OPERATING SYSTEM

SUBMITTED TO:
MA`AM QURATULAIN
SUBMITTED BY:
JAVERIA SHAH (R-13)
BS-IT (5TH SEMESTER)
 Using Rufus to Create Bootable USB Drives
Rufus is a Windows program that allows you to create a bootable USB drive from an ISO file.
You can use Rufus to create an installation drive used to install another operating system, such
as Linux or Windows. You can also use it to create an installation disk for games and
applications.
Quick Steps
1. Open Rufus and insert a USB drive.
2. Select your USB drive under "Devices."
3. Click SELECT and select an ISO file.
4. Give your Volume label a name (optional).
5. Click START.

1- Launch Rufus. By default, your downloaded files can be found in your Downloads folder.
Double-click on Rufus to launch the application when the download is complete. No additional
installation steps are necessary.
 You can download Rufus at https://rufus.ie/en/. Be sure to download the correct
version from your system's processor (i.e., 64-bit, 32-bit, ARM64).
 To find out your system architecture, click the Windows Start icon and then
click the Settings icon. Click System followed by About. Check your system
architecture next to "System Type."

2- Insert a USB drive. You can insert it in any free USB port on your PC. You'll need a USB
drive that is big enough to hold the ".ISO" file you want to write to the USB drive.
 Most modern operating systems require a USB drive with at least 4 GB of hard drive
space. You should get a USB drive with 8 GB or more of hard drive space.
  Rufus will format and erase all data from your USB drive. Transfer any personal files
stored on the USB drive to your computer before using Rufus.

3- Select your USB drive if needed. When you insert a USB drive, Rufus will usually detect it
automatically. If needed, select your USB drive using the "Devices" drop-down menu.
 In most cases, your USB drive will be listed as “No_Label.”

4- Click SELECT. It's the button on the right-hand side. This opens a file browser that you can use to
select an ISO image.
Alternatively, if you want to download a Windows ISO file, click the arrow pointing down next to the
"Select" button and select DOWNLOAD. Then click the DOWNLOAD button. Use the drop-down menu
to select the version of Windows you want to download and click Continue.
5- Select an ISO file. Navigate to where you downloaded the ISO file you want to write to the
USB drive and select it. Then click Open.
 In most cases, you will want to leave the "Partition Scheme," "Target System," and
"Image Option" as the default. Rufus can detect these settings automatically.
 You can download the Linux Ubuntu ISO file from https://ubuntu.com/download.

6- Give the volume label a name (optional). If you want to give your USB drive a name, enter
it in the "Volume Label" field. Otherwise, leave it as is.

7- Click START . It's at the bottom in the lower-right corner. This will start writing the ISO file
for Rufus. This may take several minutes.
 You may receive a message warning you that any data on the USB drive will be
destroyed. This is normal. Click OK to continue.
Install Windows 10: Steps to Follow
Here are all the Windows 10 installation steps, from start to finish. If you don’t know
how to install Windows 10, or any other Windows operating system for that matter,
this guide will get you through, even if you don’t consider yourself proficient enough
when it comes to computers.

1. Insert the bootable DVD into the optical bay or the USB disk into your computer.

Note: if using a tower case insert the USB drive into one of the rear
ports. Front-panel USB connectors can cause a lot of issues during the
install process.

2. Press the F8 key multiple times while the computer starts to open the Boot
Manager menu.

3. Select the drive unit that contains the Windows 10 installer. Some drives could show up twice.
If that’s the case I recommend you chose the version that uses EFI or UEFI. This is the modern
way to install Windows 10 and it’s not possible to change without reinstalling Windows. 4. A
message to Press any key to boot from the CD or DVD… appears. Doing so will start the
Windows 10 install process and the Windows 10 logo will appear.
5. The first step is to choose to Install now. There’s also an option to Repair your computer. We
won’t be doing that now.

6. Next we’ll need to choose the language of the interface, the time and currency format, and the
keyboard layout. You can mix and match these to your liking and don’t have to reflect the actual
location where you’ll be using the PC or the actual keyboard layout. You can change them later
after the install if needed.

