2: Vector and Scalar Quantities
Objectives: Understand and demonstrate the
concepts of
• Distinguish between scalar and vector quantities
• Find the resultant of two vectors using
parallelogram, triangle and polygon rules.
• Calculation with Unit vectors.
• Resolve a vector into two perpendicular vectors.
• Use of component method to add a number of
coplanar vectors acting at a point.
• Dot and Cross product of two vectors
• Work done – by dot product
• Rotation - by cross product
Vector and Scalar Quantities
• A physical quantity can be categorized as either
being a vector or a scalar quantity.
• A quantity with size only is called a scalar quantity
e.g. time, temperature, volume, etc.
Scalar quantities are added or subtracted
algebraically.
• A quantity with both size and direction is called a
vector quantity
e.g. Force, Displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc.
Vector quantities are added taking into account their
directions. The directions are determined by angles
they make relative to the x-axis.
Vectors
Equality of Two Vectors
• Two vectors A and B are equal if they have the same
magnitude and the same direction.
• They need not be located at the same point in space.
Negative of a Vector
• The negative of the vector A is –A and defined as the vector
that gives zero when added to A
• This means that A and -A have the same magnitude but
opposite directions.
Geometric Addition of Vectors
• To add vectors A and B geometrically, first draw A
on a piece of paper to a scale, say 1 cm = 1 m. Then
draw B using the same scale with B starting at the
tip of A.
• The resultant (R) vector R=A+B is drawn from the
tail of A to the tip of B.
• This procedure is known as the triangle method of
addition.
or
Commutative Law of Vector Addition
• When two vectors are added, their sum is
independent of the order of the addition.
A+B=B+A
Polygon Method of Vector Addition
• This method is for finding the resultant R of several
vectors (A, B, C and D ).
• This consists in the beginning at any convenient
point and drawing each vector arrow in turn.
• They may be taken in order of succession.
R = A + B + C +D
Vector X Y
A Ax Ay
B Bx By
C Cx Cy
D Dx Dy
R Ax +Bx + Cx + Dx Ay +By + Cx + Dy
Parallelogram Method of Adding two Vectors
• The resultant of two vectors acting at any angle may
be represented by the diagonal of a parallelogram.
• This method reduces to the triangular method

Subtraction of Vectors
• To subtract a vector B from a vector A reverse the
direction of B and add individually to vector A, E.g
A - B = A + (- B )
Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar
• Multiplying or dividing a vector by a scalar gives a
vector.
3 x A = 3A pointing in the same direction as A
-3 x A = -3A pointing in opposite direction from A
Useful Tool: Trigonometric Functions
SOHCAHTOA
Helps to find resultants 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒 θ =
𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐶𝑜𝑠 θ = 𝐻𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑇𝑎𝑛 θ = 𝐴𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
Components of a Vector
The components of the vector R are Rx and Ry which have
magnitudes
Rx = |R| cosθ
Ry = |R| sinθ
Each vector, say R, can be resolved into x, y and z components

and the components lying on the same axis can be added
algebraically to get the resultant on that axis.
Components of a Vector – Resultant Using tables
• The scalar x - components (Rx) of the resultant R is the
algebraic sum of all the scalar x- components.
• The scalar y- and z-components of the resultant are found in
a similar way as shown in the table below.
Vector x-component y z
A Ax Ay Az
B Bx By Bz
C Cx Cy Cz
Resultant, R Rx = Ax +Bx + Cx Ry = Ay +By + Cy Ry = Az +Bz + Cz
• With all the components known, the magnitude of the

resultant, R, is given as
𝑅= 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2
−1 𝑅𝑦
And the angle is given by 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( )
𝑅𝑥
Exercise
Determine the resultant force in each situation by use
of tables.
F2 = 10 N
F2 = 10 N
F1 = 5 N F1 = 5 N
F2 = 10 N
F1 = 5 N 60◦
30◦
Exercise
Four coplanar forces act on a body at a common point as shown
below. Find their resultant showing your work.
Ans: 119 N at 143°

Unit Vectors
A unit vector has a direction and a magnitude of unit (one).
Let vector A be given by
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑎,
Then 𝑎 = 𝐀/A is a unit vector of A.
Where A is the magnitude of vector A, and 𝑎 is called a unit
vector with a magnitude of one and the direction A.
Hence to find the unit vector for vector A, one has to divide the
vector by its magnitude:
𝑨 𝐴𝑎
Unit vector of A is: 𝑨
= 𝑨
=𝑎
Also vector A can be expressed in terms of its components:
𝑨 = 𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑥 𝒊 + 𝐴𝑦 𝒋 + 𝐴𝑧 𝒌.
𝑨 =𝐴𝑥 𝒊 +𝐴𝑦 𝒋+𝐴𝑧 𝒌
Hence 𝑎= = Is unit vector of A.
𝑨 2 2 2
𝐴𝑥 +𝐴𝑦 +𝐴𝑧
Unit Vectors
Example 1:
Find the unit vector of 𝑨 = 10𝑖
𝑨 10𝑖
Solution: 𝑎 = = =𝑖 => 𝑎 = 𝑖 Is unit vector of A.
𝑨 10
Example 2:
Find the unit vector of 𝑨 = 2𝒊 + 5𝒋 + 4𝒌
𝑨 2 𝒊 +5𝒋+4𝒌 (2𝒊 +5𝒋+4𝒌)
Solution: 𝑎 = = = Is unit vector of A.
𝑨 22 +52 +42 45
Unit Vectors
The special unit vectors 𝑖, 𝑗, and 𝑘 are assigned to the x-, y- and
z-components of a vector, respectively. They are also called the
basis vectors of the Cartesian coordinates. All vectors on the
Cartesian are expressed in terms of these unit vectors.
Example: vector A can be represented in terms of unit vectors

as
A = Ax𝑖 +Ay𝑗 + Az𝑘
Unit Vectors
In this case the addition of two vectors A and B can be
represented as
R = A + B = (Ax+Bx)𝑖 +(Ay+Bx) 𝑗 + (Az +Bz)𝑘
Where
Rx = (Ax+Bx)𝑖
Ry = (Ay+By)𝑗
Rz = (Az+Bz)𝑘
Dot product of vectors
A dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity.
A dot product of A and B is represented as
A.B = |A||B|cos θ
Where θ is the angle between vectors A and B
To understand this we first look at:
The dot product of unit Vectors
(1) 𝑖.𝑖=|𝑖||𝑖|Cos θ ; But, |𝑖|=1 and θ = 0° , cos(0)=1
Hence 𝑖.𝑖= 1.
(2) 𝑖. 𝑗=|𝑖||𝑗|Cos θ ; But, |𝑖|=1, |𝑗|=1 and θ = 90°
hence 𝑖. 𝑗 = 0.
Similarly, 𝑖.𝑖 = 𝑗.𝑗 = 𝑘.𝑘 = 1 and
𝑖.𝑗 = 𝑗.𝑘 = 𝑖.𝑘 = 0
Dot product of vectors
The dot product of two vectors A and B can also be represented
in terms of the components, given that
B = Bx𝑖 +By𝑗 + Bz𝑘
A.B = (Ax Bx) 𝑖. 𝑖 + (Ax By) 𝑖. 𝑗 + (Ax Bz) 𝑖. 𝑘 +
(Ay Bx)𝑗. 𝑖 + (Ay By)𝑗. 𝑗 + (Ay Bz)𝑗. 𝑘 +
(Az Bx)𝑘. 𝑖 + (Az By)𝑘. 𝑗 + (Az Bz)𝑘. 𝑘
= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
Hence
A.B = |A||B|cos θ = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
Example - Dot product of vectors
(1) Given that
A = 5𝑖 +3𝑗 + 2𝑘 and B = -4𝑖 +4𝑗 + 7𝑘
(a) Find A.B:
A.B = Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz = 5(-4)+3(4)+2(7)
= -20+12+14 = 6
(b) Find the angle between A and B :
6
|A||B|cosθ = 6 => cos θ =
𝐴 𝐵
6 6 6
cos θ = = = = 0.108
25+9+4∗ 16+16+49 38∗ 81 55.48
−1 𝒐
= > 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 0.108 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟖
(2) Given forces C and D such that
C = 10 N and D = 15 N and the angle between them is 60°
Find C.D:
C.D = |C||D|cos θ = 10(15) cos 60° = 150(0.5) = 75
Work done - Dot product of vectors
Find the work (W) done by a constant force given by
𝑭 = 10𝑁 𝑖 + 15𝑁 𝑗 + 8𝑁𝑘 in moving a particle over a
displacement of 𝒓 = 2𝑚 𝑖 + 3𝑚 𝑗 + 5𝑚 𝑘.
𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑟 = (10𝑁 𝑖 + 15𝑁 𝑗 + 8𝑁𝑘).(10𝑚 𝑖 + 15𝑚 𝑗 + 8𝑚𝑘)

= 10𝑁 ∗ 2𝑚 + 15𝑁 ∗ 3𝑚 + 8𝑁 ∗ 5 = (20 + 45 + 40)𝑁𝑚
= 105 Nm = 105 J
Find the work (W) done by a varying force given by

𝑭 = (15𝑥 2 + 2)𝑁 in moving a particle over a displacement from
point x = 0 m to a point x = 2 m.
Work done - Dot product of vectors
Solution:
Because it is a varying force, you need to integrate over the entire
path of x:
2 2 2
𝑊 = 0 𝐹. 𝑑𝑥 = 0 15𝑥 + 2 𝑖. (𝑑𝑥) 𝑖 = 0 15𝑥 2 + 2 𝑑𝑥
2
15𝑥 3 15(2)3 15(0)3

=[ + 2𝑥]20 = +2 2 − − 2 0 = 40 + 4 = 𝟒𝟒 𝐉
3 3 3
Cross product of vectors
A cross product of two vectors is a vector quantity.
A cross product of A and B is represented as
A x B = |A||B|sin θ
Where θ is the angle between vectors A and B
The cross product of unit Vectors

(The cyclic Rule: positive anticlockwise and negative clockwise)
𝑖 x 𝑖= 0; 𝑖 x 𝑗= 𝑘; 𝑖 x 𝑘= -𝑗 𝑖
𝑗 x 𝑗= 0; 𝑗 x 𝑖= -𝑘; 𝑗 x 𝑘= 𝑖
𝑘 x 𝑘= 0; 𝑘 x 𝑖= 𝑗; 𝑘 x 𝑗 = -𝑖 𝑘
𝑗
Example – Cross product of vectors
Given that
B = Bx𝑖 +By𝑗 + Bz𝑘
A x B = (AxBx) 𝑖x𝑖 + (AxBy) 𝑖x𝑗 + (AxBz) 𝑖x𝑘 +
(AyBx)𝑗x𝑖 + (AyBy)𝑗x𝑗 + (AyBz)𝑗x𝑘 +
(AzBx)𝑘x𝑖 + (AzBy)𝑘x𝑗 + (AzBz)𝑘x𝑘
= (AxBy) 𝑖x𝑗 + (AxBz) 𝑖x𝑘 + (AyBx)𝑗x𝑖 + (AyBz)𝑗x𝑘 +

(AzBx)𝑘x𝑖 + (AzBy)𝑘x𝑗
= AxBy𝑘 + -AyBz𝑗 + -AyBx𝑘 + (AyBz)𝑖 + (AzBx)𝑗 - (AzBy)𝑖
= (AyBz- AzBy) 𝑖 + (AzBx- AyBz)𝑗 + (AxBy- AyBx)𝑘
Hence
A x B = (AyBz- AzBy) 𝑖 + (AzBx- AyBz)𝑗 + (AxBy- AyBx)𝑘
This can be expressed in form of a determinant as
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
A x B = 𝑨𝒙 𝑨𝒚 𝑨𝒛
𝑩𝒙 𝑩𝒚 𝑩𝒛
A x B = (AyBz - AzBy) 𝑖 - (AxBz - AzBx)𝑗 + (AxBy - AyBx)𝑘

Given that
A = 5𝑖 +3𝑗 + 2𝑘 and B = -4𝑖 +4𝑗 + 7𝑘
Then
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
AxB= 𝟓 𝟑 𝟐
−𝟒 𝟒 𝟕
= (3x7 - 2x4) 𝑖 + (2x(-4) - 3x7)𝑗 + (5x4 - 3x(-4))𝑘
= (21 - 8) 𝑖 + (-8 - 21)𝑗 + (20 + 12)𝑘
A x B = 13𝑖 - 29𝑗 + 32𝑘
Its magnitude is |13𝑖 - 29𝑗 + 32𝑘| = 132 + 292 + 322
= 2034 = 45.1
−1 𝑅𝑦
Its direction from the x-axis is 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑅𝑥
−1 −29
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 13 ) = -73.17 degrees
Rotation – Cross product of vectors
The cross product of vectors represents rotation of the vectors
Example 1:
Find the magnitude of rotation for a force given by 𝑭 = 3𝑁
acting over the radius of 𝑹 = 5 𝑚 at angle of 30𝑜 .
Solution:
Rotation = 𝑭 x 𝑹 = 𝑭 𝑹 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃= 3 ∗ 5 ∗ 0.5 = 7.5 N.m
Example 2:
Find the magnitude of rotation for a force given by
𝑭 = (2𝑖 +𝑗 + 2𝑘)𝑁 acting over the radius 𝑹 = (𝑖 +𝑗 + 𝑘)𝑚.
Solution:
𝒊 𝒋 𝒌
Rotation = 𝑭 x 𝑹 = 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐 = 𝒊 𝟏 − 𝟐 − 𝒋 𝟐 − 𝟐 + 𝒌(𝟐 − 𝟏)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= −𝒊 + 𝒌 with magnitude of |−𝒊 + 𝒌| = 𝟐 N.m
UNIT 3: Kinematics, Forces and Motion
Topics
• Displacement, Speed, Velocity, Acceleration
• Projectile Motion, Relative Motion
• Force and Mass
• Newton’s laws of motion: First law, Second law,
Third Law of Motion, Applications
• Circular Motion; Angular velocity and acceleration;
Uniform Circular Motion
• Centripetal Acceleration and Force
• Applications: Satellites in Circular Orbits, Apparent
Weightlessness and Artificial Gravity
Kinematics, Forces and Motion
Definition of Motion Parameters
Kinematics: is the study of moving (kine-) body (matics)
Distance (x): any total length covered between two points.

It has size only.
Displacement (S): The shortest distance covered between two points.

Has both magnitude and direction. It is a vector quantity.
Speed (s): The change of distance with time.
Velocity (v): The change of displacement with time
Acceleration (a): Rate of change of velocity.

Kinematics, Forces and Motion
Definition of Parameters
Distance (x):
x = s*t
where s = speed; t = time.
Displacement (S):
S = v*t
where v = velocity; t = time.
Acceleration (a):
a = (v-u)/t
where u = initial velocity; v = final velocity; t = time.
Motion in One Dimension (1 D)
• 1 D motion is motion in a straight line or motion along the
x-axis only. Consider the two points A and B:
Initial conditions Final conditions

A B
t0 tf
x0 xf
u v
• Δt = tf - t0
• Δx = xf - x0
• Δv = v - u
• 𝑣 = (v+u)/2
Distance Time Graphs
• Displacement vs time graphs are used to measure velocity

• The gradient of the graph between two points gives the velocity
• 𝑣 = ∆𝑥/∆𝑡
Uniform Motion
• Constant change in displacement with time gives constant velocity.

