The Only Work

of its Type
Compiled by an acknow¬
ledged expert, this volume
forms a complete guide, in
alphabetical order, to the
construction, operation,
repair and principles, of
every type of wireless re-
cerver, including definitions,
explanations, formulae and
complete instructions on the
making and testing of various
wire’ess components.
A unique volume with every
technical term, formula and
fact explained in language
which even the beginner
will understand. A special
feature of the work is the
illustrations, which include a
complete series of circuits
for every type of modern
receiver. The contents in¬
clude every modern develop¬
ment. An invaluable volume
which is a treasury of know¬
ledge to the beginner, the
expert, and the ordinary
listener. Every fact may be
rapidly consulted.

4C0 Doges ; over 500 Illustrations

61- net
 THE
PRACTICAL WIRELESS
ENCYCLOPÆDIA
A Complete Guide to the Principles, Construction,
Operation, Repair, and Overhaul of all types of Wireless
Receivers and Components, including Definitions of a l
Terms and Units

By

F. J. CAMM
(Fellow, Royal Society of Arts)
Editor of
" Practical Wireless,” " Practical Motorist," " Practical
Mechanics," " Practical Engineering," " Cyclist," and
" ¿¡cycling News "

SEVENTH EDITION, FULLY REVISED

WITH OVER 500 ILLUSTRATIONS

LONDON
GEORGE NEWNES LIMITED
TOWER HOUSE, SOUTHAMPTON STREET, STRAND, W.C.2
 First Edition . November 1932
Second Edition . June 1933
Third Edition . November 1933
Fourth Edition March 1935
Fifth Edition . May 1937
Sixth Edition . March 1938
Seventh Edition (revised) November 1939

Made and Printed in Great Britain by

Hazell, Watson &■ Viney Ltd., London and Aylesbury
 THE
PRACTICAL WIRELESS ENCYCLOPÆDIA
By the same Author
Newnes’ Television and Short-wave Handbook
Everyman's Wireless Book
Home Mechanic Encyclopxdia
Practical Motorist’s Encyclopxdia
Every Cyclist's Handbook
Wireless Coils, Chokes and Transformers
Lathework for Amateurs
Accumulators
Practical Mechanic's Handbook
Workshop Calculations, Tables and Formulx
Wireless Transmission for Amateurs
Practical Wireless Service Manual
Sixty Tested Wireless Circuits
Flying Reference Book
Watches : Adjustment and Repair
Practical Wireless Short-wave Manual
Dictionary of Metals and Alloys, etc., etc.
More Miles Per Gallon
 PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION

I
N this Seventh Edition I have included new terms and definitions
and considerably amended the text throughout ; a great amount
of new matter has also been added. The practical information on
the making of various components has been retained, particularly
that relating to intermediate-frequency transformers, oscillator coils,
mains transformers, and chokes. Additionally, the title of the work
has been changed from the Wireless Constructor s Encyclopædia
to the Practical Wireless Encyclopædia. There have been no
radical changes in design since the last edition went to press in March
1938, and the present edition, therefore, reflects the latest position
of the science and its kindred subjects.
Well over 200,000 copies of this book have been sold since it was
introduced, and it has circulated in every country. It remains the
only work of its type, and represents the only effort to present in
encyclopædic form an easily referred to, practical work, incorporating
the accumulated knowledge of radio scientists. It is a work which
indexes itself and is presented in a form which beginner and expert will
appreciate. I am gratified to note that it has become the standard
work of reference for radio designers, students, and teachers. Once
again I express mv thanks to readers all over the world who have made
suggestions for subjects to be treated in future editions.

F. J. CAMM
(Editor, Practical Wireless).

V
 ABBREVIATIONS
A.—Anode, or plate. I.C.W.—Interrupted continuous waves.
A.A. Artificial aerial. I.F. Intermediate frequency.
A.C.—Alternating current. I.P. In primary (of transformer) ; start of
AE.—Aerial. primary.
A.F.—Audio frequency. I.S. In secondary (of transformer) ; start
A.F.C. Automatic frequency control. of secondary.
A.G.C. Automatic gain control. kw. Kilowatt 1,000 watts.
A.T.C. Aerial tuning condenser. L.F. Low frequency.
A.T.I. Aerial tuning inductance. L.F.C. Low-frequency choke.
A.V.C. Automatic volume control. L.R. Low resistance.
A.V.E. Automatic volume expansion. L.S. Loudspeaker.
B.A.—British Association. L.T.—Low tension,
B.C.L. Broadcast listener. mfd. micro-farad,
B.F.O. Beat frequency oscillator. mhy. microhenry,
B.O.T. Unit Board of Trade unit 1,000 mm. millimetre,
watt-hours, or 1 kilowatt-hour. mmfd. micro-micro-farad.
C.C.C. Closed circuit or secondary con¬ O.L. Output load.
denser or S.T.C. O.P. Out primary (of transformer) ; end
C.C.I. Closed circuit or secondary tuning of primary. Also output.
inductance or S.T.I. O.S. Out secondary (of transformer) ; end
cm.—centimetre. of secondary.
C.P. Candle power. P.— Plate, or anode.
C.W. Continuous waves. P.A. Public address.
D.A.V.C. Delayed A.V.C. P.D. Potential difference, same as D.P.
db. decibel. P.M.—Permanent magnet.
D.C. Direct current. Pot. Potentiometer.
D.C.C. Double cotton covered. P.V. Power valve.
D.E.—Dull emitter. Q.A.V.C. Quiet automatic volume control.
D.F.—Direction finding, or direction finder. Q Code.—See p. vii.
D.P.—Difference of potential. Q.M.B.—Quick make and break.
D.P.D.T. Double pole double throw. Q. P.-P. Quiescent Push-pull.
D.P.S.T. Double pole single throw. R.F. Radio frequency (same as high fre¬
D.S.C. Double silk covered. quency).
D.X. Long distance. R.M.S. Value—Root-mean-square value.
E. Earth. Rx. Receiver.
E.M.F. Electro-motive force. S.C.C. Single cotton covered.
F. Filament. S.I.C. Specific inductive capacity.
G. Grid. S.P. Series parallel.
G.B. Grid battery or grid bias. S.P.D.T. Single pole double throw.
G.C. Grid condenser. S.P.S.T. Single pole single throw.
G.L.—Grid leak. S.S.C. Single silk covered.
H.F.—High frequency (same as radio S.T.C.—Secondary tuning condenser.
frequency). S.T.I. Secondary tuning inductance.
H.F.C.—High-frequency choke. S.W.G. Standard wire gauge.
H.P. Horse power. S.W.L. Short-wave listener.
H.R. High resistance. T.R.F. Tuned radio frequency.
H.T. High tension. T.T.—Tonic train.
I.C. Intermittent current. Tx.—Transmitter.