7. Next step is to enter the Windows 10 product key. You can skip this step if you want to
activate Windows later on. I’ve explored already what happens if you don’t activate your copy of
Windows and keep using it. If not, make sure you enter the correct code. It’s made up of 25
characters (5 groups of 5 letters and numbers).
8. Select the Windows edition you want to install. It must match the product key entered earlier
or else Windows won’t activate. If you’re interested in Windows 10 editions and differences we
have an article detailing them.

9. To proceed you need to agree to licensing terms (EULA).

10. Select the installation type: Upgrade an existing installation of Windows (version 7, 8, or 10)
or Custom. Since it’s a new computer we’ll be choosing the latter option.

11. Now it’s time to let the installer know the disk where Windows files will be copied. At this
step, you can partition the existing disk into smaller virtual disks (recommended for bigger
disks). If you only have one unformatted disk just select it and hit Next. The installer will create
all needed partitions. I’ll be doing an advanced setup guide for this install step so check back to
this page. I’ll make sure to link it back here. I think it will be a must-read if you’re reinstalling
Windows, installing it on a multi-disk computer, and especially if you want to dual-boot.

12. The setup will now start to copy files from the install disk to their final destination.

13. At this step you’ll be asked to select the geographical region, and keyboard layout again.
They can differ and will override the settings from step 6. Optionally, you can add more
keyboard layouts (use WIN + Shift to switch between them while using Windows).
14. Now it’s time to select the type of predefined set-up: for Personal use or Organization, in
which case a system administrator will enforce some settings for you. We’ll be using Personal
for our guide.
15. Now we’ll create the first user account which will also act as the administrator for this
computer. Microsoft will push you towards using a Microsoft online account, but you can also
set up an offline account. For privacy reasons, I suggest you set up the latter. You can read about
the difference here.

16. I didn’t remember this step, but it seems you now have to select 3 security questions that will
help you recover your account in case you forget the password.
 17. Privacy settings and Cortana are next. I personally disable everything that’s possible at this
step. Some telemetry data will still be sent to Microsoft servers, but I’m planning an article on
how you can disable almost everything that’s affecting privacy in Windows 10, so stay tuned.

18. After a few moments and a couple of different screens you’ll be greeted with the familiar
Windows 10 desktop for the first time.

That’s it. You’ve successfully installed Windows 10 on your new computer.

 How to Install Ubuntu 22.04 on VirtualBox
Installing Ubuntu 22.04 on VirtualBox requires some steps which have been summed
up in the following guide along with demonstrations by means of screenshots.

Step 1: Download ISO

The foremost requirement of installing Ubuntu 22.04 is to have an ISO file

Step 2: Install VirtualBox

Another basic requirement for installing Ubuntu 22.04 on an existing operating

system is to have a VirtualBox.

Step 3: Generate Virtual Machine

Now run the application. When you do that you would require to create a virtual
machine.

1. Click on the ‘New’ button to generate a new virtual machine.

2. Write your machine name and set its type and version as indicated in the
screenshot.

3. Set the RAM for the VM. You choose the RAM of your choice but for the machine
to work in a better way we recommend assigning RAM of 4GB.
4. Now select the second option and click create.

5. Select the by default option which is VDI, however if you wish to utilize Virtual
Hard Disk then you can choose VHD option.
6. Now choose the ‘Dynamically allocated’ option which makes the hard disk to take
up only the required amount of space.

7. Now allocate space according to your requirements (e.g. 30GB) and create the
virtual machine.
Step 4: Get the machine started
After performing the above steps your machine will be created and will appear on the
sidebar menu. Now select that particular machine and press start.

Step 5: Include ISO in VirtualBox

In order to boot the machine, include the downloaded ISO file that will act as a startup
disk.
A pop up will appear when you click the folder option. Now first click on the add
button as indicated in the screenshot.

A window will open up and from there select the downloaded file.
Now finally select the ‘choose’ option.

Once the file is added, press the start button.

Step 6: Grub Menu
Once the machine is started, you will see the Grub menu, from there select the
‘Ubuntu’ option by pressing “Enter” to boot the machine.