• VBA = [0 - (-20) ]/[10-0]= 20/10 = 2 m/s
• VBC = 40 – 0/(30-10) = 40/20 = 2 m/s
• VAC = [40 – (-20)]/(30-0) = 60/30 = 2 m/s
• This is constant velocity. Is called uniform motion.
Non-uniform Motion.
• Changing velocity
Average velocity between two points
• Instantaneous velocity is velocity at a given point

Velocity Time Graphs
• They are used to measure acceleration
• The slope or gradient between two points is the
acceleration
• The area under the v – t graph gives displacement
SIX General Equations of Motion in 1 D
𝑣−𝑢
1). 𝑎 =
𝑡
1
2). 𝑠 = 𝑢 + 𝑣 𝑡
2
3). 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 --- by re-arranging 1
4). 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 --- by combining 1 and 2, sub. t
1
5). 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 --- by combining 2 and 3, sub. v
2
1
6). 𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2 --- by combining 3 and 5, sub. u
2
They are applicable for perfectly horizontal and vertical

motions. This includes free fall motion.
Body Under Free Fall and Vertical Motion
Body under Free Fall
- Initial velocity is zero
- Gravitational force is positive
Body Thrown Vertically Upwards

- Final velocity at maximum height is zero
- Gravitational force is negative
- Time of ascent is equal the time of descent.
- Final velocity on landing equals the initial velocity on firing
(unless in presence of air resistance, then u > v)
Body Under Free Fall
Example
A ball is dropped from a building 19.6 m tall.
(i) Find the time taken to reach the ground.
(ii) Find the final velocity on the ground.
ANS: Before any calculations, list all parameters involved in

the motion: u=0 m/s, a = 9.982m/s2, h=19.6 m, v=?, t=?
Choose the appropriate equation to use:
1
(i) 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 ; t = 2𝑠/𝑎 =
2
(ii) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ; v = at =9.982*t =
Body Under Free Fall
Example
A ball is thrown downwards from a building 19.6 m tall with
initial velocity of 6 m/s.
(i) Find the final velocity on the ground.
(ii) Find the time taken to reach the ground.
ANS: Before any calculations, list all parameters involved in

the motion: u=6 m/s, a = 9.982m/s2, h=19.6 m, v=?, t=?
Choose the appropriate equation to use:
(i) 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
(ii) 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ;
Body Under Upward Vertical Motion
Example
A bullet is fired from the ground vertically upwards with an
initial velocity of 500 m/s.
(i) Find the maximum height reached.
(ii) Find the time taken to reach the maximum height.
(iii)If, on its way downwards, the bullet hits a stationary bird
at 10 m above the ground, what was the bullet velocity on
the bird?
(iv) For the case in (iii), above at what time from firing was the
bird hit?
Note: u=500 m/s, a = - 9.982m/s2, h=?, v=0, t=?
Start with: 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 ; then 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ;
After reaching max. h, the motion becomes free fall.
1
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 2𝑎𝑠 ; 𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 ; then 𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2
2
Motion in Two Dimension (2 D)
• This is motion in the x – y plane with the vector quantities
having both x and y components.
• The path of a projectile is a parabola
Motion in Two Dimension (2 D)
This is motion in the x – y plane with the vector quantities
having both x and y components.
The path of a projectile is a parabola
Characteristic of Two Dimension motion (2 D)
• The x-component of velocity remains constant at all points
• The x-component of acceleration is zero at all points
• The vertical component of acceleration is equal to g or -g.
• The y- component of velocity is zero at the peak point.
• The vertical component of vy and sy are identical to a freely
falling body
• Initial velocity in y – direction is given by
uy = u*sine(θ)
• The velocity in x – direction is given by
ux = u*cos (θ)
• Time of ascent = time of descent
• Time of flight is the total time taken by the projectile from
firing to landing
• Range is total displacement covered.
Equations in Two Dimension motion (2 D)
• Time of ascent (for reaching max. height), ta :
We use: vy =uy + ayt. Note: vy = 0; ay = -g; uy = uSinθ
=> 0 = uSinθ -gt ; => - uSinθ = -gt
ta = uSinθ/g ---- (1)
• Time of flight, T:
We know the time of flight is twice the time of ascent.
 T = 2uSinθ/g ---- (2)
• Maximum height reached, H:

Use sy =(1/2)*(uy + vy)*t; uy = uSinθ, vy =0, t = ta = uSinθ/g ,
sy = H
=> H = ½*(uSinθ + 0)*uSinθ/g = u2Sin2 θ/2g
 H = u2Sin2 θ/2g ---- (3)
• Range (horizontal displacement ), R :
Note: ax = 0, ux = uCosθ, t = T =, 𝑠𝑥 =R =?
1
We use 𝑅 = 𝑢𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
=> 𝑅 = uCosθ* 2uSinθ/g + 0
=> 𝑅 = 2u2Cosθ*Sinθ/g ;
According to trigonometric identities we find that
2Cosθ*Sinθ = Sin2θ, hence substitute
𝑅 = u2Sin2θ/g ---- (4)

𝑢𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
(1) Time of Ascent: 𝑡a =
𝑔
2𝑢𝑆𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
(2) Time of Flight: 𝑇 =
𝑔
𝑢2 Sin2 (𝜃)
(3) Maximum Height: H =
2𝑔
𝑢2 𝑆𝑖𝑛(2𝜃)
(4) Range: R =
𝑔
𝑢2
(5) Largest possible displacement: 𝑅max =
𝑔
It Occurs at θ = 450
Homework
Determine the final velocity and acceleration of the
block of wood on the frictionless incline if the normal
acceleration of gravity is 9.82 m/s2 and initial velocity
is zero.
100 m
Home Work
An airplane is flying at a height of 500 m with a
velocity of 72 km/h over a flood affected area, from
tropical cyclone Anna. Food packets are to be dropped
for the people standing at a particular dry point. With
a sketch diagram calculate:
(a) How long does it take to reach the ground?
(b) What is the final velocity at landing?
(c) What is the angle at landing, measured from
positive x-axis?
(d) At what horizontal distance from that place should
the food packets be released from the plane so as
to reach the intended spot?
Relative Velocity
If vA is the velocity of A and vB that of B, then the
relative velocity of A with respect to B will be
vA/B = vA − vB
Example
Find the velocity of body A relative to B if:
(1) A moves at 20m/s in the opposite direction of B
moving at 5m/s
(2) A moves at 20m/s in the same direction of B
moving at 20m/s
Homework
A cruise ship sails due north at 4.50 m/s while a Coast
Guard patrol boat heads 45.0° north of west at 5.20
m/s. What are the
(a) x – component, and
(b) y - component of the velocity of the cruise ship
relative to the patrol boat?
Exercise- Bearings
A car located at the origin moves 10 km due north at
4.50 m/s to reach point A, then moves 2 km at 40.0°
east of north at 4.00 m/s to reach point B, and then
moves 10 km at 2.00 m/s at 10.0° north of east to
reach point C. Determine:
(a) The sketch of the journey with labels
(b) Distance covered
(c) Average speed of the journey
(d) Time taken for the displacement
(e) Displacement
(f) Average velocity of the journey
(g) The angle of the displacement measured from the east
Solution Exercise- Bearings
Calculating average speed of the journey:
For the average speed, first calculate the time taken for each
portion of the distances i.e.
t1 for distance d1; t2 for distance d2; t2 for distance d2;
Total time = t1 + t2 + t3
Total distance = d1 + d2 + d3
Average speed = (d1 + d2 + d3)/(t1 + t2 + t3)
UNIT 4: Newton’s Laws of Motion
Objectives
At the end of this Unit, learner should be able to
understand and demonstrate the concepts of:
• Stating Newton’s laws of motion.
• Forces in equilibrium.
• Static and kinetic friction,
• Coefficient of friction;.
• Applications of forces.
Newton’s Laws of Motion & Applications
Sir Isaac Newton was a British Physicist who
postulated the basic (classical) laws of motion. He is
the father of classical mechanics.
Newton’s First Law of Motion
It is also called the law of inertia. Inertia is resistance
to change of motion.
- It states that, a body will continue in its state
of constant motion in a straight line or in its
state of rest unless it is acted on by an
external force.
• The tendency of an object to continue in its original
state of motion or rest is called inertia.
• Inertia is directly proportional to mass.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s Second Law of Motion
It is the law of net force or Law of acceleration.
- States: the net force is directly proportional
to the acceleration, provided mass is
constant.
- Acceleration is directly proportional to net
force provided mass is constant.
- 𝑭𝑛𝑒𝑡 = Σ𝑭𝒙
- 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎; 𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 and 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Σ𝑭𝒙
- SI unit of force is the Newton (N). 1 N = 1kgm/s2
- When net force is zero on an object, its acceleration
is zero, which means the velocity is constant.
Newton’s Third Laws of Motion
It states that, for every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction.
- forces in nature always exist in pairs.
- a single isolated force can’t exist in nature otherwise
it produces inbalance.
• In all cases, the action and reaction forces act on

different objects, hence produce no net force.
• Locomotion depends on Newton’s 3rd Law of motion
Newton’s Third Laws of Motion
Illustration of action – reaction force pairs.
𝑛 is the normal force by the table acting on the
object
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚
𝑛′ = - 𝑛
𝐹𝑔 = − 𝐹′𝑔
The normal force always acts perpendicular to the

surface of contact.
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• A speedboat with mass 3.50 x 102 kg, including the
passenger, has an engine that produces a net
horizontal force of 7.70 x 102 N, after accounting for
forces of resistance.
(a) Find the acceleration of the speedboat.
(b) Starting from rest, how long does it take the boat
to reach a speed of 12.0 m/s?
Normal and Kinetic Friction Forces
Case 1: Normal force on a level surface
The normal force by object:
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 = 𝑛 - mg
But 𝒂𝒚 = 𝟎
𝑛 = mg
The two forces are the normal force by the table, acting
upward, and the gravity force, directed downward.
Case 2: the Normal Force on a Level Surface with an
Applied Force
The three forces acting on the block are the normal force by
the table, directed upward; the gravity force, directed
downward and applied force acting at an angle θ.
Apply newton’s 2nd law: 𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 = > 0 = 𝑛 - mg + 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 Sin θ
𝑛 = mg - 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 Sin θ 𝑛 = mg + 𝐹𝑎𝑝𝑝 Sin θ
Case 3: the Normal Force on a Level Surface Under
Acceleration
The diagram shows a block on a flat surface. The surface is
accelerating upwards, such as in an elevator. The two forces
acting on the block are the normal force, directed upward, and
the gravity force, directed downward.
Apply 2nd Law:
𝑛 = mg + 𝑚𝑎𝑦
Normal Forces
Case 4: the Normal Force on a Slope
A common variation on a second law problem is an
object resting on a surface tilted at some angle, θ.
Normal Forces
Case 4: the Normal Force on a Slope
𝑛 = mgCosθ = Fy' and Fx' = mgSinθ

Normal, Static and Kinetic Friction Forces
• Friction is a contact force that derives from the microscopic
interactions between a body and its immediate environment.
• The rougher the surface between two bodies in contact the
more the frictional force between them.
• Friction on a sliding object acts in a direction opposite the
direction of motion
• Static friction is friction experienced by a body before the
start of motion.
• Kinetic friction is friction experienced by a body while in
already motion. Frictional Force is denoted by small letter f.
fk = μk𝑛 fs = μs𝑛
Where fk and fs are kinetic and static frictional forces,
respectively. μk and μs are coefficient of kinetic and static,
frictions. 𝑛 is the normal.
Example 1: Normal and Kinetic Friction Forces
A block having a mass of 4.00 kg rests on a slope that
makes an angle of 30.0° with the horizontal. If the
coefficient of static friction is 0.650, calculate
(a) the normal force, (b) the maximum static friction
force, and (c) the actual static friction force required to
prevent the block from moving. (d) Will the block
begin to move or remain at rest? Use g = 9.82m/s2
fs-mx=0.65*mgcos(30) = 22.1 N
fs-min =mgsin(30) =19.6 N
fs-max > fs-min, hence will not move
Friction Forces and Critical Angle
Note: As the angle of the slope increases, the magnitude of the
static friction force (μ.mg.cosθ) decreases and the component
of the force acting down the slope (mg.sinθ) increases.
When the angle of the slope is equal to or exceeds a critical
angle, the block will start to slide down the slope and kinetic
friction will take over.
Critical angle, θc, is the angle at which the block begins to
slide down.
At critical angle the maximum static frictional force is equal to
the force along the slope.
μsmgCos(θc)= mgsin(θc)
= > μsCos(θc)= sin(θc)
= > μs= tan(θc)
Friction Forces and Critical Angle
The acceleration of the block along the incline is given by
𝒎𝒂𝒙′ = Σ𝑭𝒙′
𝒎𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒎𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒎𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 Use 𝝁𝒌 bcoz body in motion
𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒈(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
If the block slides at constant speed, the acceleration is zero:

𝟎 = 𝒈(𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
= >𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝝁𝒌 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽
𝝁𝒌 = 𝑻𝒂𝒏 𝜽
:. 𝝁𝒌 = 𝝁𝒔 At constant speed
Example 2: Friction Forces and Critical Angle
Let 35o be the critical angle of an inclined plane on which a 10
kg block of wood slides down. Taking g = 9.82 m/s2, determine:
(a) The coefficient of static friction
(b) The static frictional force
(c) Acceleration of the block at this angle
(d) Suppose the angle of the incline is increased to 40 o, and the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.45. Find
(i) The acceleration of the block
(ii) Velocity of the block after 2 seconds
(iii)kinetic frictional force
Example 2: Friction Forces and Critical Angle
(a) The coefficient of static friction
μs= tan(θc)= tan(35)= 0.70
(b) The static frictional force
F = μs.n = 0.7*mgcos(35) = 56.31 N
(a) Acceleration of the block at this angle
𝒎𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒎𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒔 𝒎𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 , but at critical angle,
𝒎𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽=𝝁𝒔 𝒎𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 hence acceleration is zero
(a) Suppose the angle of the incline is increased to 40 o, and the
coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.45. Find
(i) The acceleration of the block
𝒂𝒙′ = 𝒈𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 − 𝝁𝒌 𝒈𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 => 6.312 - 3.385 = 2.927 m/s2
(ii) Velocity after 2 seconds from the rest position
V = u + at => V = 0 + 2.927 (2) = 5.85 m/s
(iii) The kinetic frictional force: f = 0.45mgcos (40) = 33.85 N
Tension Forces
Case 1: Vertical tension Forces on a Static object
𝟎 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝒈
T = mg
Case 2: Vertical tension forces on upward accelerating object
𝒎𝒂 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝒈
T = mg + ma
Tension Forces
Case 3: Vertical tension forces on downward accelerating
object (not free fall)
-𝒎𝒂 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝒈
T = mg - ma
Tension Forces
Case 4: two tensions at arbitrary Angles. Find T1 and T2.
𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Σ𝑭𝒙

𝒎𝒂𝒚 = 𝑻𝟏𝒚 + 𝑻𝟐𝒚 − mg 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝑻𝟏𝒙 + 𝑻𝟐𝒙
0 = 0+𝑻𝟐 Cosθ-mg 0 = 𝑻𝟐 Sinθ - 𝑻𝟏
𝑻𝟐 = mg/Cosθ 𝑻𝟏 = 𝑻𝟐 Sinθ
𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝒈Sinθ/Cosθ
𝑻𝟏 = 𝒎𝒈Tanθ
Two-body problems
Newton’s second law of motion also applies to systems of
objects. Solving such two-body problems is a matter of writing
the second law for both objects.
1. 𝒎𝟏 𝒂𝟏 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝟏 g
2. 𝒎𝟐 𝒂𝟐 = 𝑻 − 𝒎𝟐 g
3. 𝒂𝟏 = −𝒂𝟐
Solve simultaneously to get:

𝑚2−𝑚1
𝑎1 = g
𝑚2+𝑚1
2𝑚2 𝑚1
𝑇= g
𝑚2+𝑚1
Two-body problems
Example
Two masses tied to a massless string and suspended on pulley
as shown below. If m1 = 33 kg and m2=76 kg, find
(1) the acceleration of the masses
(2) The tension in the string
Solution:
Solve using
𝑚2−𝑚1
𝑎1 = g
𝑚2+𝑚1
2𝑚2 𝑚1
𝑇= 𝑚2+𝑚1
g
Forces and Equilibrium
When two or more forces are balanced, they are said to be in
equilibrium.
This occurs when the body or bodies they act on are static.
In this case Newton’s third law of motion is applied.
Example 1: Forces in Equilibrium
The system in Figure 8 is in equilibrium with the strings in the
center exactly horizontal. Find
(a) tensions T1, T2, T3 and
(b) angle θ ,
Example 1: Forces in Equilibrium
The system in Figure 8 is in equilibrium with the strings in the
center exactly horizontal. Find
(a) tensions T1, T2, T3 and
(b) angle θ ,
Apply Newton’s 2nd law to each body,
𝑇1𝑦 = 𝟒𝟎 𝑵;
𝑇1𝑥 = 𝑇2
40
𝑇1 = cos(35) = 𝟒𝟖. 𝟖𝟑 𝑵
𝑇1𝑥 = 40𝑇𝑎𝑛 35 = 𝟐𝟖 𝑵
𝑇3𝑦 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑵;
𝑇3𝑥 = 𝑇2
𝑇1𝑥 = 𝑇3𝑥 = 𝟐𝟖 𝑵; 𝑇2 = 𝟐𝟖 𝑵
2 2 −1 28
𝑇3 = 𝑇3𝑥 + 𝑇3𝑦 = 57.31 𝑁; 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟐𝟓𝒐
50
Forces in Dynamic State
Forces are said to be in dynamic state when there is a
net resultant force acting on a body, and the body
moves.
Consider the diagram below, which is a two body
problem, where m1 and m2 may be unbalanced.
Example 1: Forces in Dynamic State
Two blocks of mass m1 = 4 kg and m2 = 10 kg are
connected via a pulley as shown. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between m1 and the table is 0.2.
Determine the acceleration of the system and the
tension in the cord.
• To solve this problem we apply Newton’s second law
of motion to each body.
• We further need to handle rotational issues
concerning the pulley.
Note: The net force in the direction of clockwise
rotation is taken as negative. The net force in the
direction of counter-clockwise rotation is taken as
positive.
This implies that:
F1𝑛𝑒𝑡 = +𝑚1 𝑎1 . This is because it is counterclockwise
F2𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −𝑚2 𝑎2 . This is because it is clockwise
Hence we have the following equations:
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑓𝑘 ..(1)
−𝑚2 𝑎2 = 𝑇 − 𝑚2 𝑔 ..(2)
𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ..(3)
Substituting (3) into (1) and (2)
we get
𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑓𝑘
𝑚2 𝑎 = −𝑇 + 𝑚2 𝑔
Adding the two equations above gives,
𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑓𝑘 ; but 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔
= > 𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔 = 𝑔(𝑚2 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 )
𝑔(𝑚2 −𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 )
=>𝑎= is the acceleration
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 )
𝑔(𝑚2 −𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 )
=>𝑎=
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 )
Substituting values gives,
𝑔(𝑚2 −𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 ) 9.82(10−0.2∗4)
𝑎= =
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 ) (10+4)
𝑎 = 𝟔. 𝟒𝟓 m/s2
To find the tension, we substitute acceleration into (1),
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑓𝑘 ..(1)
= > 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 + 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔
= > 𝑇 = 4 ∗ 6.45 + 0.2 ∗ 4 ∗ 9.82 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟔𝟔 𝑵
A block of mass m1 = 3.70 kg on an inclined plane with
coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.3 and angle Ɵ = 300 is
connected by a cord over a massless, frictionless pulley to a
second block of mass m2 = 2.30 kg hanging, as shown.
Determine the
(a) Free body diagram for each mass
(b) magnitude of the acceleration of each block and
(c) direction of the acceleration of m2?
(d) tension in the cord?
(a) Free body diagram for each mass
T m2
f
m2g
As usual net force in the clockwise rotation is taken as negative,
and net force in counter-clockwise rotation is taken as positive.
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) − 𝑓𝑘 ..(1)
−𝑚2𝑎2 = 𝑇 − 𝑚2𝑔 ..(2) negative sign is for clockwise rotation.
𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ..(3)
Substituting (3) into (1) and (2) we get,
𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
𝑚2 𝑎 = −𝑇 + 𝑚2 𝑔
Adding the two equations above gives,
𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = 𝑚2𝑔 − 𝑚1 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃)
= > 𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = 𝑔[𝑚2 − 𝑚1 (𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) − 𝜇𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃))]
𝑔[𝑚2 −𝑚1(𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)−𝜇𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃))] 9.82[2.3−3.7(𝑠𝑖𝑛(30)−0.3𝑐𝑜𝑠(30))]
=>𝑎 = (𝑚2+𝑚1 )
= (2.3+3.7)
13.85885
=>𝑎 = 6
= 𝟐. 𝟑𝟏 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
(c) direction of the acceleration of m2?
To find the direction of the acceleration we compare the
magnitude of the two net forces about the pulley:
F1𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚1 𝑎 = 3.7 ∗ 2.31 = 8.547 𝑁, and
F2𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −𝑚2 𝑎 = −2.3 ∗ 2.31 = −5.313 𝑁 = 5.313 𝑁
Hence 𝑭𝟏𝒏𝒆𝒕 > 𝑭𝟐𝒏𝒆𝒕 and m2 will move upwards
(d) tension in the cord?

We use the second equation,
−𝑚2 𝑎2 = 𝑇 − 𝑚2 𝑔
= > 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑔 −𝑚2 𝑎2 = 2.3 ∗ 9.82 − 3.7 ∗ 2.31
𝑇 = 𝟏𝟒. 𝟎𝟒 𝑵
A 10 kg box is attached to a 7 kg box which rests on a 30o
incline as shown in the Figure. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between each box and the surface is μk = 0.1.
With the aid of a diagram showing forces acting on the boxes,

calculate:
a) the frictional force for the 10 kg box,
b) the frictional force for the 7 kg box,
c) the acceleration of the system and
d) the tension in the rope.
With the aid of a diagram showing forces acting on the boxes,
f1 T T
10 kg
a) the frictional force for the 10 kg box,

𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔 = 0.1 ∗ 10 ∗ 9.82 = 𝟗. 𝟖𝟐 𝑵
b) the frictional force for the 7 kg box,
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 = 0.1 ∗ 10 ∗ 9.82 ∗ 0.866025 = 𝟖. 𝟓𝟎𝟒 𝑵
c) the acceleration of the system:
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑓1 ..(1)
−𝑚2𝑎2 = 𝑇 + 𝑚2𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) − 𝑚2𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) ..(2)
𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ..(3)
c) the acceleration of the system:
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑓1 ..(1)
−𝑚2𝑎2 = 𝑇 + 𝜇𝑚2𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝜃) − 𝑚2 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃) ..(2)
𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎 ..(3)
= > 𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑓1 and 𝑚2 𝑎 = −𝑇 − 𝜇𝑚2 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑚2𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
Adding the two,
𝑎(𝑚2 + 𝑚1 ) = −𝜇𝑚1 𝑔 − 𝜇𝑚2𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
−𝜇𝑚1 𝑔−𝜇𝑚2 𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 +𝑚2 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜃)
𝑎=
(𝑚2 +𝑚1 )
−0.1∗10∗9.82−0.1∗7∗9.82𝑐𝑜𝑠 30 +7∗9.82𝑠𝑖𝑛(30)
=>𝑎 =
(10+7)
−9.82−0.1∗7∗9.82∗0.866+7∗9.82∗0.5
=>𝑎 = = 1.7 𝑚/𝑠2.
(17)
c) the tension in the rope.
We use 𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑇 − 𝑓1
= > 𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑚1 𝑔
= > 𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝜇𝑚1 𝑔 = 10(1.7+0.1*9.82) = 10.82 N
Forces in Dynamic State
Three blocks of mass 4kg, 8kg and 7 kg are connected
as shown in the figure below. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between the 8 kg mass and the table is 0.2.
Determine the
(a) sketch free body diagrams
(b) acceleration of the system and,
(c) the tension in each cord.
As usual you apply Newton’s 2nd Law of motion for
each body, with clockwise net forces being negative
while counterclockwise being positive.
Start with free body diagram for each body
We take note that the forces acting on the 8 kg mass
cancel out, hence do not contribute to acceleration.
T T T T
f 8 kg f 7 kg
4 kg
m3g
m1g
𝑚1 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 --(1)
−𝑚3 𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑚3 𝑔 --(2)
We solve simultaneously; a(𝑚1 +𝑚3 ) = 𝑔(𝑚3 − 𝑚1 )
𝑔(𝑚3 −𝑚1 ) 9.82(7−4) 29.46
=>𝑎= = = = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟖 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
(𝑚1 +𝑚3 ) (7+4) 11
𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝑚1 𝑔 = 4 ∗ 2.68 + 4 ∗ 9.82 = 𝟓𝟎 𝑵
Note: the 8 kg is as good as not existing
UNIT 3: WORK AND ENERGY
Objectives:
Understand
• Work, energy and power
• Forms of energy
• Potential and Kinetic Energy; Mechanical Energy
• Gravitational potential energy
• Conservative Forces and Non-conservative forces
• Conservation of Energy
• Work - Energy Theorem
WORK
Work is the product of force (F) and displacement (𝑑)
in the direction of the force.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑 (Joule)
SI unit: joule ( J)
1 J = kg. 𝑚2 /𝑠 2
Work is a scalar quantity though a product of two
vectors
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝐶𝑜𝑠θ where d= 𝛥𝑥
WORK
• Work can either be positive or negative depending on
whether 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is positive or negative. This, in turn, depends
on the direction of F relative the direction of 𝛥𝑥
• If positive then work is done on the load, if negative then
work is done by the load
• Work is done when lifting up the bucket.

• No work is done on a bucket when it is kept in the same
position.
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝐶𝑜𝑠θ
Energy and Forms of energy
• Energy is the ability to do work. The SI Unit of
energy is Joules (J).
• There are several forms of energy:
• Potential energy (PE) – energy stored by reason of
position
• Kinetic energy – energy stored by reason of motion
• Chemical energy – energy stored by reason of
stationary charges
• Electrical energy – energy stored by reason of
moving charges
• Heat energy - energy dissipated by reason of change
in temperature
• etc
Kinetic Energy
• This is energy possessed by a body in motion.
• Applying Newton’s 2nd Law on work equation:
𝑊 = 𝐹. Δx = ma.Δx = m(aΔx) => 𝑊 = m(aΔx)
aΔx =W/m --- (1)
and one of the equations of motion 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
=> 𝑎𝑠 = (𝑣 2 − 𝑢2 )/2 ---- (2)
In equation (1), Δ𝑥 =s is displacement
We substitute equation (2) into (1)
2 2 𝑚
W/m = (𝑣 −𝑢 )/2 => 𝑊 = (𝑣 2 −𝑢2 )
2
𝑚
𝑊= (𝑣 2 −𝑢2 ) = KE𝒏𝒆𝒕
2
𝑚
KE𝒏𝒆𝒕 = (𝑣 2 −𝑢2 )
2
Work – Energy Theorem
𝑚
𝑊= (𝑣 2 −𝑢2 ) --- (work-energy theorem).
2
𝑊 =ΔKE
The work-energy theorem states that:

The work done on an object is equals the net kinetic
energy.
Kinetic Energy
𝑚 2 2 𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑢2
KE𝒏𝒆𝒕 = (𝑣 −𝑢 ) = −
2 2 2
KE𝒏𝒆𝒕 = KE𝒇 - KE𝒊

𝑚𝑢2
KE𝒊 =
2
𝑚𝑣 2
KE𝒇 =
2
Hence general equation for KE is:
𝑚𝑣 2
KE =
2
Gravitational Potential Energy
Energy acquired due to change in height. Work is done
by gravitational force under free fall
𝑭𝒈 𝛥𝑥
Using the definition of work,

𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝐶𝑜𝑠θ = mg𝛥𝑥
𝑊 = mg𝛥𝑥
Since 𝛥𝑥 is strictly height we denote it as h
𝑊 = mgℎ =PE
PE = mgℎ (J)
Mechanical Energy
Note: KE + PE = ME (mechanical energy)
Where does the energy possessed as PE at a height go
as it falls to a lower level?
The answer is that PE is converted into KE as the
object gains motion. Hence in vertical motion and free
fall, mechanical energy is conserved.
ME = KE +PE = constant, therefore

ΔKE + ΔPE = 0 or ΔKE = −ΔPE
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑢2
- =−(𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 ) or
2 2
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑢2
- = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓
2 2
Mechanical Energy
𝑚𝑢2 𝑚𝑣 2
+ 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 = + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 or
2 2
KE𝒊 + PE𝒊 = KE𝒇 + PE𝒇 ----- (conservation of ME)

Example
A diver of mass m drops from a board 10.0 m above
the water’s surface. Take g = 9.82 and neglect air
resistance.
(a) Use conservation of mechanical energy to find his
speed 5.00 m above the water’s surface.
(b) Find the speed as he hits the water.
Example
Sln:
(a) + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 = + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 ; factor out m
2 2
u =0, ℎ𝑓 = 5 m hence
𝑣2
0 + 10𝑔 = + 5𝑔
2
𝑣 2 = 10 g => 𝑣 = 10 ∗ 9.82 =9.91=m/s
Example
(b) Find his speed as he hits the water.
Sln:
(b) + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖 = + 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 ; factor out m
2 2
u =0, ℎ𝑓 = 0 hence
𝑣2
0 + 10𝑔 = −0
2
𝑣 2 = 20g => 𝑣 = 20 ∗ 9.82 =
Example
Find the change in PE as the skier of mass 50 kg slides
down from point A to B. Take g = 9.82 m/s2
What would be the change in PE if the skier had

climbed from point B to A?
Example
Sln:
ΔPE = 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑖
ℎ𝑓 = 0, ℎ𝑖 = 10
ΔPE = −50 ∗ 10 ∗ 9.82
=
Conservative and Non-conservative Forces
There are two types of forces: Conservative and
non-conservative forces.
Conservative forces transform energy from one form to
another without losses of energy to the surrounding.
Energy in this case can be recovered. Good example is
gravitational force acting on a body.
ME is conserved under conservative forces.
Secondly the work done by a conservative force is
independent of the path taken, but depends on the
vector path between the two points.
1
A 2 B
Conservative and Nonconservative Forces
Nonconservative forces do not conserve energy, but
leaks it out to the surrounding. They randomly disperse
the energy of bodies on which they act.
This dispersal of energy often takes the form of heat,
light and/or sound. Examples are Kinetic friction and
air drag.
Secondly the work done by a nonconservative force

depends of the path taken. The longer the path, the
more work needed.
Conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy states that Energy
can neither be created or destroyed but transformed
from one form to another.
Case 1: Under conservative forces
Δ ME=ΔKE + ΔPE = 0 --- (conservation of ME energy)
Case 2: If we include the presence of NC forces then

ΔKE + ΔPE = 𝑊𝑛𝑐 or
𝑊𝑛𝑐 =ΔKE + ΔPE ---(conservation of energy law)

where 𝑊𝑛𝑐 is work done by NC forces.
POWER
Power is the rate of doing work.
The SI unit of power is watt (w)
1 w = J/s
The faster a force produces work the more power it has.
Δ𝑊 Δ𝐸
𝑃= or 𝑃 = ----( Power)
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
ΔFdcosθ Δd
P= = FCosθ = = Fvcos θ
Δ𝑡 Δ𝑡
P = Fvcosθ
P = Fv --- (Power)
Exercise - POWER
(1) What average power would a 1.00 x 103 kg
speedboat need to go from rest to 20.0 m/s in 5.00 s,
neglecting resistance.
(2) Using the work energy theorem, what is the force of
the boat?
(3) A bullet of mass 10g is fired vertically up, from a

gun, with an initial velocity of 200.0 m/s and reaches
maximum height in 5.00 s. Neglecting air resistance
what is the power of the gun?
UNIT 4 : LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
Objectives
At the end of this Unit, student should be able to
understand and demonstrate the concepts of:
• Linear Momentum
• Impulse-Momentum Theorem
• Conservation of Linear Momentum
• Collisions in One Dimensions, and
• Collisions in Two Dimensions
LINEAR MOMENTUM AND IMPULSE
The concepts of momentum and impulse gives us an
understanding of the interaction of bodies through
collisions and the exchange of energy. The game of pool
as well as road accidents are governed by the concepts
on momentum and impulse.
Momentum is the product of mass and its velocity.