SYMBOLS
Admittance Resistivity.
Amplification Factor. M Self-inductance.
Capacity. C
Current. I UNITS
Conductance. G Ampere. a
Dielectric Constant. e Ampere-hour. Ah
Efficiency. B.O.T. Unit = 1,000 watt-hours, or 1 kilo¬
Electrostatic Flux Density. D watt-hour
E.M.F. (voltage). E Coulomb. C
Energy .. W Farad. F
Frequency. f Henry. h
Impedance. Z Joule. j
Magnetic Field. H Kilovolt-ampere. kVA
Magnetic Flux. .p Ohm. q
Magnetic Flux Density. B Volt. V
Period Time. T Volt-ampere. VA
Permittivity. K Watt. w
Phase Angle. </> Watt-hour.Wh
Power. i» PREFIXES
Quantity. Q Kilo. k
Reactance. X Mega. M
Reluctance. S Micro.
Resistance. R Milli .
vi
 THE INTERNATIONAL CODE OF ABBREVIATIONS

The chief Abbreviations used by Amateurs to form a

rapid means of communicating information in code.

Q CODE
QRA—The address of the station is . . . QRO —Increase power.
QRB—The approximate distance between QRP Decrease power.
our stations is . . . QRT—Stop transmitting.
QRG—Your frequency is . . . kilocycles. QRU—I have nothing more for you.
QRH—Your frequency varies. QSA—Signal strength (see QSA code
QRJ—I cannot receive you. below).
QRK—Your signals are good. QSL—An acknowledgment of reception
QRM —Interference. (i.e. QSL card).
QRN —Atmospherics. QSO—A communication or contact.

THE QSA CODE

QSA1 —Hardly perceptible. XX —Strong static,
QSA2—Weak signals, readable ly now XXX —Very strong static.
and then. N—No static.
QSA3— Fairly good reception, readable
with difficulty. F—Slight fading
QSA4- Good, readable signals.
FF— Fairly strong fading, but the trans¬
QSA5—Very good signals, perfectly read¬
mission still intelligible.
able.
FFF—Very strong fading, with complete
X—Slight static. loss of transmission at times.

R CODE
RI—Very faint signals, unintelligible. R7—Good, clear reception that comes
R2 Weak reception, unintelligible. through interference.
R3—Weak reception, but partly intelligible. R8—Very strong signals heard several feet
R4- Fair signals, just intelligible. from the ’phones.
R5- Moderately strong signals. R9 —Extremely strong signals.
R6 — Good reception.

CODE
Tl—Very bad A.C. ripple. T7— Pure D.C. note, but key clicks notice¬
T2—Rough, A.C. ripp'e. able.
T3—Bad ripple on note. T8—Pure D.C. note, but not as good as T9.
T4-Small ripple on note. T9—Fine, steady, crystal-controlled D.C.
T5—Nearly D.C., but bad key thumps.
note.
T6—Good note, but not quite pure.