Step 7: Install Ubuntu

To install Ubuntu select the ‘Install Ubuntu’ option, whereas, if you just want to
experience Ubuntu in a live environment then go for the ‘Try Ubuntu’ option.

Select the language you prefer. For instance, here we have selected the ‘English (US)’
option. Once the language is selected press the ‘continue’ option.
Step 8: Installation Options
Now when you come to this step you either have to select the ‘Normal Installation’
option or the ‘Minimal Installation’ option depending upon your requirements.
Moreover, if you are a GPU user then also select the last option.

Step 9: Erase disk

For this step choose “Erase Disk and install Ubuntu” option (Don’t worry, it won’t
delete any of your guest operating system’s data).

Step 10: Set User Account

Now set up your account.
Once you continue, the system will start to install Ubuntu 22.04 and finish in a while
and you will be asked to restart your system.

After successful restart of the system, you will have the fresh new look of the Ubuntu
22.04 on your Virtual Box.

Following these steps, you can successfully install Ubuntu 22.04 on your VirtualBox.

Conclusion
Installing Ubuntu 22.04 on VirtualBox requires downloading the ISO file and creating
a virtual machine on the VirtualBox. Once done you are now supposed to start the
machine and include the downloaded ISO file in it. After this, you need to install
Ubuntu and set up various installation options. Lastly, install the guest additions using
certain commands and you are good to go.
 How to Install Google Chrome on ubuntu
Open the Mozilla Firefox browser installed on your computer and type chrome download in the
Google search box and press Enter. View the usually top-ranked website listed on the Google
search page or visit https://www.google.com/chrome/ to go directly to the download page.
After downloading file shown as:

After clicking “show in folder.

Click on “new terminal “and these commands.

After running these commands u can see google chrome is installed.

Google chrome has been installed
How to Install GCC Compiler on Ubuntu?
There are several ways to install GCC on Ubuntu, and the preferred method depends on your
customization needs or if a project requires a specific GCC version.

Method 1: Install GCC Compiler from

Ubuntu Repositories
The fastest way to install GCC on Ubuntu is to use the apt package manager. However, installing
GCC from Ubuntu repositories has drawbacks, such as a lack of customization options and
potential dependency conflicts.

To install the GCC compiler from Ubuntu repositories:

1. Update the Ubuntu package repository using the following command:

2. Install the build-essential package:

The build-essential package includes the GCC compiler and other utilities required for building software.

3. Use the following command to check the GCC version:

The GCC version in this example is 11.4.0.

Method 2: Install Multiple GCC Versions on
Ubuntu
Users can utilize GCC PPAs (Personal Package Archive) to streamline the installation process
and install a specific GCC version (or multiple GCC versions).

To do so:

1. Update the Ubuntu package repository:

sudo apt update

2. Install the software-properties-common package using the following command:

sudo apt install software-properties-common

3. Add the GCC PPA that contains all the versions of the GCC compiler:

sudo add-apt-repository ppa:ubuntu-toolchain-r/test

4. Update the packages list to include the PPA packages:

sudo apt update

5. Use the command below to install a specific version or multiple versions of GCC. For
example, to install GCC 12 and GCC 13, enter:

sudo apt install gcc-12 g++-12 gcc-13 g++-13 -y

Note: There are no restrictions to the number of GCC versions you can install using this
installation method.

6. The update-alternatives tool helps users manage multiple GCC versions:

Add the GCC 12 alternative to the update-alternatives filesystem:

sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/gcc gcc /usr/bin/gcc-12 12 --slave /usr/bin/g++ g++ /us
r/bin/g++-12

Add the GCC 13 alternative to the update-alternatives filesystem:

sudo update-alternatives --install /usr/bin/gcc gcc /usr/bin/gcc-13 13 --slave /usr/bin/g++ g++ /us
r/bin/g++-13

Note: Replace the GCC version in the example commands (GCC 12 and 13) with the GCC
versions installed on your system.

7. Use the update-alternatives tool to switch between installed GCC versions:

sudo update-alternatives --config gcc

The system displays a list of the installed GCC versions and asks to select the default version.
Enter the selection number for the version you want to use.