Momentum ( 𝑝) is a vector quantity with the same
direction as the velocity of its mass.
𝑝𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣𝑥 (kgm/s) and 𝑝𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣𝑦 (kgm/s)
Resultant momentum equation:
𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 (kgm/s)
Momentum is related to the KE of a body. Recall that
𝑚𝑣 2
𝐾𝐸 = and 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
2
=> 𝑝2 = (𝑚𝑣)2 leading to
𝑝2
𝐾𝐸 = and 𝑝 = 2𝑚𝐾𝐸
2𝑚
Exercise:
(1) Two masses m1 and m2, with m1 < m2, have equal
kinetic energy. Compare their momenta.
(2) When a body’s momentum is doubled, what

happens to its KE?
Impulse is the measure of how long a force acts on an
object. It is the product of force and time.
Impulse ( 𝐼) is a vector quantity with the same direction
as the force.
Consider Newton’s law of motion
∆𝑣 ∆(𝑚𝑣)
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Here the force and mass are constant
∆(𝑝)
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
∆𝑡
∆ 𝑝 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡 = 𝐼
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡 or 𝐼 = ∆ 𝑝 ----- (Impulse)
∆ 𝑝 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡 = 𝐼
But ∆ 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 - 𝑚𝑣𝑖
Hence 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 - 𝑚𝑣𝑖 =𝑚(𝑣𝑓 - 𝑣𝑖 )
𝐼=∆ 𝑝
𝐼 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 - 𝑣𝑖 )
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 ∆𝑡
The relationship between Impulse and KE is not

simple. Find the relationship at own time.
For a changing force, Impulse is given by average force
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∆𝑡
Impulse from force time graphs
The magnitude of the impulse delivered by a force

during the time interval Δt is equal to the area under
the force versus time graph.
Exercise
A golf ball with mass 5.0 x 10−2 kg is struck with a club
and is momentarily deformed by 2 cm. Assume that the
ball leaves the club face with a velocity of 44 m/s.
Note that the force on the ball varies from zero when
contact is made up to some maximum value (when the
ball is maximally deformed) and then back to zero
when the ball leaves the club.
(a) Find the magnitude of the impulse due to the
collision.
(b) Estimate the duration of the collision and the
average force acting on the ball.
Exercise
(a) Find the magnitude of the impulse due to the
collision.
But 𝑣𝑓 =44 m/s; 𝑣𝑖 = 0 m/s; m = 0.05 kg
𝐼 = 0.05 x (44 – 0) = 2.2 kg.m/s
(b) Estimate the duration of the collision and the

average force acting on the ball.
𝑣+𝑢 𝑣+𝑢
S=( )Δt; S = 2 cm = 0.02 m; ( ) = 22 m/s
2 2
=> Δt = 0.02/22 = 9.1 x 10−𝟒 s
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∆𝑡 => 𝑭𝒂𝒗𝒈 = 𝐼/∆𝑡 = 2.2/9.1 x 10−4 = 2.4 x10𝟑 N
Exercise
In a car crash test, a car of mass 1.50 x 103 kg collides
with a wall and rebounds as in Figure below. The initial
and final velocities of the car are 𝑣𝑖 = -15.0 m/s; 𝑣𝑓 =
2.6 m/s, respectively. If the collision lasts for 0.150 s,
find (a) the impulse delivered to the car due to the
collision
(b) the magnitude and direction of the average force
exerted on the car.
Exercise
In a car crash test, a car of mass 1.50 x 103 kg collides
with a wall and rebounds as in Figure. The initial and
final velocities of the car: 𝑣𝑖 = -15.0 m/s; 𝑣𝑓 = 2.6 m/s,
respectively. If the collision lasts for 0.150 s, find (a)
the impulse delivered to the car due to the collision
= 1.50 x 103 x [2.6 –(-15)] = 1.50 x 103 x (2.6 +15)
= 2.64 x 10𝟒 kg.m/s
(b) the magnitude and direction of the average force
exerted on the car.
𝐼 = 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 ∆𝑡 => 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝐼/∆𝑡 =2.64 x 104 /0.15
= 1.76 x 10𝟓 N in the opposite to initial motion
Conservation of Linear Momentum
When a collision occurs in an isolated system, the total
momentum of the system does not change. Instead, it
remains constant both in magnitude and in direction.
The momenta of the individual objects in the system

may change, but the vector sum of all the momenta will
not change.
The law of Conservation of momentum:

When two or more objects collide, in an isolated
system, the sum of their momentum before collision
equals the sum of their momentum after collision.
Conservation of Momentum
Before and after a head-on collision between two
particles. Note: Always take note of directions.
Force of mass 2 on mass 1 and vise versa.

The two forces should be equal but opposite
Conservation of Momentum
According to Newton’s 3rd law of motion: 𝐹21 = - 𝐹12

𝐹21 Δt = - 𝐹12 Δt or ∆𝑝1 = −∆𝑝2
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 - 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 =−( 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓 - 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 )
𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 - 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 = 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 - 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
- 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 - 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 = - 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓- 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
𝑝1𝑖 +𝑝2𝑖 = 𝑝1𝑓 +𝑝2𝑓 or
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 --- (conservation of momentum)
This is analogous to conservation of mechanical energy.
Types of Collisions
There are 2 types of collisions: elastic and inelastic
collisions.
Elastic Collisions.
• An elastic collision is defined as one in which both
momentum and kinetic energy of a system are
conserved. i.e.
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 and 𝐾𝐸𝑖 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓
• The collisions of subatomic particles and that of air
molecules with the walls of a container at ordinary
temperatures are highly elastic.
• The collision between billiard balls are only
approximately elastic, because some loss of kinetic
energy takes place — through sound and heat
Types of Collisions
Inelastic collisions.
• An inelastic collision is a collision in which
momentum is conserved, but kinetic energy is NOT.
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓
• A perfect inelastic collision is when two objects
collide and stick together so that their final velocities
are the same. i.e. 𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣2𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓
• Example of perfect inelastic occurs when two pieces of
soft mud collide and stick together and move with
common velocity after they collide.
• The collision of a rubber ball with a hard surface is
inelastic collision because some of the kinetic energy
is lost when the ball is deformed during contact.
Inelastic Collisions in 1D
1 D Collision is collision in a straight line.
• This occurs in a head-on collision.
• Consider two objects having masses m1 and m2
moving with known initial velocity components 𝑢1𝑖
and 𝑢2𝑖 along a straight line. If the two objects collide
head-on, stick together, and move with a common
velocity component 𝑣𝑓 after the collision, then the
collision is perfectly inelastic.
• Using the conservation of momentum: 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑓
𝑣2𝑓 =𝑣1𝑓 = 𝑣𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑖 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑖
𝑣𝑓 = --- (final v of perf. inelastic collision)
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
Exercise
A pickup truck with mass 1.80 x 103 kg is traveling
eastbound at +15.0 m/s, while a compact car with mass
9.00 x 102 kg is traveling westbound at 15.0 m/s. The
vehicles collide head-on, becoming entangled.
(a) Find the speed of the entangled vehicles after the
collision.
(b) Find the change in the velocity of each vehicle.
(c) Find the change in the kinetic energy of the system
consisting of both vehicles.
Exercise
(a) Find the speed of the entangled vehicles after the
collision.
𝑚1𝑢1𝑖 + 𝑚2𝑢2𝑖 1800∗15 +900∗(−15) 13500
𝑣𝑓 = = =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 1800+900 2700
𝑣𝑓 = +5 m/s
(b) Find the change in the velocity of each vehicle.
𝑚1: 𝑣1𝑓 − 𝑢1𝑖 = 5-15 = -10 m/s
𝑚2: 𝑣2𝑓 − 𝑢2𝑖 = 5 - (-15) = +20 m/s
𝑚1(𝑢1𝑖 )2 𝑚2(𝑢2𝑖 )2
𝐾𝐸𝑖 = + = 202500 + 101250 = 303750 J
2 2
𝑚1(𝑣𝑓)2 𝑚2(𝑣𝑓)2
𝐾𝐸𝑓 = + = 22500 + 11250 =33750 J
2 2
Exercise
Δ𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 - 𝐾𝐸𝑖
= 33750 J - 303750 J
= -270’000 J
Collisions in One Dimension
Application: The Ballistic Pendulum
The ballistic pendulum is a device used to measure the
initial speed of a fast-moving projectile such as a bullet. The
bullet is fired into a large block of wood suspended from
some light wires. The bullet embeds in the block, and the
entire system swings up to a height h. It is possible to
obtain the initial speed of the bullet by measuring h and the
two masses.
Collisions in 1D - The Ballistic Pendulum
As an example of the technique, assume that the mass of
the bullet, m1, is 5.00 g, the mass of the pendulum, m2, is
1.000 kg, and h is 5.00 cm.
(a) Find the vertical velocity of the system after the bullet
embeds in the block.
(b) Calculate the initial speed of the bullet.
Analysis for Solution:

This is an example of a perfectly inelastic collision
For part (a) use the conservation of mechanical energy
For part (b) use the conservation of momentum.
(a) Find the velocity of the system in the vertical directiobn
after the bullet embeds in the block.
Sln: Conservation of mechanical energy.
(𝐾𝐸𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 + 𝑃𝐸𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 )at-collision = (𝐾𝐸𝑓−𝑠𝑦𝑠 + 𝑃𝐸𝑓−𝑠𝑦𝑠)top
Note: 𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 = ?, ℎ𝑖 = 0, ℎ𝑓 = 0.05 m, 𝑣𝑠𝑦𝑠 =0
Hence 𝑃𝐸𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 0; 𝐾𝐸𝑓−𝑠𝑦𝑠= 0.
Equation becomes:
𝐾𝐸𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 𝑃𝐸𝑓−𝑠𝑦𝑠
(𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 )(𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 )2 (𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 )2
= (𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠 )𝑔ℎ𝑓 => = 𝑔ℎ𝑓
2 2
𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 2 𝑔ℎ𝑓
𝑢𝑠𝑦𝑠 = 2 ∗ 9.82 ∗ 0.05 = 0.9982 = 0.991m/s
(b) Calculate the initial speed of the bullet.
𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓 (Momentum before collision =

momentum after collision)
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑓 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 =(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓
But 𝑢2 = 0; 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖−𝑠𝑦𝑠 =0.9991m/s
(𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣𝑓 0.005+1 0.9991

𝑢1 = = = 199.2 m/s
𝑚1 0.005
Collisions in 1D – Elastic Collision
Consider two objects that undergo an elastic head-on
collision. In this case, both the momentum and
the kinetic energy of the system are conserved.
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 --- (Conservation of p)
----- (1)
𝑚1 (𝑢1 )2 𝑚2 (𝑢2 )2 𝑚1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑚2 (𝑣2 )2
+ = + -- (Conser. of KE)
2 2 2 2
----- (2)
where u and v are positive if an object moves to the
right and negative if it moves to the left.
The two equations above can be solved simultaneously.
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 --- (Conservation of p)
The equation above can be simplified as
𝑚1 (𝑢1 −𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 ) ----- (3)
Next we simplify equation (2):
𝑚1 (𝑢1 )2 𝑚2 (𝑢2 )2 𝑚1 (𝑣1 )2 𝑚2 (𝑣2 )2
+ = + -- (Conser. of KE)
2 2 2 2
The equation above has 2 as a common factor. Hence
It becomes:
𝑚1 (𝑢1 )2 + 𝑚2 (𝑢2 )2 = 𝑚1 (𝑣1 )2 + 𝑚2 (𝑣2 )2
Putting common factors together:
𝑚1 (𝑢1 )2 - 𝑚1 (𝑣1 )2 = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 )2 - 𝑚2 (𝑢2 )2
2 2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 - 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 2 )
2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 2 - 𝑣1 2 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 2 - 𝑢2 2 )
We see the equation above contains the difference of
two squares. Can be written as
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) =𝑚2 (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) (𝑣2 + 𝑢2 ) --- (4)
Now substitute equation (3) into (4):

Recall equation (3) is:
𝑚1 (𝑢1 −𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 ) ----- (3)
We have
𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 )(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) =𝑚2 (𝑣2 + 𝑢2 ) (𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ) --- (4)
The common factor in equation (4) is 𝑚2 (𝑣2 - 𝑢2 )
Hence equation (4) becomes
(𝑢1 + 𝑣1 ) = (𝑣2 + 𝑢2 ) or
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 --- (5)
Note: 𝑢1/2 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 and 𝑣2/1 = 𝑣2 −𝑣1

𝑢1/2 = 𝑣2/1 ---- (5b) --- it is easy to remember
𝑣2 −𝑣1
𝑒= --- (6) is called coefficient of restitution
𝑢1 −𝑢2
According to Equation (5b), the initial velocity of m2
relative to m1, 𝑢1/2, equals the final velocity of m1 relative to
m2, 𝑣2/1.
Note that equation (5) together with equation (1) are used
to solve elastic collision problems.
Exercise – 1D Elastic Collision
Two billiard balls of identical masses move toward each
other. Assume that the collision between them is
perfectly elastic. If the initial velocities of the balls are
+30.0 cm/s and -20.0 cm/s.
What are the velocities of the balls after the collision?
Assume friction and rotation are negligible.
Sln:
Solution of perfectly elastic problems are obtained by
solving the two equations, the conservation of
momentum and relative motion equations, for two
unknowns, the final velocities of the two balls.
Sln:
We use eqn (1) and eqn (5) to solve the problem
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 --- (1)
Since m1 = m2, we have
𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚1 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚1 𝑣2 or
𝑢1 + 𝑢2 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 --- (p1)
We now bring in eqn (5): 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 --- (5)
We solve eqn (1) and (5) as simultaneous equations.
Adding them: 𝑢1 +𝑢2 + 𝑢1 − 𝑢2 =𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣2 −𝑣1
2𝑢1 =2𝑣2 => 𝑢1 =𝑣2 Hence since 𝑢1 =+30 cm/s then
𝑣2 = +30 cm/s
Sln:
We now solve for 𝑣1 by substituting into eqn (5)
𝑢1 − 𝑢2 = 𝑣2 − 𝑣1 --- (5)
30 – (-20) = 30 - 𝑣1
=> 20 = - 𝑣1 or
=> 𝑣1 = -20 cm/s
• Notice that the bodies exchanged the velocities. This

is always the case when two objects of equal mass
undergo an elastic head-on collision.
2D Motion - Glancing (off centre) Collisions
• 2D collisions takes into account the x-axis and y-axis
components of the velocities and momenta.
• Directions of the vectors such as velocities are taken care of by
the angles, such that we do not have take note of east or west
direction of motion as was the case for 1D motion.
The conservation of momentum principle in 2D implies that the

total momentum of the system is conserved in each direction:
Before collision After collision
m2 m2
m1 m1
2D Motion - Glancing (off centre) Collisions
The conservation of momentum principle in 2D implies that the
total momentum of the system is conserved in each direction:
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦
or
𝑚1 𝑢1 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ2
𝑚1 𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ2
Where 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑢1 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ1 ; 𝑢1𝑦 = 𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ1 , etc.
Before collision After collision
m2
m1 m1 m2
2D Motion - Glancing Collisions
Now, consider a 2D problem in which an object of mass
m1 collides with an object of mass m2 that is initially at
rest. After the collision, object 1 moves at an angle θ
with respect to the horizontal, and object 2 moves at an
angle ɸ with respect to the horizontal. This is called a
glancing collision.
2D Motion - Glancing Collisions
Applying the law of conservation of momentum in
component forms, and noting that the initial y-
component of momentum is zero, we have
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 cosɸ
0 + 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ + 𝑚2 𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ɸ
If the collision is elastic, we can write two more
equations, for conservation of energy, in the form
𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥
𝑢1𝑦 − 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦 --- (2-D Relative velocity eqns.)
These 4 equations can be used to solve 2D collision

problems.
Exercise - Glancing Collisions
A car with mass 1.50 x 103 kg traveling east at a speed
of 25.0 m/s collides at an intersection with a 2.50 x 103
kg pickup truck traveling north at a speed of 20.0 m/s.
Find the magnitude and direction of the velocity of the
wreckage immediately after the collision, assuming that
the vehicles undergo a perfectly inelastic collision (that
is, they stick together) and assuming that friction
between the vehicles and the road can be neglected.
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦
𝜃1 = 0𝑜 ; 𝜃2 = 90𝑜 ; 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 𝜙; 𝑣1𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 ;
𝑣1𝑦 = 𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 ; 𝑣1 = 𝑣2 = 𝑣; m1= 1500 kg; m2 = 2500
kg; 𝑢1𝑥 =25 m/s;
𝑣1𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙1 = 𝑣2𝑥 cos𝜙2 =𝑣𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙
𝑣1𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ = 𝑣2𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙=𝑣𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 Hence
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑥
𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑦
=> 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
=> 𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣𝑦 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
But 𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑢1 cosθ1 = 𝑢1 cos 0 = 𝑢1 = 25 m/s
𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑢2 sinθ2𝑖 = 𝑢2 sin 90 = 𝑢2 = 20 m/s
Hence
𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑣𝑥 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑣𝑦 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
1500*25 =4000𝑣𝑥 = > 𝑣𝑥 = 75/8= 9.375 m/s
2500*20 =4000𝑣𝑥 = > 𝑣𝑦 = 12.5 m/s
=> 𝑣 = (75/8)2 +12.52 = 15.625 m/s
And 𝜙=𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (12.5/ 9.375) = 53.1
Exercise 2 - Glancing Collisions
An object of mass 20.00 kg traveling west at an angle of 1500to
the horizontal with initial velocity of 25.00 m/s collides with a
30.00 kg other object traveling east at an angle of 200 to the
horizontal at a speed of 20.00 m/s. After collision the 30.00 kg
mass continues eastwards at an angle of 20.50 to the horizontal at
18.00 m/s. Assume a perfect elastic collision.
Questions
(1) List all the given data
(2) Sketch the scenario showing angles and masses before
collision
(3) Find the x and y components of initial velocities of the masses
(4) Find the x and y components of final velocity of the bigger
mass
(5) Find the final velocity of the smaller mass
(6) Find the direction of the smaller mass after collision
Solutions
(1) Data list:
m1 = 20kg; u1 = 25 m/s; θ1 =150 deg
m2 = 30kg; u2 = 20 m/s; θ2 =20 deg; ϕ2 = 20.5 deg ; v2 =18 m/s
ϕ1 =?
Note: Directions of the velocities are taken care of by the angles.
Perfect elastic collision is governed by the 4 equations

𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦
𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥
𝑢1𝑦 − 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦
Solutions (Give this sketch for clarification of question)
(2) Sketch the scenario showing angles and masses before
collision
M2=30kg M1=20kg
20° 150°
Solutions
(3) Find the x and y components of initial velocities of the masses
𝑢1𝑥 = 𝑢1 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ1𝑖 = 25 cos 150 = −𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠θ2𝑖 = 20cos(20) = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟗𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
𝑢1𝑦 = 𝑢1 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ1𝑖 = 25𝑠𝑖𝑛 150 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛θ2𝑖 = 20𝑠𝑖𝑛 20 = 𝟔. 𝟖𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
(4) Find the x and y components of the final velocity of the bigger
mass
𝑣2𝑥 = 𝑣2 𝑐𝑜𝑠ϕ2 = 18cos(20.5) = 𝟏𝟔. 𝟖𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
𝑣2𝑦 = 𝑣2 𝑠𝑖𝑛ϕ2 = 18𝑠𝑖𝑛 20.5 = 𝟔. 𝟑𝟎𝟒 𝒎/𝒔
Solutions
(5) Find the final velocity of the smaller mass
𝑢1𝑥 − 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑣2𝑥 − 𝑣1𝑥
𝑢1𝑦 − 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑣2𝑦 − 𝑣1𝑦
=> −21.65 - 18.794 = 16.86 - 𝑣1𝑥 =>𝑣1𝑥 = 57.304
And 12.5 – 6.84 = 6.304 - 𝑣1𝑦 => 𝑣1𝑦 = −0.644
𝑣1 = (𝑣1𝑥 )2 + (𝑣1𝑦 )2 = (57.304)2 + (0.644)2
𝑣1 = 57.31 m/s
Solutions
(6) Find the direction of the smaller mass after collision
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑥 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑥 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑥
𝑚1 𝑢1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑢2𝑦 = 𝑚1 𝑣1𝑦 + 𝑚2 𝑣2𝑦
=> 20 −21.65 + 30(18.794) = 20𝑣1𝑥 + 30(16.86) From 1st Eqn.
= > 20𝑣1𝑥 = 14.72
𝑣1𝑥 = 0.736 𝑚/𝑠
=> 20 12.5 + 30(−6.84) = 20𝑣1𝑦 + 30(−6.304) From 2nd Eqn.
= > 20𝑣1𝑦 = 233.92; 𝑣1𝑦 = 11.696 𝑚/𝑠
And now using
𝑣1𝑥 𝑣1𝑥
𝑣1𝑥 = 𝑣1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1𝑓 ; => 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1𝑓 = ; 𝜃1𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1( )
𝑣1 𝑣1
−1 0.736
𝜃1𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟐𝟕 𝟎
58
Circular Motion
Objectives:
• At the end of this unit, learner must understand and
demonstrate the concepts of:
• Rotational Motion,
• Angular displacement,
• Angular velocity,
• Angular frequency,
• Period of motion,
• Angular acceleration,
• Centripetal Acceleration,
• Centripetal force,
• Centrifugal force,
• Tangential velocity and acceleration,
Type of Motions: Linear and Circular
• There are two main types of motions:
(1) Linear motion, and
(2) Circular motion (also called angular motion)
In linear motion velocity of an object predominantly changes

in magnitude and rarely changes in direction. This is because
motion follows a straight path. Examples are velocities in 1D
and 2D motion.
In circular motion velocity of an object predominantly

changes in direction and rarely changes in magnitude (constant
displacement). This is because motion follows a circular path.
Examples are velocity of a rotating wheel and the velocity of the
earth around the sun.
Forces in Circular Motion
• There are two types of forces involved in circular motion
(1) Radial forces, and
(2)Tangential forces (linear forces)
• The radial forces (Fr) act along the radius of rotation.

• The tangential forces (Ft) act perpendicular to the radius of
rotation. For uniform circular motion, tangential
velocity is constant and the tangential force is zero.
Circular Motion: Radial Forces
Radial Forces
There are two types of radial forces:
(1) Centripetal force
(2) Centrifugal force (a pseudo force)
A centripetal force is force that acts towards the center of

the rotation. It is also called a center-seeking force. Examples
are gravitational force, tension in a string holding an object
swirling in a circle, frictional force on a road banking, etc.
A centrifugal force is a force that acts away from the center
of rotation, but along the radius of rotation. It acts opposite to
the centripetal force. Examples are the weight of an object
moving around a circle, gravitational force of the moon on an
object on earth.
Circular Motion - Parameters
All parameters in linear motion have their equivalent in
circular motion:
Parameter Linear Motion Circular Motion

Position 𝑠 θ
Velocity 𝑣 ω
Acceleration 𝑎 α
Mass 𝑚 𝐼
Force 𝐹 τ
Equations of Motion
.
Linear Motion Equation Angular Motion Equation
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜔𝑓 = 𝜔𝑖 + α𝑡
1 1
𝑠= 𝑢+𝑣 𝑡 𝜃 = ω𝑓 + ω𝑖 𝑡
2 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠 𝜔𝑓 2 = 𝜔𝑖 2 + 2α𝜃
1 2 1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + α𝑡
2 2
1 2 1 2
𝑠 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑓 𝑡 − α𝑡
2 2
Angular Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
Angular displacement
Δ𝜃 = 𝜃𝑓 − 𝜃𝑖 (rads)
(angular displacement).
• Distance/circumference C around a circle is given by

C = 2pr
Where r = radius and θ = 2p =360 ◦
We have S = C, where S is displacement
The relationship becomes:
s = θr or θ = s/r ---( Linear and Angular displace.)
Note: 1 rad = 360/ 2p = 57.3 ◦, 1 rev = 2p, 1◦ = 4 min
Tangential Velocity or Linear Velocity (v)
From angular displacement
𝑠
𝜃= ----- (angular and linear displacement)
𝑟
Taking derivative both side gives
𝑑 𝑑 𝑠
(𝜃) = ( ); where r is a constant.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟
𝑑(𝜃) 1 𝑑𝑆
=> =
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
Recall that : 𝑑𝜃= Δ𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑡= Δ𝑡

𝑑(𝜃) 𝑑𝑆
We get = ω and =υ
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
υ
Hence we have ω= ------(angular and tangential v)
𝑟
Angular Acceleration & Tangential Acceleration
From angular velocity
υ
ω= ----- (angular and tangential velocity)
𝑟
Taking derivative both side gives
𝑑 𝑑 υ
(ω) = ( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟
𝑑ω 1 𝑑υ
=> =
𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡
𝑎
=> α = ----- (angular and Tangential acceleration)
𝑟
Note:
Tangential motion is also referred to as linear motion.
Exercise
A wheel rotates with a constant angular acceleration
of 3.50 rad/s2. If the angular velocity of the wheel is
2.00 rad/s at t = 0,
(a) through what angle does the wheel rotate between
t = 0 and t = 2.00 s? Give your answer in radians
and in revolutions. Ans: 11 rads; 1.75 rev
1
Hint: use 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑖 𝑡 + α𝑡 2
2
(b) What is the angular velocity of the wheel at t =
2.00 s?
Ans: 9 rads/s
Use: 𝜔𝑓 2 = 𝜔𝑖 2 + 2α𝜃
Centripetal Acceleration -- (for uniform motion)
• For circular motion at constant speed, the
acceleration vector always points toward the center
of the circle. Such an acceleration is called a
centripetal (center-seeking) acceleration. Its
magnitude is given by
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = ------- (centripetal Acceleration)
𝑟
𝑎
Recall that: υ = 𝑟ω and α =
𝑟
Substituting leads to
ω2 𝑟 2
𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑟ω2
𝑟
α 𝑎𝑐
and 𝑎𝑡 =
ω2
Total Acceleration ---- (for changing speed)
• When an object moves in a circle but is speeding up
or slowing down, a tangential component of
acceleration is also present:
𝑎𝑡
α= => 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟α
𝑟
Because the tangential and angular components
of acceleration are perpendicular to each other, we can
find the magnitude of the total acceleration using
Pythagoras theorem:
𝑎= 𝑎𝑡 2 + 𝛼 2
Exercise
A race car accelerates uniformly from a speed of 40.0
m/s to a speed of 60.0 m/s in 5.00 s while traveling
counterclockwise around a circular track of radius
4.00 x 102 m. When the car reaches a speed of 50.0
m/s, calculate
(a) the centripetal acceleration
Ans: 6.25 m/s2
(b) the angular velocity, Ans: 0.125 rad/s
(c) the tangential acceleration,
Ans: 4m/s2
(d) the total acceleration.
Ans: 7.42 m/s2
Centripetal Force
• Using Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion the centripetal
force is given as
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎𝑐 or
𝑣2
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑚
𝑟
• Direction of centripetal force is towards the center of
circle hence it is a radial force (acting along the
radius)
Centripetal Force
• The second law for uniform circular motion involves
forces that are directed either towards the center of a
circle or away from it.
• A force acting towards the center of the circle
is by convention negative. Examples include the
gravitational force, satellite or the string tension of a
whirling yo-yo.
• For circular motion Newton’s 2nd Law of motion:
𝑣2
−𝑚 = 𝐹𝑟
𝑟
Example 1
A car travels at a constant speed of 13.4 m/s on a level
(unbanked) circular path of radius 50.0 m, as shown.
What minimum coefficient of static friction between
the tires and road will allow the car to make the
circular turn without sliding? Use g = 9.82 m/s2
Soln: write the radial and vertical components of

Newton’s 2nd law.
Example
Radial equation of Newton’s 2nd Law:
𝑣2 𝑣2
−𝑚 = 𝐹𝑟 => −𝑚 = −𝜇𝑠 𝑛
𝑟 𝑟
Vertical equation of Newton’s 2nd Law:

M𝑎𝑦 = 𝐹𝑦
=> 0 = 𝑛 -mg
=> 𝑛 = mg
Substituting into the first equation gives
𝑣2 𝑣2 𝑣2
−𝑚 = −𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔 => 𝑚 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑚𝑔 => = 𝜇𝑠 𝑔
𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
𝑣2 (13.4)2
=> 𝜇𝑠 = => 𝜇𝑠 = = 0.36
𝑔𝑟 9.982 ∗50
Car on a Banked Road
Nr = N*Sineθ
N = mg/Cosθ
Example 2
A road has a banked curve with 31.0° tilt and with maximum
radius of 316 m. Neglecting friction, if a race car negotiates the
curve too slowly, it tends to slip down the incline as it turns,
whereas if it’s going too fast, it may begin to slide up the incline.
(a) Find the necessary centripetal acceleration on this banked

curve so that the car won’t tend to slip down or slide up the
incline. (Neglect friction.)
(b) Calculate the speed of the race car.
Note: 3 things keep the race car from sliding down or

up: 1. Normal force, 2. Frictional force, 3. Speed of car
Solution
Data: θ = 31.0°; r = 316 m, 𝐹𝑐 = 𝑁𝑟
(a) Find N in terms of mg:

θ
𝑚𝑔 𝑚𝑔
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑁
or N = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑣2
But, 𝐹𝑐 = −𝑚
𝑟
𝑚𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛(θ)
𝑁𝑟 = −𝑁𝑆𝑖𝑛(θ) = −
cos(θ)
𝑁𝑟 = −𝑚𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ) Note: 𝑎𝑐 = −𝑔𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)
𝑣2 Where negative sign is the direction
=>𝑚 𝑟
= 𝑚𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)
𝑣2
= > 𝑎𝑐 = − 𝑟
= > 𝑎𝑐 = −𝑔𝑇𝑎𝑛 θ = −9.82 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛 31 = −𝟓. 𝟗 m/s2
Solution
(b) Calculate the speed of the race car.
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = − 𝑟
𝑣 2 = −𝑟𝑎𝑐
=> 𝑣 = −𝑟𝑎𝑐 = −316 ∗ −5.9 = 43.18 m/s
Example 3
A racetrack is to have a banked curve with radius of
245 m. What should be the angle of the bank if the
normal force alone is to allow safe travel around the
curve at 58.0 m/s?
Solution
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑁𝑟
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = −𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ) and 𝑎𝑐 = −
𝑟
𝑣2
=> = 𝑔 ∗ 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)
𝑟
𝑣2 582
𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)= = > 𝑇𝑎𝑛(θ)= = 1.398
𝑔𝑟 9.82∗245
𝒐
θ=𝑇𝑎𝑛−1 (1.398) => θ = 54.43
Period, Linear and Angular Frequency
Period (T): Time taken for one complete rotation.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑇= 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
(s)
The distance covered in radians for one period is 2πr. Hence
2𝜋𝑟 𝑣
𝑣= but 𝜔= or 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
𝑇 𝑟
where 𝜔 is angular velocity also known as angular frequency.
Frequency (f): Number of full rotations per second.