vii
viii
THE SHORTHAND OF WIRELESS

FlC. I. Diagram of the conventional signs used in drawing a wireless circuit, which merely consists of a number of these signs joined together.
Pictorial diagrams showing the actual components represented are given in the book in their correct alphabetical order.
 THE PRACTICAL
WIRELESS ENCYCLOPÆDIA
A circuit consisting of inductance and
capacity so designed that a certain
ABAC.—A graphical diagram which
band of frequencies is accepted in
enables results of formulæ to be ob¬
preference to all other frequencies.
tained by using a ruler. The most
An instance is given in the Acceptor
complicated formula.“ may thus be
Wave-trap, where a coil with series
used by the non-mathematieal con¬
condenser is arranged in series with
structor. The basis of the Abac
system is d’Ocagne’s theorem, pub¬
lished in France in 1899. A nomogram.
ABAMP.—The absolute electromag¬
netic unit of current—that current
which, passing along a wire of 1 cm.
length, bent into an arc of 1 cm.
radius, will exert a force of one dyne
on a unit magnetic pok placed at the
THEOPETTCAL
centre. One abamp equals 10 amperes;
SyMBOL.
one ampere equals one-tenth of an
absolute unit of current. (See Weber.)
ABBREVIATIONS.—See page vi.
ABSCISSA.—The horizontal dis¬
tance of any ordinate from the axis
of a graph. Refer to ordinate.
ABSOLUTE UNITS.—The units of F1C. 3.—Theoretical and actual di ayran of an
Accumulator. Nctethat the thick line is always
the centimetre-gramme-second system the negative in a theoretical diagram.
of measurement, in which the unit of
length is the centimetre, the unit of the aerial lead to the receiver. When
mass the gramme, and the unit of the acceptor circuit is tuned to the
time I second. Thus the C.G.S. unit frequency of an interfering station
of force is the force that can so that frequency is accepted, or ab¬
move a body weighing a gramme that sorbed, and therefore is not received
by the wireless receiver. (See Re¬
jector Circuit.)
ACCUMULATOR.—A device for
storing electricity. It consists of a
container of either glass or celluloid,
in which are fitted two sets of plates.
-"INPUT ' These plates are made up of pastes
(see under Accumulator Types) im¬
mersed in a solution known as the
electrolyte. This consists oí dilute
Fig. 2.—Acceptor Grcuit. sulphuric acid in either liquid, paste,
at the end of a second it will have a or jelly form. It was Galvani who,
velocity of 1 centimetre per second. in 1793, whilst conducting some ex¬
A.C.—Abbreviation lor alternating periments with a Leyden jar, observed
current (which see). that the legs of a frog began to twitch
ACCEPTOR CIRCUIT.— A tuned when they were used as a conductor
 ACCUMULATOR
for the discharge of this well-known terminal of its neighbour. By this
form of condenser. Later on Volta means the voltages of the cells are
discovered that by using two different added together to give any value de¬
metals to touch the leg of the frog an sired. In wireless high-tension bat¬
increased twitching effect resulted. teries, for instance, about seventy
The famous Vol ta -pile, which was dry cells may be connected in series
to give
about too
volts.
The num¬
ber of the
cells will
govern the
voltage,
whilst the
size of the
indi vid ua 1
cells will
decide
the precursor of the modern primary the extent of the total capacity.
cell, was developed by him from this Cells in Parallel. A large accumu¬
discovery. lator possesses greater storage capacity
A primary cell is one which gives than a small one and, although size
an electric current by the immersion does not affect the voltage, the larger
of two dissimilar plates (usually battery will be capable of supplying a
carbon and zinc) in a chemical solu¬ greater current. The equivalent of a
tion. An accumulator, or secondary large battery may also be obtained by
cell, must have an electric current connecting a number of smaller ones
passed through it, a proportion of in parallel, this being accomplished
which it stores. An accumulator is when all the positive terminals are
rated according to its voltage, and connected together and also all the
its capacity for storing is known as its negative terminals, as shown in Fig.
ampere-hour capacity. 5. The voltage will not be increased,
Cells in Series. Most single-cell however, so it will be seen that series
accumula¬
tors have a
voltage be¬
tween one
and two or
perhaps
a fraction
over two,
but to ob-
t a i n a
higher
voltage one
may con¬
nect any
number of cells in series (see Fig. 4), connection (referred to earlier) gives
that is to say, by joining the negative increased voltage, but parallel con¬
terminal of one cell to the positive nection gives lower resistance and
2
 ACCUMULATOR ACID
consequently more current in the mixing the solution, glass, glazed
case of accumulators so connected. earthenware, or lead vessels should
Generally speaking, a dry battery be used. The water must be poured
is only useful for light duty, such in first, and the acid added gradu¬
as for house-bells or lighting tiny ally, stirring meanwhile with a glass
lamps, but an accumulator of quite rod. Violent and dangerous splash¬
a moderate size will satisfactorily ac¬ ing of the acid is liable to occur if
complish such heavy duty as starting water is poured into acid.
up a motor-car engine. A new battery should not be filled
ACCUMULATOR ACID AND with solution until ready for charg¬
PASTE.— The acid solution consists ing, and before filling the acid should
of pure brimstone sulphuric acid be cooled to atmospheric tempera¬
diluted with distilled water to the ture. After filling, the battery should
required specific gravity; acid of the be allowed to stand for twelve hours
correct specific gravity can be pur¬ before charging. The acid should be
chased. A good quality should be tested periodically, as impurities in
obtained. Instructions regarding the it may lead to self-discharge, heat¬
correct specific gravity are usually ing, and other battery troubles.
attached to the battery, and should
be carefully followed. The density ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
specified has a direct bearing on the FROM ALTERNATING CURRENT.
battery condition, and acid of too First Charge. The first charge is
low a density will reduce the of critical importance to the life of
capacity, whilst too high a density a battery, and the manufacturers’
decreases conductivity and sets up instructions should be followed im¬
heating and local action in the plates. plicitly. The usual period is thirty-
The specific gravity is affected by six hours, and the charging rate ap¬
a rise or fall in the temperature of proximately half of this period. The
the acid solution, and an appropriate period and rate vary with different
correction must be made before using makes of cell, and depend on the
the acid (see p. 4). formation of the plates and the den¬
Density is normally stated as at sity of the solution used. During the
60° F. To correct for temperatures charge the temperature of the elec¬
above 60° F. add 002 to the specific trolyte should be kept below ioo° F.,
gravity for every 5’ F. For tempera¬ and if this figure is exceeded the
tures below 60° F. deduct -002 for charging raie should be reduced or
every 5° F. to obtain the requisite the charge suspended until normal
equivalent at 60° F. temperature is regained. High tem¬
For cells in which the separators peratures cause the active material
are wood, it is necessary to make an in the grids to expand and to loosen,
allowance for the moisture content resulting in flaking, loss of capacity,
of the wood, this type of separator and shorting of the plates.
being stored in a wet condition. Batteries will give much better ser¬
How to dilute Acid. Pure brim¬ vice and last longer if the tempera¬
stone sulphuric acid is supplied in ture during charge or discharge
carboys, and can be obtained broken periods is kept within the limits of
down to any specified density re¬ 70 o F. and 90 o F. At the end of
quired for battery electrolyte, but as the charging period the cells should
this density may alter owing to be gassing freely and the density of
evaporation, it is preferable to dilute the acid have attained a maximum
the acid as and when required. In value. The vent plugs should be re-