8. Check the current GCC version using the following command:

gcc --version

The current default GCC version in this example is 13.1.0.

Method 3: Install GCC Compiler on Ubuntu

from Source
Building GCC from source is an advanced installation method that allows users to customize the
GCC configuration. Moreover, you can change install locations or optimize GCC for specific
hardware.

To retrieve the GCC source code from official repositories and install the GCC compiler:

1. Install the necessary dependencies using the following command:

sudo apt install build-essential

2. Install the libgmp3-dev, libmpfr-dev, and libmpc-dev packages to facilitate compiling GCC
from source:
sudo apt install libmpfr-dev libgmp3-dev libmpc-dev -y

3. Use the wget command to download the GCC source code from the GCC website. In this
example, the file gcc-13.2.0.tar.gz contains the source code for GCC version 13.2.0:

wget http://ftp.gnu.org/gnu/gcc/gcc-13.2.0/gcc-13.2.0.tar.gz

Adjust the URL in the command to reflect the GCC version you want to install.

4. Extract the GCC build files using the following command:

tar -xf gcc-13.2.0.tar.gz

5. Access the GCC directory:

cd gcc-13.2.0

6. Configure the GCC build:

./configure -v --build=x86_64-linux-gnu --host=x86_64-linux-gnu --target=x86_64-linux-gnu --p

refix=/usr/local/gcc-13.2.0 --enable-checking=release --enable-languages=c,c++ --disable-multili
b --program-suffix=-13.2.0

Visit the official GNU GCC configuration page to review available options and recommended
configuration procedures.

7. Use the make command to initiate the GCC build process:

make -j3

The build process can consume a lot of resources and take a while to complete. The j3 command
tells the system to use three cores for the operation. Change the number of cores to reflect your
system's capabilities and setup.

8. After the build process is complete, install GCC using the following command:

sudo make install

9. Enter the following command to verify the GCC version:

/usr/local/gcc-13.2.0/bin/gcc-13.2.0 --version

The system confirms GCC version 13.2.0 is installed.

Conclusion
You now know how to install the GCC compiler on Ubuntu using three different methods.
Regardless of the method, installing GCC on an Ubuntu machine allows you to compile and run
C and C++ code and complete many programming, debugging, and system administration tasks.
 LINUX COMMAND

1. ls command

The ls command lists files and directories in your system.

2. pwd command

The pwd command prints your current working directory’s path, like /home/directory/path

3. cd command

Use the cd command to navigate the Linux files and directories.

4. mkdir command

Use the mkdir command to create one or multiple directories and set their permissions.
Ensure you are authorized to make a new folder in the parent directory.

6. rm command

Use the rm command to permanently delete files within a directory. Here’s the general
syntax:
rm [filename1] [filename2] [filename3]
7. cat command

Concatenate or cat is one of the most used Linux commands. It lists, combines, and writes
file content to the standard output.

8. cp command

Use the cp command to copy files or directories, including their content, from your current
location to another. It has various use cases, such as:

 Copying one file from the current directory to another folder. Specify the file name
and target path:

 Duplicating multiple files to a directory. Enter the file names and the destination
path:
  Copying a file’s content to another within the same directory. Enter the source and
the destination file:

 Duplicating an entire directory. Pass the -R flag followed by the source and
destination directory:

9. mv command

Use the mv command to move or rename files and directories. To move items, enter the file
name followed by the destination directory:
mv filename.txt /home/username/Documents
Meanwhile, use the following syntax to rename a file in Linux with the mv commandmv
old_filename.txt new_filename.txt
9.

10. touch command

The touch command lets you create an empty file in a specific directory path.

11. file command

The file command lets you check a file type – whether it is a text, image, or binary.

12. head command

The head command prints the first ten lines of a text file or piped data in your command -
line interface.
13. tail command

The tail command displays the last ten lines of a file, which is useful for checking new data
and errors.
14. diff command

The diff command compares two files’ content and outputs the differences. It is used to alter
a program without modifying the code.

15.History

To view your command history in Linux, use the history command. Simply type history at the
command prompt, and a list of your previous commands will be displayed.