1
𝑓 = 𝑇 (𝑠 −1)
Where f is the linear frequency.
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋
Substituting 𝑣 gives: 𝜔𝑟 = 𝑇
or 𝜔= 𝑇
Hence 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 (rads/s)
This is angular frequency in terms of linear frequency.
Period, Linear and Angular Frequency
A car goes round a circular path 20 times in 1 minute.
Find
(a) Period of motion
(b) Linear frequency of motion
(c) Angular frequency of motion
Solution
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 60
(a) 𝑇 = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 = 20 = 𝟑 𝒔
1
(b) 𝑓 = 𝑇 = 1/3 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑 𝒔−𝟏
(c) 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 0.333 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟗 𝐫𝐚𝐝/𝐬
Newtonian Gravitational Force
• The tale of the falling apple
Gravitational Force
• If two particles with masses m1 and m2 are
separated by a distance r, a gravitational force F acts
along a line joining them, with magnitude given by
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭∝ 2
𝑭=𝑮
𝑟 𝑟2
Where
G = 5. 6673 x 10 −11 𝑘𝑔 −1 𝑚3 𝑠 −2
Is the universal gravitation constant
Gravitational force of m1 on m2
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑮
𝑟2
Gravitational force of m2 on m1
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝑮
𝑟2
we see 𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝑭𝟐𝟏
Acceleration of orange to Earth vs Earth to orange:
Applying Newton’s 2nd Law
𝑮𝒎𝟐 𝑮𝒎𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝒎𝟏 = 𝒎𝟏 *𝒂𝟏 => 𝒂𝟏 =
𝑟2 𝑟2
𝑮𝒎𝟏 𝑮𝒎𝟏
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝒎𝟐 = 𝒎𝟐 *𝒂𝟐 => 𝒂𝟐 =
𝑟2 𝑟2
We see that 𝒂𝟏 ≠ 𝒂𝟐 for different masses.
The general formula for gravitational force is given as
𝑴𝒎
𝑭𝒈 = 𝑮 2
𝑟
Where M is the mass of the bigger object e.g. Earth.
Hence
𝑮𝑴
𝒎 = 𝒎g
𝑟2
𝑮𝑴
g = 2 as gravitational acceleration of any object near
𝑟
mass M.
we see gravitational acceleration on earth depends
only on distance (height above sea level) of object from
the center of the earth.
Exercise
Find the acceleration of an orange of mass 0.5 kg at the
surface of the
(a) Earth of radius 6378 x 103 m and mass 5.972 x 1024
kg
(b) Moon of radius 1773 x 103 m and mass 7.348 x 1022
kg
What would be the acceleration in each case above if

the orange had a mass of 5kg ?
In the previous topic we introduced the concept of
gravitational potential energy and found that the
potential energy associated with an object could be
calculated from the equation
𝑃𝐸𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
where h is the height of the object above or below some
reference level. This equation, however, is valid only
when the object is near Earth’s surface.
For objects high above Earth’s surface, such as a
satellite, an alternative must be used because g varies
with distance from the surface, as shown in Table 7.1.
𝑮𝑴
In that case we substitute g with g =
𝑟2
Gravitational Acceleration at an Altitude
Free-fall acceleration g at various altitudes:
𝑮𝑴
𝑔 = 2 , where Where, 𝑟 ≥ 𝑅𝐸 .
𝑟
Where 𝑅𝐸 is radius of the earth.
Gravitational Acceleration Inside Earth’s Sphere
Consider a body taken to a depth d inside the Earth’s
surface. The body will be attracted by the mass of the
Earth which is enclosed in a sphere of radius (R - d),
where R is the radius of the Earth. If the mass of the
portion is denoted by 𝑀′, the acceleration due to gravity
at the point is given by 𝑔𝑑′ and the density of the earth
by ρ. Then
𝐺𝑀 ′ 4𝜋(𝑅−𝑑)3 𝜌
𝑔𝑑′ = =𝐺 --- (1)
(𝑅−𝑑)2 3(𝑅−𝑑)2
Now, acceleration due to gravity at the surface can be
written as
4𝜋(𝑅)3 𝜌 4𝜋𝑅𝜌
𝑔=𝐺 =𝐺 --- (2)
3(𝑅)2 3
Gravitational Acceleration Inside Earth’s Sphere
Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get
𝒅
𝒈′𝒅 = 𝒈(𝟏 − ) ---- (3)
𝑹
𝑅 3𝑅
d can be expressed in terms of R, i.e. 𝑑 = , , 𝑅, etc.
2 4
This is the gravitation acceleration at any depth d
inside the earth’s crust. Acceleration decreases with
increase in depth.
𝑅 𝑹 𝟏
At 𝑑 = we have 𝒈′𝒅 =𝒈 𝟏− =𝒈 𝟏−
2 𝟐𝑹 𝟐
𝒈
=
𝟐
When 𝑑 = 𝑅, 𝑔𝑑′ = 0. This occurs at center of the earth
Hence gravitational force is maximum at sea
level (where the radius of the earth is defined)
Potential Energy is defined as the stored energy due to the
position of an object.
Defined as a product of force and vertical distance, r:
𝑃𝐸 = 𝐹. 𝑟 ----- (1)
The units of PE are Joules (J).
This is equivalent to work done. The work done by

gravitational force is negative because it is a radial force (or
attractive force) directed towards the center.
𝑀𝐸 𝑚𝑟 𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = −𝐹𝑔 (𝑟) = −𝐺 = −𝐺 ---- (2)
𝑟2 𝑟
The GPE increases moving away from the center of the earth. Its
maximum value is zero at infinity i.e. 𝑟 ≈ ∞
Gravitational Potential Difference (GPD)
The GPD is the difference in gravitational potential
energy between two points in a gravitational field.
GPD between two points A and B is

𝐺𝑃𝐷 = ∆𝑃𝐸 = (𝐺𝑃𝐸𝐵 − 𝐺𝑃𝐸𝐴 ) = (𝐺𝑃𝐸𝑓 −𝐺𝑃𝐸𝑖 )
𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝑀𝐸 𝑚 𝑀𝐸 𝑚
= −𝐺 − −𝐺 = −𝐺 +𝐺
𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑓 𝑟𝑖
1 1
∴ 𝐺𝑃𝐷 = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚( − ) ----- (3)
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑓
Work Done by Gravitational Force

Work done by gravitational force is given by
𝑊𝑔 = −∆𝐺𝑃𝐸 ----(4)
Definition: Gravitational Potential Energy is the
negative work done by gravitational force to move an
object from infinity to point at r distance from the
earth.
Therefore using the equation for GPD between two
points, with point A at infinity and point B at r:
𝐺𝑃𝐸 = ∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝑃𝐸𝑖

1 1 1 1
= 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 − = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 −
𝑟𝑖 𝑟𝑓 ∞ 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
∴ 𝐺𝑃𝐸 = − ---- (5)
𝑟
Just as given in equation (1)
An asteroid with mass 𝑚 = 1.00 x 109 kg comes from deep space,
effectively from infinity, and falls toward Earth.
(a) Find the change in potential energy when it reaches a point
4.00 x 108 𝑚 from the center of the Earth (just beyond the
orbital radius of the Moon).
(b) Find the work done by the force of gravity in (a).
(c) Calculate the asteroid’s speed at that point, assuming it was
initially at rest when it was arbitrarily far away.
(d) How much work would have to be done on the asteroid by
some other agent so the asteroid would be traveling at only
half the speed found in (c) at the same point?
Solutions:
(a) Find the change in potential energy when it reaches a point
4.00 x 108 𝑚 from the center of the Earth.
Data:
𝑟𝑓 = 4.00 x 108 𝑚 ; 𝑟𝑖 ≈ ∞; G = 6. 67 x 10−11 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑚 3𝑠 −2;
𝑀𝐸 =5.98 x 1024 kg; 𝑚 = 1.00 x 109 kg
1 1
∆𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝐸𝑓 − 𝑃𝐸𝑖 = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚(𝑟 − 𝑟 )
𝑖 𝑓
1 1
= 6. 67 x 10−11 x 5.98 x 1024 *1.00 x 109 kg (∞ − 4.00 x 108 );
1
But = 0.
∞
∆𝑃𝐸 = - 9.97 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 J
(b) work done by the force of gravity.
𝑊𝑔 = −∆𝑃𝐸 = 9.97 x 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 J is the work done by gravity.
Solution
(c) Calculate the asteroid’s speed at that point,
assuming it was initially at rest.
Data: u = 0; v = ?; 𝑚 = 1.00 x 109 kg
Use conservation of Mechanical Energy:
∆𝐾𝐸 + ∆𝑃𝐸 = 0
1
𝑚(𝑣 2 −𝑢 2 ) − 9.97 x 1014 = 0
2
1
𝑚(𝑣 2 ) = 9.97 x 1014
2
2 2 14 2
𝑣 = 1.00 x 109 ∗ 9.97 x 10 => 𝑣 = 1.00 x 109
∗ 9.97 x 1014
𝑣 = 𝟏. 𝟒 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
Solution
(d) How much work would have to be done on the asteroid
by some other agent so the asteroid would be traveling at
only half the speed found in (c) at the same point?
Apply the work–energy theorem:
Work done by an external force = change in KE.
𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑓 − 𝐾𝐸𝑖
1 1
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚(𝑣 2−𝑢2) ; But v = u; u = 1.41 x 103;
2 2
𝑚 = 1.00 x 109 kg
1 1 2 1
∆𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑢2 ( ) − 12 = 𝑚𝑢2 −0.75 = −7.46 𝑥 1014𝐽
2 2 2
𝟏𝟒
𝑊 = −𝟕. 𝟒𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟎 𝑱
Escape speed
• If an object is projected upward from Earth’s surface
with a large enough speed, it can soar off into space
and never return. This speed is called Earth’s
escape speed.
It is also commonly called the escape velocity, but in

fact is more properly a speed.
• Earth’s escape speed can be found by applying
conservation of energy.
• Suppose an object of mass m is projected vertically
upward from Earth’s surface with an initial speed 𝑣𝑖 ,
the initial mechanical energy (kinetic plus potential
energy) of the object–Earth system is given by
Escape speed
The initial mechanical energy:
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬𝒎
𝑲𝑬𝒊 + 𝑷𝑬𝒊 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊 −
𝟐 𝑹𝑬
We neglect air resistance and assume the initial speed
is just large enough to allow the object to reach infinity
with a speed of zero.
This value of 𝑣𝑖 is the escape speed 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 .
When the object is at an infinite distance from Earth, its
kinetic energy is zero because 𝑣𝑓 = 0, and the
1
gravitational potential energy is also zero because
𝑟
goes to zero as r goes to infinity.
Hence total mechanical energy is zero, and the law of
conservation of energy gives
Escape speed
Hence total mechanical energy is zero, and the law of
conservation of energy gives
1 2 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝑚𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 − =0
2 𝑅𝐸
So that
2𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 =
𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝐸 = 6.371 𝑥 106𝑚
Example - Escape speed
A satellite is launched from the surface of the earth all the
way to the Moon.
If the satellite leaves the earth’s surface at escape speed,
at what speed is it moving when 1.50 x 105 𝑘𝑚 from the
center of Earth? Neglect any friction effects.
Solution - Escape speed
(a) If the satellite leaves the earth’s surface at escape speed, at
what speed is it moving when 1.50 x 105 𝑘𝑚 from the center
of Earth? Neglect any friction effects.
Use conservation of ME.
𝑲𝑬𝒊 + 𝑷𝑬𝒊 = 𝑲𝑬𝒇 + 𝑷𝑬𝒇
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝒎 𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬𝒎
=> 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊 − = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒇 −
𝟐 𝑹𝑬 𝟐 𝒓𝒇
𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝟏 𝑮𝑴𝑬
=> 𝒗𝟐𝒊 − = 𝒗𝟐𝒇 −
𝟐 𝑹𝑬 𝟐 𝒓𝒇
Data: 𝑣𝑖 = 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 =11.2 x 103𝑚/𝑠; 𝑟𝑓 = 1.5 𝑥 108 𝑚;

G = 6. 67 x 10−11 𝑘𝑔 −1 𝑚 3𝑠 −2; 𝑀𝐸 =5.98 x 1024 kg;
𝟏 𝟏
𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝑮𝑴𝑬 − = (11.2 x 103)2 + 2(6. 67 x
𝒓𝒇 𝑹𝑬
Solution - Escape speed
𝟏 𝟏
𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝑮𝑴𝑬 − = (11.2 x 103)2 + 2(6. 67 x
𝒓𝒇 𝑹𝑬
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
• Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630) was a German
astronomer, who first worked as an assistant to a
Danish astronomer, Brahe. He studied Brahe’s data
in an effort to deduce a mathematical model for the
motions of the planets.
• He discovered that the orbit of Mars around the sun
was in the form of an ellipse with the Sun at one
focus.
• He then generalized this analysis to include the
motions of all planets.
• The complete analysis is summarized in three
statements known as Kepler’s laws:
Kepler’s Three Laws of Planetary Motion
1. All planets move in elliptical orbits with the Sun as
one of the focal points.
2. A planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time
intervals no matter where it is located in its orbit.
3. The square of the orbital period of any planet is
directly proportional to the cube of its average distance
from the Sun..
• Kepler’s First Law: The first law arises as a

natural consequence of the inverse square law as
seen in Newton’s law of gravitation. Any object
1
bound to another by a force that varies as 2 will
𝑟
move in an elliptical orbit.
Ellipse - Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
An ellipse is a curve drawn so that the sum of the
distances from any point on the curve to two internal
points called focal points is always the same.
𝑝 + 𝑞 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
The Sun is one of the focal points

• Kepler’s second Law: A planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal time intervals.
• The rate of change of area is constant around the Sun
𝐴
by a planet. = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑡
• Consider a planet in an elliptical orbit about the Sun
(Fig. below).
In a given period 𝑑𝑡, the planet moves from point Ⓐ to

point Ⓑ. The planet moves more slowly on that side of
the orbit because it’s farther away from the sun.
• On the opposite side of its orbit, the planet moves
from point Ⓒ to point Ⓓ in the same amount of time,
𝑑𝑡, moving faster because it’s closer to the sun.
• The two areas swept out by the planet in its elliptical

orbit about the Sun are equal if the time interval
between points Ⓐ and Ⓑ is equal to the time interval
between points Ⓒ and Ⓓ.
• kepler’s third Law: The derivation of Kepler’s
third law is easier carried out for the special case of a
circular orbit.
• Consider a planet of mass 𝑀𝑝 moving around the
Sun, which has a mass of 𝑀𝑆 , in a circular orbit.
• Because the orbit is circular, the planet moves at a
constant speed v.
By using Newton’s second law, the law of gravitation,
and centripetal acceleration we get the equation:
𝑀𝑝 𝑣 2 𝐺𝑀𝑆 𝑀𝑝
𝑀𝑝 𝑎𝑐 = =
𝑟 𝑟2
• The speed v of the planet in its orbit is equal to the
circumference of the orbit divided by the time
required for one revolution, T, called the period of
the planet, so
2𝜋𝑟
𝑣=
𝑇
• Substituting, the preceding expression becomes
2𝜋𝑟 2
𝐺𝑀𝑆 𝑇
=
𝑟2 𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝑆 2𝜋𝑟 2 2 2𝜋
=> = =>𝑇 = 𝑟3
𝑟 𝑇 𝐺𝑀𝑆
∴ 𝑻𝟐 = 𝑲𝒔 𝒓𝟑
Where 𝐾𝑠 = 2.97 x 10 −19 𝑠 2 /𝑚 𝑠 is Kepler’s Constant.
Example - Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
From a telecommunications point of view, it is
advantageous for satellites to remain at the same location
relative to a location on Earth. This can occur only if the
satellite’s orbital period is the same as the Earth’s period of
rotation, approximately 24.0 h.
(a) At what distance from the center of the Earth can this
geosynchronous orbit be found?
(b) What’s the orbital speed of the satellite?
Example - Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion
Solution
(a) Find the distance r to geosynchronous orbit. Apply
Kepler’s third law:
2𝜋
𝑇 = 𝐺𝑀 𝑟 3
2
𝐸
Data: 𝑇 = 24 ℎ = 86 400 𝑠, G = 6. 67 x 10−11 𝑘𝑔 −1 𝑚 3 𝑠 −2 ;