3
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
moved during the first charge to direct current to alternating current
allow the gas generated to disperse. renders necessary information on
This gas is highly inflammable and charging accumulators from this
explosive, and on no account should source of supply. It is impossible to
a naked flame be allowed to be charge an accumulator from alternat¬
brought near to the cells. ing current until it has been recti¬
fied or converted into unidirectional
USING ACID OF 1 S40 SPECIFIC or direct current by one of the
GRAVITY methods now to be described.
Fig. 6 illustrates the difference
Acid, 1-840
Water.
Specific Gravity.
between direct and alternating cur¬
Required Specific
Gravity at 70 o P.
rent. It will be observed that alter¬
Parts by Parts by nating current derives its name from
Volume. Volume.
the fact that the current ‘ ' alter¬
X 400 xo
nates"; it consists of a series of
14
i 350 18 IO pulses flowing first in one direction
I 300 21 xo
I-25O IO
and then in another, and if used
27
1-225 29 IO without rectification would be con¬
tinually doing and undoing its work.
USING ACID OF 1-400 SPECIFIC The usual means adopted for rectify¬
GRAVITY ing alternating current is by means
of a chemical rectifier, a rotary con¬
Water.
Acid, 1-400 verter, a vibrating reed rectifier, the
Specific Gravity.
Required Specific Tungar rectifier, a motor generator,
Gravity at 70 o b.
Parts by Parts by the mercury-vapour rectifier, the
Volume. Volume.
valve rectifier, and the copper-oxide
rectifier. It will thus be seen that
1-300 4-5 IO
1-280 5'5 IO rectification may be brought about
1-75 6-25 IO in three ways—chemically, mechanic¬
1-265 6-4 IO
1’255 6-65 IO ally, and electrically. For amateur
1-250 6-75 IO purposes, the metal rectifier is the
most suitable.
Th e fact that so many electrical The Motor Generator. There are
undei-takings are changing over from on the market a number of motor
generators con¬
sisting of an
OIRECT-y induction
motor driven
from the al¬
ternating - cur-
rent mains,
and coupled to
a direct-current
dynamo. This
system has
much to re¬
commend i t,
but unfortun¬
ately it is ex¬
pensive. There
F1C. 6.—Graph illustrating difference between Direct and Alternating Current. are other
4
 WIND-CHARGE RS
motor generators somewhat similar disaster in a gale and yet be sufficiently
but differing in principle, having sensitive to develop useful power in
rotary transformers incorporated in winds of light or moderate velocity.
the frame of the motor. The This brings us to the necessity for
mechanically driven rectifier makes some definition as to what constitutes
use of an A.C. motor (synchronous) the difference between a breeze and a

F1C. 7.—Diagram showing the principle of the Rotary Converter and Rotary Transformer. A motor, either
A.C. or D.C.. is driven from the mains and coupled to a D.C. generator which charges the accumulators. In
practice one machine acts both as motor and dynamo.

coupled to a commutator fed by the hurricane. The Meteorological Office

alternating current, and from it is has compiled a table known as “ Beau¬
delivered the direct current (see Fig. fort Scale Numbers” which are attri¬
7). The chief defect of this type is buted to winds of varying force
sparking at the commutator, necessi¬ according to their characteristics as
tating frequent renewal. below :
WIND - CHARGERS. — Another
method of charging, which has much
Beaufort Corresponding Velocities in
to recommend it, consists of driving a Scale Wind Miles per Hour
dynamo or generator by means of
wind sails. Although wind power in
0 Calm Under 2
this country is apt to be rather i to 3 Light Breeze 2 to 12
erratic, far too much of it at times 4 to 5 Moderate Wind 13 to 23
6 to 7 Strong Wind 24 to 37
and not enough of it at others to H to 9 Gale 38 to 55
provide any useful results, it is a 10 to II Stonn 56 to 75
12 Hurricane Above 75
notable fact that, taken over a long
period, careful observations have
proved that serviceable wind power The indispensable parts in any such
is available for an average of eight outfit comprise (1) the constant-vol¬
hours per day in the majority of tage dynamo, (2) the propeller, (3) a
localities, if the site is carefully tailpiece to keep the propeller in the
chosen. wind, (4) the collector rings for con¬
The problem with wind motors is, veying current from the movable head
of course, to control the variations in to fixed terminal points, and (5) the
speed arising from extreme weather mast upon which the whole is
conditions, such as periods of calm, mounted.
on the one hand, and tempests on the So far as the generator is concerned
other. A wind motor to be successful there are plenty of good secondhand
must be so constructed as to resist car lighting dynamos to be picked up
5
6
 WIND-CHARGERS
cheaply, of a type illustrated in Fig. carrying it consisting of a length of
12. This is one of the most popular seamless steel conduit about 1 in.
models, and makes a very serviceable diameter, such as used in electric wir¬
unit, cutting in for charging at ing, attached to the revolving head
850 r.p.m. and giving its full output by saddles at each extremity.
of 12 volts 13 or 14 amperes at about The Rotatable Head. The rota¬
1,350 r.p.m. If larger models happen table head with the collector rings
to be available they can, of course, be needs planning out with a view to
used, and the lower the cutting-in utilising whatever material happens
speed the more serviceable will they to be available in the workshop, and
be in light winds. dimensions are of secondary import¬
The Propeller. Item (2), the pro¬ ance, so long as the collector is not
peller, will no doubt demand some too small, say, 3 in. in diameter. The
little patience and several modifica¬ main idea is sketched out in Fig. 13,
tions before a satisfactory home-made but is not to scale, for reasons stated

FlC. 12.—A car lighting dynamo, showing construction.

article is arrived at. Lightness and above. As shown in this figure, the
strength is, of course, essential, as the wood mast A terminates in four angle
centrifugal effect and thrust will be pieces of i J in. by 1 j in. mild steel B.
considerable at high speeds. A well- not less than 12 in. long, which are
seasoned piece of straight grained pine arranged to grip the mast with four
or cedar will be required, in one piece straps and bolts S. These angle pieces
6 ft. long and in. thick, tapering stand up six inches beyond the end
from 6| in. wide at the hub to 3^ in. of the mast, and a flanged steel plate
or 4 in. at the tips, fashioned on the C is screwed to them to form a rigid
lines shown in Figs. 9 and tr, the pitch metal top. Above this is the rota¬
of the blades being about 35 degrees table table E to which the dynamo is
measured from the plane of rotation. fixed, and from the underside of which
The boss needs strengthening by a extends a central tube G carrying the
flanged double-arm casting, keyed to two insulated sliprings H. From these
the dynamo shaft and retained by an rings current can be collected, what¬
end lock nut. ever may be the position in which the
The design and proportions of the dynamo is pointing, by means of two
sheet-metal tailpiece are obtainable insulated cartridge-type carbon brush¬
from Fig. 9, the extension arm holders K. An outer casing L which
7
 WIND-CHARGERS
serves for their mounting is fixed to C through a cross strap riveted to the
and forms a protection from wet or angles B, with a nut P to prevent it
dust, and is drawn in section to ex¬ from rising.
pose the collector rings. The design of the head is to be
taken as a suggestion and subject to
E. variation according to means and ex¬
perience. It forms a workable basis
for building up a practicable wind-
driven lighting installation capable of
providing a good light to four or five
bulbs of 25-watt size, when working
in conjunction with a 12-volt car
accumulator.
A Mechanical Governor. Some
attempts have certainly been made
to steady the charging current by
the addition of a mechanical governor
or wind-diverter, or even a small wind
vane attached to the tail to move the
propeller into less effective positions
with increasing force of the wind. One
example is given in Fig. 10, showing
an addition to the 2-blade main pro¬
peller in the form ol small blades
hinged at one end which open out at
F:C. 13.—Details of the rotatable head.
excess speeds by centrifugai effect and
Connections from the dynamo cause the wind stream to diverge be¬
terminals are brought down through fore reaching the main propeller
the hollow stem G, one being attached blades. This device is used in the
to each slipring. Between the under¬ "Wincharger” outfits manufactured
side of the slipring assembly and the by an American Company. In these

F1C. 14.—A constant voltage dynamo. F1C. 15.—A shunt-wound 2-poie dynamo.