𝑀𝐸 =5.98 x 1024 kg;
Solve for r :
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑟3 = 𝑇2
2𝜋
𝑟 = 4.23 x 𝟏𝟎𝟕 m
(b) Find the orbital speed.
Divide the distance traveled during one orbit by the period:
𝑑 2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 4.23 x 107
𝑣= = = = 𝟑. 𝟎𝟖 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
𝑇 𝑇 86400
UNIT 5: Rotational Kinematics, Dynamics & Equilibrium
Objectives:
At the end of this Unit, learner must understand and
demonstrate the concepts of:
• Moment of Inertia;
• Torque
• Angular momentum
• Forces and Torques on the Motion of Rigid Bodies
• Translational and Rotational Equilibrium
• Rigid Bodies in Equilibrium, Center of Gravity
(mass)
Rotational Kinematics, Dynamics & Equilibrium
• Circular Motion: motion of an object as it rotates
around a fixed point that is located outside its center
of mass at a fixed radius.
• Angular Motion: motion of an object as it rotates
around an axis located inside or outside the object.
• Circular motion is a special case of angular motion.
• There are two forms of angular motion:
Spin and Revolve
• Spin motion: motion of an object as it rotates
around as axis located at the object’s center of mass.
• Revolving motion: motion of an object as it rotates
around as axis away from its center of mass.
Angular Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration
As discussed in circular motion
𝑠
𝜃= ----- (angular and linear displacement)
𝑟
𝑣
ω= ------(angular and tangential v)
𝑟
𝑎
α= ----- (angular and Tangential acceleration)
𝑟
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = ------- (centripetal Acceleration)
𝑟
Exercise
A compact disc (CD) rotates from rest up to an angular
velocity of -31.4 rad/s in a time of 0.892 s.
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the disc,
assuming the angular acceleration is uniform?
(b) Through what angle does the disc turn while
coming up to speed?
(c) If the radius of the disc is 4.45 cm, find the
tangential velocity of a microbe riding on the rim of
the disc when t = 0.892 s.
(d) What is the magnitude of the tangential
acceleration of the microbe at the given time?
Exercise
A compact disc (CD) rotates from rest up to an angular
velocity of -31.4 rad/s in a time of 0.892 s.
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the disc,
assuming the angular acceleration is uniform?
∆ω
α= = (-31.4 – 0)/ 0.892 = -35.2 rad/s2
∆t
(b) Through what angle does the disc turn while

coming up to speed?
θ = t(ω𝑓 +ω𝑖 )/2 = 0.892(-31.4 – 0)/2 = -14.0 rad
Exercise
If the radius of the disc is 4.45 cm, find the tangential
velocity of a microbe riding on the rim of the disc when
t = 0.892 s.
(c) V = wr = -1.4 m/s
(d) What is the magnitude of the tangential
acceleration of the microbe at the given time?
𝑎 = α𝑟 = -35.2 * 0.0445 = -1.57 m/s2
Torque
Force cause linear acceleration whilst torque cause
angular acceleration.
There is a definite relationship, however, between the
two concepts.
• Figure above depicts a door hinged at point O. The

door is free to rotate around O. There are three
factors that determine the effectiveness of the force
in opening the door: the magnitude of force,
position (r), and angle of the applied force.
Torque (𝝉)
By definition torque (𝜏) is the cross product of force (F)
and the radial distance (r) from the center of rotation.
In simpler terms, torque is an angular force.
𝝉=𝑭𝐱𝒓 (N.m) where 𝑟 is constant.
𝝉 = 𝐹𝑟sin(θ) the torque is maximum when θ = 90°
Torque is a vector whose direction is perpendicular to
both F and r.
Use RHR.
Exercise - Torque (𝝉)
Two people are trying to use a revolving door, which is
initially at rest. A woman on the left exerts a force of
625 N perpendicular to the door and 1.20 m from the
hub’s center, while the man on the right exerts a force
of 8.50 x 102 N perpendicular to the door and 0.800 m
from the hub’s center. Find the net torque on the
revolving door.
The woman exerts a negative (clockwise angle) force on
the door, while the man exerts a counterclockwise
(positive angle) force.
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏𝑤 + 𝜏𝑚
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = − 𝐹𝑤 𝑟𝑤 + 𝐹𝑚 𝑟𝑚
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = −625 ∗ 1.2 + 8.50 x 102 ∗ 0.8
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = -750 + 680 = -70 N.m
A man applies a force of F = 3.00 x 102 N at an angle of
60.0° to the door at 2.00 m from well-oiled hinges.
Find the torque on the door, choosing the position of
the hinges as the axis of rotation.
Sln:
𝝉 = 𝐹𝑟sin(θ) = 3.00 x 102 * 2*sin(60) = 519.62 N.m
Torque on a Rotating Object
Consider a solid disk rotating about its axis as in Fig. 1.
The disk consists of many particles at various distances
from the axis of rotation as shown in Fig. 2.
The net torque is sum of individual torques:
𝜏 = 𝐹𝑟= 𝑚𝑎𝑟 = 𝑚𝑟. 𝑟𝛼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 𝛼
𝜏 = (𝑚𝑟 2 )𝛼 = 𝐼𝛼
Where 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 ---- (Moment of inertia)
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 -----(Torque)
Fig. 1 Fig. 2
Torque on a Rotating Object
The equation below agrees with Newton’s 2nd LoM
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
The angular acceleration of an extended rigid object is
proportional to the net torque acting on it.
The torque has replaced force, moment of inertia

replaced mass, and angular acceleration replaced linear
acceleration
Moment of Inertia for different shapes
Moment of inertia is different for different shapes and
for different types of rotations.
Example 1 - Moment of Inertia
A baton made up of four fastened masses that are
fastened to the ends of light rods is rotated as shown
below. Each rod is 1.0 m long.
Find the moment of inertia of the system about an
axis perpendicular to the page passing through the
point where the rods cross. M= 0.30kg and m=0.20 kg.
Example - Moment of Inertia
The appropriate equation to use from the table is:
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2 + 𝑀𝑟 2
2 2
= 2m∗(b/2) + 2M∗(a/2)
2 2
= 2*0.2*(0.5) + 2*0.3*(0.5)
= 0.1 + 0.15 = 0.25 kg.m2
A majorette performing before a crowd spins the same
strange button given in example 1 about the y-axis as
shown below. Each rod is 1.0 m long. If the radius of
mass m is 0.01 m, of mass M is 0.05 m. Calculate the
moment of inertia about this axis.
Two equations for moment of inertia are applicable:
2
m: 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
5
M: 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑟 2
2 2
Hence 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑟 + 𝑚𝑟 2
5
2
= 2*0.3 ∗ 0.5 + 2* ∗ 0.2 ∗ 0.012
2
5
= 0.15 + 0.000016 = 0.150 kg.m2
Centre of Mass (CM) of a System of Particles
• Is the point (x, y) at which all the mass of the body
appears to be concentrated.
• It is the point (x, y) at which gravity acts on a body.
• It is the center of spin of a system of particles.
• The center of mass for the three particles in the figure
below can be determined as follows:
𝜏𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝜏
=> 𝐹𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑟𝑐𝑚 = 𝐹𝑖 𝑟𝑖
But the position 𝑟𝑖 can be represented by a point (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑦𝑖 )
Centre of Mass (CM)
Starting with the x component:
𝑚1𝑔 + 𝑚2𝑔 + 𝑚3𝑔 𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1𝑔𝑥1𝑐𝑚 + 𝑚2𝑔𝑥2𝑐𝑚 + 𝑚3𝑔𝑥3𝑐𝑚
But g is common:
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 𝑥𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚1 𝑥1𝑐𝑚 + 𝑚2 𝑥2𝑐𝑚 + 𝑚3 𝑥3𝑐𝑚
𝑚1 𝑥1𝑐𝑚 +𝑚2 𝑥2𝑐𝑚 +𝑚3 𝑥3𝑐𝑚 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖𝑐𝑚 1

𝑥𝑐𝑚 = = = 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖𝑐𝑚
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 𝑚𝑖 𝑀
Similarly if the object was allowed to spin by the x-axis

𝑚1 𝑦1𝑐𝑚 +𝑚2 𝑦2𝑐𝑚 +𝑚3 𝑦3𝑐𝑚 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖𝑐𝑚 1
𝑦𝑐𝑚 = = = 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖𝑐𝑚
𝑚1 +𝑚2 +𝑚3 𝑚𝑖 𝑀
Hence:
𝑐𝑚 = (𝑥𝑐𝑚 , 𝑦𝑐𝑚 ) ------ (center of mass)
Center of Mass
• The center of mass of a system of particles always lies
on the straight line joining the particles
• The position of the center of mass depends on the
shape and the distribution of mass. Therefore,
it may lie within or outside the material of the body.
• In symmetrical bodies with uniform distribution
of mass, the center of mass coincides with the
geometric center.
• The center of mass of an isolated system has a
constant velocity.
• The acceleration of the whole system is given by
𝑭𝒏𝒆𝒕 = 𝑴𝒂𝒄𝒎 , where M is total mass and 𝑎𝑐𝑚 is
acceleration of the center of mass.
Locating Center of Mass in The Laboratory
Experimentally you can locate the center of mass
(center of gravity) by hanging freely an object and
drawing vertical lines through it. The point of
intersection of all the lines is the CM
Torque and the Two Conditions for Equilibrium
An object in mechanical equilibrium must satisfy
the following two conditions:
1. The net external force must be zero: 𝐹 = 0
In this case 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and 𝐹𝑦 = 0
The object has 𝑎 = 0
2. The net external torque must be zero: 𝜏 = 0
In this case the object has 𝛼 = 0
 Clockwise torque is assigned a negative sign
 Counter clockwise torque is assigned a positive sign
Objects in Equilibrium
1. Sketch the system. Include coordinates and choose a
convenient rotation axis for computing the net torque on the
object.
2. Sketch a force diagram of the object, showing all external
forces acting on it. For systems with more than one object, draw
a separate diagram for each object.
3. Apply 𝜏 = 0, the second condition of equilibrium.
This condition yields a single equation for each object of interest.
If the axis of rotation has been carefully chosen, the equation
often has only one unknown and can be solved immediately.
4. Apply 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and 𝐹𝑦 = 0 , the first condition of
equilibrium. This yields two more equations per object of
interest.
Objects in Equilibrium
5. Solve the system of equations. For each object, the two
conditions of equilibrium yield three equations, usually with
three unknowns. Solve by substitution.
Example 1
A woman of mass m = 55.0 kg sits on the left end of a seesaw
(made of a plank) of length L = 4.00 m, pivoted in the middle as
shown.
(a) Where should a man of mass m = 75.0 kg sit if the system
(seesaw plus man and woman) is to be balanced?
(b) Find the normal force exerted by the pivot if the plank has a
mass of m = 12.0 kg.
.
Example 1
Strategy:
First compute the torques on the seesaw about an axis that
passes through the pivot point. Then Compute the torques about
an axis through the left end of the plank.
Solution
Net torque equilibrium equation 𝜏 = 𝜏𝑤 + 𝜏𝑚 + 𝜏𝑝/𝑅 + 𝜏𝑝/𝐿 = 0
The torque due to the plank about the pivot: The RHS gives us
𝐿 𝐿
𝜏𝑝/𝑅 = −𝐹x 2 = −𝐹 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
Where F is the force of gravity, L/2 is the distance from pivot
and 𝜃 is the angle between F and L. The negative sign is for
clockwise torque.
Example 1
Solution
The torque due to the plank on the RHS about the pivot: The
RHS gives us L/2 = 2, 𝜃 = 90o; The mass of the plank on RHS is
equal to the mass on the LHS so we assign each m/2.
𝐿 𝐿 𝑚
𝜏𝑝/𝑅 = −𝐹x 2 = −𝑚𝑔 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −2 2 𝑔 = −𝑚𝑔
Similarly torque on LHS is
𝐿 𝐿 𝑚
𝜏𝑝/𝐿 = 𝐹x = 𝑚𝑔 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 2 𝑔 = 𝑚𝑔
2 2 2
Hence net torque about the pivot due to the plank alone is
𝜏𝑝 = 𝜏𝑝/𝑅 + 𝜏𝑝/𝐿 = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑚𝑔 = 𝟎
This means no net torque due to the plank.
Next we look at the torque due to the woman;
Example 1
A woman of mass m = 55.0 kg sits on the left end of a seesaw of
length L = 4.00 m, pivoted in the middle as shown. Mass of man
is m = 75 kg.
Solution
The torque due to the woman at the LHS gives us
L/2 = 2, 𝜃 = 90o; m = 55 kg
𝐿
𝜏𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 2 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 55 9.82 (2) = 1080.2 𝑁𝑚. This torque is +ve
Similarly torque of man 75 kg on RHS at distance x from pivot
𝜏𝑚 = −𝑚𝑔𝑥𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = −75 9.82𝑥 = −736.5𝑥 𝑁𝑚.
Hence total net torque about the pivot is
𝜏 = 1080.2 − 736.5𝑥 + 0 = 𝟎
or 1080.2 − 736.5𝑥 = 0 = > 736.5𝑥 = 1080.2
1080.2
x= = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟕 𝒎 ------ ( distance of man from pivot)
736.5
Example 1
A woman of mass m = 55.0 kg sits on the left end of a seesaw of
length L = 4.00 m, pivoted in the middle as shown. Mass of man
is m = 75 kg.
(b) Find the normal force n exerted by the pivot on the seesaw.
Solution
Net force equilibrium equation 𝐹 = −𝐹𝑤 − 𝐹𝑚 − 𝐹𝑝 +𝑛 = 0
−𝐹𝑤 − 𝐹𝑚 − 𝐹𝑝 +𝑛 = 0
= > (−55 − 75 − 12)9.82 + 𝑛 = 0
= > 𝑛 = −55 − 75 − 12 9.82 = 1394.44 N
Example 2 - Equilibrium
A 50.0 N bowling ball is held in a person’s hand with
the forearm horizontal, as in the Figure. The biceps
muscle is attached 0.030 m from the joint, and the ball
is 0.350 m from the joint. Find the upward force F
exerted by the biceps on the forearm (the ulna) and the
downward force R exerted by the humerus on the
forearm, acting at the joint. Neglect the weight of the
forearm and slight deviation from the vertical of the
biceps.
Apply the second condition for equilibrium:

𝜏=0 => 𝜏𝑅 +𝜏𝐹 + 𝜏𝑤 =0
R(0)+F(0.03)-50(0.35) =0
F = 50(0.35)/0.03 = 583 N
Apply the first condition for equilibrium:
𝐹𝑦 = 0 => −𝑅+𝐹 − 50=0
-R+583-50 =0 => R =533 N
A uniform ladder 10.0 m long and weighing 50.0 N
rests against a frictionless vertical wall as in Figure
below. If the ladder is just on the verge of slipping when
it makes a 50.0° angle with the ground.
Find the coefficient of static friction between the ladder
and ground.
Sketch the force diagram:
Where n is normal, f is frictional force, and P is push by

the wall.
Apply the three conditions for equilibrium.
𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; 𝐹𝑦 = 0; 𝜏 = 0
𝑃
𝐹𝑥 = 𝑓 − 𝑃 = 𝜇𝑛 − 𝑃 = 0 ; => 𝜇 = --- (1)
𝑛
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑛 − 50 = 0 ; => n = 50 N ----- (2)
Sketch the force diagram:
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑛 + 𝜏𝑓 + 𝜏𝑃 + 𝜏𝑔 = 0
𝜏𝑛 + 𝜏𝑓 + 𝜏𝑃 − 𝜏𝑔 = 0
=> n 0 + 𝑓 0 + 10 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ sin 50 − 5 ∗ 50 ∗ sin 40 = 0
=>10 ∗ 𝑃 ∗ sin 50 = 160.697
=>𝑃(7.66044) = 160.697
160.697
=> 𝑃 = = 20.98 N ---- (3)
7.66044
Substituting equations 2 and 3 into 1 gives
𝑃 20.98
𝜇= = = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟐
𝑛 50
A uniform horizontal beam 5.00 m long and weighing
3x102 N is attached to a wall by a pin connection that
allows the beam to rotate. Its far end is supported by a
cable that makes an angle of 53.0° with the horizontal.
A person weighing 6 x 102 N stands 1.50 m from the
wall. Find the magnitude of the tension T in the cable
and the components of the force R exerted by the wall
on the beam.
Data: Lb= 5.00 m; Fb = 3x102 N; 𝜃=53.0° Fm = 6 x
102 N; Lm = 1.50
Sketch force diagram
The equations of equilibrium are

𝐹𝑥 = 0 ; 𝐹𝑦 = 0; 𝜏 = 0
The equations of equilibrium are

𝐹𝑥 = 𝑅𝑥 − 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 53 = 0 => 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 53 ----- (1)
𝐹𝑦 = 𝑅𝑦 − 600 − 300 + 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 = 0;
𝑅𝑦 = 900 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 ------ (2)
𝜏 = 𝜏𝑅𝑦 − 𝜏600 − 𝜏300 + 𝜏𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛(53) = 0
=>𝑅𝑦 0 − 600 1.5 − 300 2.5 + 5𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 = 0
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 53 ----- (1)
𝑅𝑦 = 900 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 ------ (2)
=>𝑅𝑦 0 − 600 1.5 − 300 2.5 + 5𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 = 0