fixed head C may be placed a ball the natural regulation of the constant¬
thrust washer D to carry the whole voltage dynamo is augmented by the
weight of the dynamo and propeller. action of the air-brake, seen at right
The extremity of the stem at N is angles to the propeller, when a critical
guided and supported by passing speed is exceeded. An English set is
8
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
illustrated in Fig. n, which relies sionally made wind-electric charging
principally on the self-governing pro¬ sets are beyond their means, may care
perties of the dynamo, aided by a to consider those illustrated in the
furling action of the wind motor-tail. foregoing as suggestions for building
The operation of this device, as sup¬ up home-made outfits with such varia¬
plied by the makers, is as follows, the tions as they care to intraduce, and
parts referred to being illustrated in making use of such material as hap¬
Fig. ri. When the furling handle is pens to be available, modifying the
moved downwards to bring the set general design accordingly. 1 hey will
into operation, a metal collar B is be well advised, however, to regard
slid down the shaft against the tension simplicity of design as the first essen¬
of spring A. The whole of the head tial, and bear in mind that the wind¬
gear is free to rotate within the metal electric outfit is not always a fine-
collar. A forked member C is en¬ weather equipment, and must be sub¬
gaged with the collar and is moved stantially built so as to withstand
downwards about its pivot by the storm and tempest.
collar. A lever arm F attached to the Any lighting system to be practic¬
forked member engages the tail able must be so designed as to allow
bracket E, causing it to be moved out¬ a reasonably constant voltage to be
wards against the tension of spring D. maintained at the terminals Much
When furling, the reverse takes place. the same problem confronts the auto¬
Release of the furling handle relieves mobile industry; the considerable
spring A and allows the metal collar variations of engine speed winch occur
to slide up the headgear. This lifts during road use have to be counter¬
the forked member, the lever arm F acted by some means before lighting
is disengaged from the tail bracket, from the car dynamo can become
and the tail is thus returned to the satisfactory, and in this there is a
furled position by spring D. In the definite resemblance between motor¬
event of very strong winds likely to car generators and wind-driven dyna¬
cause excess speeds the tail is swung mos. In the car, engine speeds must
back and out of the wind with a con¬ of necessity vary in order to meet the
sequent regulation of the dynamo conditions imposed by gear-dianging,
speed. gradients, traffic conditions, etc. In
The Electrical Circuit. Apart from the wind generator similar speed varia¬
details of design, such as are shown in tions are unavoidable with changes in
the foregoing illustrations, the elec¬ the wind velocity. The battery being
trical circuit is similar in all such out¬ charged, however, helps to " absorb ”
fits, and in its simplest form without the fluctuation.
any switches, instruments, or other Constant Voltage Generator. The
complications, consists of placing the motor industry solves this problem by
dynamo and battery in parallel. the development of the so-called
But there must be some automatic “ constant voltage ” generator, which
means of preventing current from the permits of a fairly constant voltage
battery discharging back through the being obtained from its terminals at
dynamo when the latter is not running widely different driving speeds by a
fast enough to charge. Also, switches special construction, and by the use
are required to control individual of a “ floating battery ” used in con¬
lamps, and an ammeter to measure junction with it.
the charge or discharge current in the There are, in fact, a good many dif¬
accumulator circuit. ferent devices for obtaining constant
Readers who feel that the profes¬ voltage at varying speeds, but the
9
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING

cooling fin inter¬

spersed at frequent
points to dissipate
the heat and thus
prevent damage.
Various methods
of connection are
possible, according
to the use to which
the rectifier is to
be put. The metal
rectifier is very
robust in construc¬
tion and has a
higher efficiency
than most other
types of rectifier.
Fig. 16 shows
the theoretical
symbol for the
metal rectifier, ar¬
most popular is the one known as ranged in what is known as the Bridge
“ third-brush control.” In the case Circuit.
of the ordinary shunt-wound 2-pole A smaller type of rectifier has also
dynamo, such as used for stationary been developed for use in the high-
lighting sets, engine-driven at a frequency circuits, and this is com¬
closely governed speed, there are two monly referred to as a " cold valve ”
brushes only at opposite positions on (which see).
the commutator, see Fig. 14. The Transforming Alternating Current.
windings form two distinct circuits, Unlike direct current, alternating-
one through the armature A and current voltage can be transformed to
brushes to the main terminals B and
so direct to the lamps or battery; the
other is an independent and separate
circuit C through the fields only, a
small current being "shunted” from
the main terminals for the sole pur¬
pose of exciting the field magnet coils.
Metal Rectifiers. This type of rec¬
tifier has developed to such an extent
that it competes favourably with the
valve rectifier.
In brief, the principle upon which
the metal rectifier operates is that FlC. 17.—Dissolve a teaspoonful of salt in a glass of
water and din the ends of the charging wires in the solu¬
copper in contact with a certain oxide tion. Bubbles of gas will form on the negative wire.
permits of the flow of current in one (See also Figs. 26 and 27.) Take care that the two
wires do not touch one another.
direction only.
In the metal rectifier which is used higher or lower potentials without
in wireless, discs of copper, oxidised the use of rotary converters. This
copper, and lead are mounted on a means that a simple piece of appar¬
non-conducting tube, with a large atus can be used in place of the re¬
to
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
sistance, the advantage being that Method. With D.C. mains, connect
the excess voltage need not be dissi¬ the + pole of a D.C. voltmeter to the
pated and, therefore, wasted. (supposed) positive main, and allow a
Cleanliness is another very import¬ wire from the — terminal of the meter
ant factor in accumulator manage¬ to momentarily touch the (supposed)
ment. Dirt and dampness on an ac¬ negative main. If correctly connected,
cumulator permit the current to leak the hand of the meter will swing in
away, in addition to attracting and the proper direction. If reversed, the
holding small quantities of acid. hand will tend to swing backwards.
This is liable to cause corrosion and Make sure that the connection is
rotting of wooden crates, etc. broken immediately, for a reversed
Neutralising Spilled Electrolyte. connection might bend the hand of
If electrolyte is spilled, it should be the meter. The meter must have a re¬
immediately treated with a neutral¬ sistance of at least 200 ohms per volt.
ising solution, such as sodium carbon¬ Second method. Dip the ends of
ate (soda) and water, or ammonia the two wires into a glass containing
and water. Either of these liquids a weak solution of salt and water.
is excellent for checking the effects Bubbles of colourless gas will be
of acid on clothing. Benches, trays, formed on the negative wire. Be
and other fittings which have become sure that the wires are not allowed
acid-sodden should be treated with to touch, and it is necessary to
a solution of i lb. of soda to i gallon connect a lamp of " mains " voltage
of water, and then dried before coat- in series with the wire to avoid the
irtg with acid-proof paint. danger of short circuits (see Fig.
Finding Polarity of Mains : First 17)-

FlC. 18.—Simple cell ready Fig. 19.—State of cell when FlC. 20.—State of cell when
for charging. charged. discharged. N<;te the acid be¬
comes weaker, having been used
up in forming lead sulphate.
II
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
CHARGING ACCUMULATORS The Safe Charging Rate. The
FROM DIRECT CURRENT.—Unlike maximum safe charging rate of an
alternating current, which, as has accumulator is approximately one¬
been explained earlier, needs to be tenth of its actual capacity. For in¬
rectified or made uni-directional be¬ stance, the charging rate of a 60-
fore it can be used for accumulator ampere-hour cell would be 6 amps.
charging, direct current does not need Any excess would cause heating and
any special apparatus other than that disintegration of the plates.
necessary to restrict the flow of cur¬ Determining the Resistances to be
rent to the correct charging rate—a Used. It will be apparent that the
comparatively simple matter. This resistances to be used will differ with
present section deals with direct-cur¬ different voltages of charging supply
rent charging from lighting mains. and also with cells of different ca¬
The other methods will be dealt with pacity. The ideal voltage for charg¬
later in this section. Should any ing a 6-volt battery would be
doubt exist regarding the nature of approximately 8, as in this case there
would be no necessity to interpose a
* nw I ~
resistance, the difference of the volt¬
age of supply and that of the bat¬

' ÔOOOOO tery being charged not being sufficient

to cause an excess amount of current
to flow. With increase of the volt¬
age of supply, however, such as by
the use of lighting mains, suitable
resistances are necessary, and the
higher the voltage the greater must
be the resistance. Incidentally, high
F1C. 20a.—A typical arrangement oí Lamp voltages are wasteful, inasmuch as
Resistances.
no use is made of the excess, though
the supply, this may be easily ascer¬ it figures in the total cost of the
tained on application being made to units used. Carbon filament lamps
the offices of the supply company. are used for charging purposes chiefly
Mains Voltage for Accumulator because they take almost four times
Charging. The voltage of the current as much current per candle-power as
for accumulator charging is imma¬ do metal-filament lamps (see table
terial, providing that it is in excess below).
of the total voltage of the cells to
be charged and (this is most im¬ CURRENT PASSED BY CARBON
portant) that the current that is al¬ FILAMENT LAMPS
lowed to flow is restricted to a suit¬ Current
Voltage of Supply.
able amount by means of a resistance. in am¬
peres
Voltage or potential, as it is some¬ per
times termed, is not capable of pro¬ Lamp. 25. 50. 100-200. 200-250.
ducing a heating or chemical effect,
but it has the power of forcing cur¬ i 8 c.p.
l6c P) At
rent through a conductor, and as it i 8 c.p. 16 c.p.
i 6c.p. i6c.p. 32 c.p. £ c.p: •» w »t,s
is the actual current flowing that 2 12 c.p. 32 c.p. ÓO c.p. iooc.p.JPerc-P-
counts, it is the volume of this that
must be restricted to a suitable Example I. Suppose the batteiy
amount. A good deal of misconcep¬ has to be charged at io amperes and
tion exists on this point. the voltage of supply = 250.
12
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
Total watts required = 250 x 10 find out what the charging rate of
= 2,500. the accumulator is, a fact which, as
Divide this value by the wattage a rule, is stated on the labei, though,
of the lamps available to get the as mentioned earlier, it is approxi¬
number required. Thus the number mately one-tenth of the capacity.
of 60-watt lamps required = The next matter is to provide a
42 approx.; 100-watt lamps = 25, etc. suitable arrangement for holding the
Example 2. To find the current lamps. A simple way of doing this
which a certain number and value is to mount a number of batten-type
of lamps will allow to flow. lamp holders on a board, as shown
Four lamps of 6c watts each are in Fig. 20A. The method of connect¬
available and the town supply is 250 ing the lamps and the accumulator
volts. is clearly shown, and from a study
of this it will be apparent that the
Current flowing =
current can be regulated to a par¬
Number of lamps >: wattage of each
ticular amount by the removal or in¬
Voltage oi supply sertion of lamps. Any number of
4 x 60 240 lamps up to the maximum can be
=-= - = -96 ampere. used, but it must be understood that
250 250
the fewer that are used the longer
A Typical Charging Arrangement. will the charging time be, owing to
In practice the first essential is to the reduced amount of current pass-

R ESI STANCE WIRE DATA

Eureka. German Silver.

S.IKG.
Resistance Current Resistance Current
Yards per lb. Yards per lb.
per yard. Capacity. per yard. Capacity.