0 − 900 − 750 + 3.993𝑇 = 0
1650
𝑇= = 𝟒𝟏𝟑. 𝟐𝟐𝟑 𝑵 ------ (3)
3.993
We substitute eqn. 3 into eqn. 1 and 2:
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑇𝑐𝑜𝑠 53 = 413.223 𝑐𝑜𝑠53 = 𝟐𝟒𝟖. 𝟔𝟖 𝑵
𝑅𝑦 = 900 − 𝑇𝑠𝑖𝑛 53 = 900 − 413.223 0.7986
𝑅𝑦 = 𝟓𝟕𝟎 𝑵
Exercise - Equilibrium
A person with mass 55.0 kg stands 2.00 m away from the wall on
a uniform 6.00 m beam, as shown. The mass of the beam is 40.0
kg. Find the hinge force components and the tension in the wire.
ANS: T = 751 N; Rx = -650 N; Ry = 556 N

Angular Momentum
In the Figure below, an object of mass m rotates in a circular
path of radius r, acted on by a net force, 𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 . The resulting net
torque (𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 ) on the object increases the object’s angular speed
from the value 𝜔𝑖 to the value 𝜔𝑓 in a time interval ∆𝑡.
∆𝜔 (𝜔𝑓 −𝜔𝑖) 𝐼𝜔𝑓 −𝐼𝜔𝑖
𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 =𝐼 =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝐼 𝜔𝑓 𝐼𝜔𝑖
𝜏= −
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔 ---- (angular momentum).
𝐿 𝑓 − 𝐿𝑖 ∆𝐿
Hence 𝜏= =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝐿
𝜏=
∆𝑡
∆𝐿
Hence 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = --- (impulse–momentum theorem)
∆𝑡
Angular Momentum
In the equation
∆𝐿
𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 =
∆𝑡
For equilibrium, 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 0, and
∆𝐿 = 0 or
𝐿𝑖 − 𝐿𝑓 = 0
𝐿𝑖 = 𝐿𝑓 ---- (conservation of angular momentum)

𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓
• We can now state that the mechanical energy,

linear momentum, and angular momentum of
an isolated system all remain constant.
Exercise - Angular Momentum
A student sits on a pivoted stool while holding a pair of
weights. The stool is free to rotate about a vertical axis
with negligible friction. The moment of inertia of
student, weights, and stool is 2.25 kg.m2 . The student is
set in rotation with arms outstretched, making one
complete turn every 1.26 s, arms outstretched.
(a) What is the initial angular speed of the system?
(b) As he rotates, he pulls the weights inward so that
the new moment of inertia of the system (student,
objects, and stool) becomes 1.80 kg.m2 . What is the
new angular speed of the system?
(c) Find the work done by the student on the system
while pulling in the weights. (Ignore energy lost
through dissipation in his muscles.)
Solution
(a) The angular speed can be obtained from the
frequency, which is the inverse of the period.
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
1
Where 𝑓 = is the linear frequency and T is the period
𝑇
T= time taken for one complete rotation.
Hence:
1 1
𝜔𝑖 = 2𝜋𝑓 = 2𝜋 = 2𝜋 = 4.99 rad/s
𝑇 1.26
Solution
(b) There are no external torques acting on the system,
so the new angular speed can be found with the
principle of conservation of angular momentum:
𝐿𝑖 = 𝐿𝑓 or 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 = 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓
But 𝐼𝑖 = 2.25, 𝐼𝑓 = 1.8, , 𝜔𝑖 = 4.99
𝜔𝑓 =2.25*4.99/1.8 = 6.24 rad/s
(c) The work done on the system during this process is

the same as the system’s change in rotational kinetic
𝐼
energy. 𝑊 = ∆𝐾𝐸 = ( 𝐼𝑓 𝜔𝑓 2 − 𝐼𝑖 𝜔𝑖 2 ) = 7.03 Joules
2
Example - Angular Momentum
A solid, uniform, frictionless cylindrical disc of mass M = 3.00 kg
and radius R = 0.40 m is used to draw water from a well as
shown. A bucket of mass m = 2.00 kg is attached to a cord that is
wrapped around the cylinder.
(a) Find the tension T in the cord and acceleration a of the
bucket.
(b) If the bucket starts from rest at the top of the well and falls
for 3.00 s before hitting the water, how far does it fall?
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Solution
bucket.
Apply the net force to the bucket in Figure (c). There are two
forces: the tension T acting upward and gravity mg acting
downward.
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 --- (1)
Apply the net torque to the disc in Figure (d). We also note that
the torque is clockwise hence negative. The normal and gravity
forces have zero moment arm and don’t contribute any torque.
𝑀𝑅 2 𝛼
τ = 𝐼𝛼 = − 2
But 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐹 x 𝑅 and F = T
𝑀𝑅 2 𝛼 𝑀𝑅𝛼
Hence 𝑇𝑅 = − 2
or 𝑇 = − 2
----- (2)
𝑎
Also 𝛼 = 𝑅 ---- (3)
(c) (d)
Solution
bucket.
𝑀𝑅𝛼 𝑎
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 --- (1) ; 𝑇=− ----- (2); 𝛼= ---- (3)
2 𝑅
Substitute Eqn. 3 into Eqn. 2:
𝑀𝑅𝑎 𝑀𝑎 𝑀𝑎
𝑇=− =− =>𝑇=− ----(4)
2𝑅 2 2
Substitute Eqn. 4 into Eqn. 1:
𝑀𝑎 𝑀 𝑚𝑔
𝑚𝑎 = − 2
− 𝑚𝑔 => (𝑚 + 2 )𝑎 = −𝑚𝑔 => 𝑎 = − 𝑀
(𝑚+ )
2
2 9.8 19.6
𝑎=− 3 =− = −𝟓. 𝟔 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
2+ 3.5
2
Substitute into Eqn. 4 to find T.

𝑀𝑎 3 −5.6
𝑇=− 2
=− 2
= 𝟖. 𝟒 𝑵
Solution
(b) If the bucket starts from rest at the top of the well and falls
for 3.00 s before hitting the water, how far does it fall?
Data: u = 0; t = 3 s; a = -5.6 m/s2;
1 2 1
𝑦 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 => 𝑦 = 0 + −5.6 32 = −𝟐𝟓. 𝟐 𝒎
2 2
Rotational Kinetic Energy
An object rotating about some axis with an angular speed 𝜔 has
rotational kinetic energy given by
1
𝐾𝐸𝑟 = 𝐼𝜔2
2
In angular motion, mass is replaced by moment of inertia.
A system such as a bowling ball rolling down a hill is described

by three types of energy:
(1) Gravitational potential energy PEg ,
(2) Translational kinetic energy KEt ,
(3) Rotational kinetic energy KEr
All these forms of energy, plus the potential energies of any other
conservative forces, must be included in our equation for the
conservation of mechanical energy of an isolated system:
Rotational Kinetic Energy
𝑀𝐸 = 𝐾𝐸𝑟 + 𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 -------- (Mechanical energy)
Mechanical energy is the sum of rotational KE, translational KE
and gravitational PE.
(𝐾𝐸𝑟 +𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑖 = (𝐾𝐸𝑟 +𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑓 -- (conservation of ME)

This is the equation of conservation of mechanical energy
of an isolated system. This relation is true only if we ignore
dissipative forces such as friction, sound or light
- Otherwise, it’s necessary to resort to a generalization of the
work–energy theorem:
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝑀𝐸 or
𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸𝑟 + ∆𝐾𝐸𝑡 + ∆𝑃𝐸𝑔 -----(work–energy theorem)
Where 𝑊𝑛𝑐 is the work done by none conservative forces.
Strategy for Solving Rotational Problems
1. Choose two points of interest, one where all necessary
information is known, and the other where information is
desired.
2. Identify the conservative and none conservative forces acting
on the system being analyzed.
3. Write the general work–energy theorem,
4. Substitute general expressions for the terms in the
equation.
5. Use v = rw to eliminate either v or w from the equation.
6. Solve for the unknown.
Example 1 - Rotational KE.
A uniform, solid ball of mass M and radius R starts from rest at a
height of h = 2.00 m and rolls down an incline of θ = 30.0° slope,
as shown. What is the linear speed of the ball when it leaves the
incline? Assume that the ball rolls without slipping.
Solution- Rotational KE.
Step 1: The two points of interest are the top and bottom of the
incline, with the bottom acting as the zero point of gravitational
potential energy.
Step 2: As the ball rolls down the hill, gravitational potential
energy is converted into both translational and rotational kinetic
energy without dissipation, so ME is conserved
Step 3: (𝐾𝐸𝑟 +𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑖 = (𝐾𝐸𝑟 +𝐾𝐸𝑡 + 𝑃𝐸𝑔 )𝑓
1 2 1
Step 4: 0 + 0 + 2𝑀𝑔 = ( 𝑀𝑅 𝜔 ) + 𝑀𝑣 2 + 0
2 2
2 5 2
𝑣
Step 5: let 𝑣 = 𝜔𝑅 or 𝜔 = 𝑅
𝑀𝑅 2 𝑣 2 1
Step 6: 2𝑀𝑔 = 5𝑅 2
+ 2 𝑀𝑣 2
1 2 1 2 7 2 20𝑔 20 9.8
=> 2𝑀𝑔 = 5 𝑀𝑣 + 2 𝑀𝑣 => 2𝑔 = 10 𝑣 => 𝑣 = 7
= 7
=> 𝑣 = 𝟓. 𝟐𝟗 𝐦/𝐬
Example 2 - Rotational KE.
Two blocks with masses m1 = 5.00 kg and m2 = 7.00 kg are
attached by a string (as shown) over a pulley with mass M = 2.00
kg. The pulley, which turns on a frictionless axle, is a hollow
cylinder with radius 0.050 m over which the string moves
without slipping. The horizontal surface has coefficient of kinetic
friction 0.350. Use the work-energy theorem to find the speed of
the system when the block of mass m2 has dropped 2.00 m.
Solution - Rotational KE.
Data: m1 = 5.00 kg ; m2 = 7.00 kg ; M = 2.00 kg. ; hollow R =
0.050 m; μ = 0.350. v = ? ; m2 at 2.00 m.
Apply the work – energy theorem

𝑊𝑛𝑐 = ∆𝐾𝐸𝑟 + ∆𝐾𝐸𝑡 + ∆𝑃𝐸𝑔
1 1 1
𝜇𝑛 ∆𝑥 = 𝐼 𝜔𝑓2 − 𝜔𝑖2 + 𝑚1 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑢𝑖2 + 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑢𝑖2 +
2 2 2
𝑚2 𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 )
1 1 1
−𝜇𝑚1 𝑔 ∆𝑥 = 2 𝐼 𝜔𝑓2 − 𝜔𝑖2 + 𝑚 𝑣
2 1 𝑓
2
− 𝑢𝑖2 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑢𝑖2 +
𝑚2 𝑔(ℎ𝑓 − ℎ𝑖 )
Note: Work done by frictional force is negative because the

direction of frictional force is opposite the direction of
displacement.
Solution - Rotational KE.
1 1 1
−𝜇𝑚1 𝑔 ∆𝑥 = 2 𝐼 𝜔𝑓2 −0 + 𝑚 𝑣
2 1 𝑓
2
− 0 + 2 𝑚2 𝑣𝑓2 − 0 +
𝑚2 𝑔(0 − 2)
𝑣
But 𝜔 = 𝑅 and 𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅2
1 2
2𝑣 1 2 1
−5 0.35 9.8 2 = 2
𝑀𝑅 𝑅2 + 2
(5)𝑣𝑓 + 2 (7)𝑣𝑓2 − 2 9.8 (7)
1 1 1
−34.3 = 𝑀𝑣 + 2
𝑓 (5)𝑣𝑓2 + (7)𝑣𝑓2 − 137.2
2 2 2
1 1
−34.3 = 𝑣 + 2
𝑓 (5)𝑣𝑓2 + (7)𝑣𝑓2 − 137.2
2 2
5 7
=> −34.3 = 𝑣𝑓2 (1 + 2 + 2) − 137.2
137.2−34.3 102.9
𝑣𝑓2 = 7
= 7
= 14.7
𝑣 = 14.7 = 𝟑. 𝟖𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
Exercise – Revision on Torque
In the Figure below, calculate the net torque (magnitude and
direction) on the beam about:
(a) an axis through O perpendicular to the page and
(b) an axis through C perpendicular to the page.
Solution – Revision on Torque
(a) an axis through O perpendicular to the page
𝜏 = 30 0 + 25 0.02 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 10 0.04 𝑠𝑖𝑛20
= > 𝜏 = 25 0.02 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 10 0.04 𝑠𝑖𝑛20 = 0.433 − 0.1368
= > 𝜏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟗𝟔 Nm in the counterclockwise direction
(b) an axis through C perpendicular to the page.

𝜏 = 30 0.02 sin(135) + 25 0 𝑠𝑖𝑛60 − 10 0.02 𝑠𝑖𝑛20
= > 𝜏 = 0.42426 + 0 − 0.0684
= > 𝜏 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟓𝟔 𝑵𝒎 in the counterclockwise direction

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TERM ONE

Lecturer: Mr. Given Kalonga

Fundamental (base) quantities are quantities that can not

Derived Quantities are quantities that can be expressed in

• The modern way of defining the meter is by using the speed

• The meter is the length of path traveled by light in vacuum

• The modern way of defining mass is by using the weight of

• The carbon-12 atom, by international agreement, has been

• The other non-SI system of measurements is the imperial

Astronomical Unit (AU)

Ans: (1) 5 x 10-1 μm (2) 10-6 kg (3) 10-9 kg (4) 5 x 108 μg

Exercise: Round off the following to 3 DP:

𝑉𝐶𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑑 3 = (10 x 10−6 𝑚)3 = 1 x 10−15𝑚 3

How many one - dollar bills, stacked flat one on top of

Dimensional analysis (DA) is a tool that use algebraic

Velocity = Length/Time = [L]/[T] = L/T

We know 𝑟 = [𝐿], hence we can substitute directly

• This method reduces to the triangular method

Each vector, say R, can be resolved into x, y and z components

• With all the components known, the magnitude of the

𝑅= 𝑅𝑥2 + 𝑅𝑦2 + 𝑅𝑧2

Ans: 119 N at 143°

Example: vector A can be represented in terms of unit vectors

𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑟 = (10𝑁 𝑖 + 15𝑁 𝑗 + 8𝑁𝑘).(10𝑚 𝑖 + 15𝑚 𝑗 + 8𝑚𝑘)

Find the work (W) done by a varying force given by

15𝑥 3 15(2)3 15(0)3

The cross product of unit Vectors

= (AxBy) 𝑖x𝑗 + (AxBz) 𝑖x𝑘 + (AyBx)𝑗x𝑖 + (AyBz)𝑗x𝑘 +

This can be expressed in form of a determinant as

A x B = (AyBz - AzBy) 𝑖 - (AxBz - AzBx)𝑗 + (AxBy - AyBx)𝑘

Distance (x): any total length covered between two points.

Displacement (S): The shortest distance covered between two points.

Speed (s): The change of distance with time.

Velocity (v): The change of displacement with time

Acceleration (a): Rate of change of velocity.

Initial conditions Final conditions

• Displacement vs time graphs are used to measure velocity

• Constant change in displacement with time gives constant velocity.

• Instantaneous velocity is velocity at a given point

They are applicable for perfectly horizontal and vertical

Body Thrown Vertically Upwards

ANS: Before any calculations, list all parameters involved in

ANS: Before any calculations, list all parameters involved in

ta = uSinθ/g ---- (1)

• Maximum height reached, H:

According to trigonometric identities we find that

2Cosθ*Sinθ = Sin2θ, hence substitute

𝑅 = u2Sin2θ/g ---- (4)

• In all cases, the action and reaction forces act on

The normal force always acts perpendicular to the

𝑛 = mgCosθ = Fy' and Fx' = mgSinθ

If the block slides at constant speed, the acceleration is zero:

Case 2: Vertical tension forces on upward accelerating object

𝒎𝒂𝒚 = Σ𝑭𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒙 = Σ𝑭𝒙

Solve simultaneously to get:

(a) Free body diagram for each mass

(d) tension in the cord?

With the aid of a diagram showing forces acting on the boxes,

With the aid of a diagram showing forces acting on the boxes,

a) the frictional force for the 10 kg box,