18 0-37 48 3’5 °”? 3-5

20 o*66 85 2-5 0*315 90 2*5
22 1*10 140 1-5 0*520 147 1-5
24 1*77 227 1*0 0*844 238 1*0
26 2-65 340 0-5 1*26 349 o*5
28 391 502 0*25 1-85 527 0*25
30 5’58 714 0*2 265 750 0*2
32 7'35 943 OIS 3-50 984 0*15
34 10*13 1,300 0*1 4*82 1,360 0*1
36 14-84 1,905 o*5 7*o6 2,000 o*5
38 23*81 3.060 ”*33 3.295
40 37*i8 4.761 17*70 4.920

CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY OF WIRES

Current Current Current Current
S.W.G. Capacity S W.G. Capacity S.HÍG. Capacity S.H’.G. Capacity
(Amps.). (Amps.}. (Amps.). (Amps.)-

10 19305 19 18855 28 •258 37 •0545

IX 15-855 20 1527 29 •218 38 •0425
12 12*7425 21 X 206 30 •1812 39 •0318
U 9872 22 0 9237 31 •1586 40 •0272
14 7-5405 23 0-6786 32 •1374 41 •0228
IS 6* 108 24 0 5702 33 •1178 42 •0189
l6 4-8255 25 0 4703 34 •0998 43 •0153
17 3-6945 26 0 38x8 35 •0831 44 *0X2
I8 2-715 27 0-3168 36 •0681 45 •OO93

13
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
ing. A table giving the amount of on cover of a switch and connect a
current that different lamps will pass wire to each of the contacts. The
on different voltages is given on two wires, after their polarity has
an earlier page, and the worked ex¬ been determined, are then connected
amples which follow it should make to the accumulator in the usual
the calculation clear. manner.
Whilst the accumulators are being When it is desired to adopt this
charged, the light from the lamps, latter method as a permanent fitting,
it is essential that the two wires from
the switch should be attached to some
form of insulated board, and the ter¬
minals, or other attachments for the
accumulator, should be protected so
that they will not be short circuited
or touched when no accumulator is
connected to them.
Determining Resistance Values.
Ordinary metal filament lamps are
one of the most popular and con¬
venient forms of resistance obtain¬
able. The actual value of charging
resistance required will vary, as al¬
ready explained, according to the
voltage of the charging supply, the
voltage of the accumulator to be
charged, and the charging rate re¬
quired.
To determine this, connect a bank
of lamps and an ammeter in series
with the battery, as suggested earlier,
and increase or decrease the number
of lamps until the correct rate of
charge (as indicated by the am¬
Fic. 20b.—Simple Charging Arrangement from
D.C. Mains. meter) is obtained. Fig. 20c shows
the complete charging circuit.
Charging from a Dynamo. Those
which is only slightly less brilliant who are not so fortunate as to have
than usual, is being wasted, and this electricity in their homes may be in¬
suggests a method of charging whilst terested in another method of accu¬
the lamps are in use. One method mulator charging. This consists of
of doing this is clearly shown by Fig. a small dynamo driven by a small
2OB. petrol engine. The dynamo should
In this case one lead to a single have an output of 100 volts at 35
pendent lamp is cut and a wire milliamps., and 4 volts at 2 amps.
joined on to each end. These wires Charging Hints. If it is intended
are ihen simply connected to the to charge accumulators on a large
accumulator, observing, of course, scale, have the charging-room well
the correct polarity as detailed be¬ ventilated in order to dispose of the
fore. Another method, which is ap¬ gases generated in the accumulator.
plicable to either a single or three- Never bring a flame or spark near to
light fitting, is to remove the screw- an accumulator during or shortly
14
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
after charge, as the hydrogen given tions, and by one of the methods
off is highly inflammable. described earlier.
Avoid high temperatures. The The reader has a choice of several
temperature of any accumulator on methods. The simplest method where
charge should be kept below no° F. many accumulators are to be charged
If this is exceeded, the charge should is to arrange a number of them, total¬
be suspended for a time, otherwise ling in voltage that of the mains
the life of the accumulator may be (or slightly less than that of the
shortened. mains) in series and connect them
Never charge at rates greater than direct to the house supply, making
those specified by the makers of the suitable arrangements in the form
accumulator. Continue the charge
until all the cells are gassing freely
and at an even rate, and the specific
gravity of the electrolyte will not
rise any higher. For testing the
gravity of the electrolyte, use a hy¬
drometer with a graduated float,
showing the actual strengths of the
acid.

CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITY
OF LAMPS
Carbon-filament Lamps

Candle-power. Voltage. Current passed.

8 IIO •254
i6 IIO •509
32 IIO ioi8
8 220 •127
i6 220 •209
32 220 •509

F1C. 20c.—The complete Charging Circuit.

Metal-filament Lamps

Candle-power. Voltage. Current passed of a slab of slate or marble on

8 IIO •09
which to support the cells during
16 IIO •18 charge.
32 IIO •36
8 220
This method is, however, hardly
•049
16 220 •09 practicable in the majority of cases,
32 220 •18
and even where it would be it is
recommended that the local electrical
Charging Accumulators from the company be consulted first. Ama¬
Lighting Mains. It is here presumed teurs can, with advantage, rig up a
that more than one accumulator is to lamp resistance board, using batten¬
be charged. It has already been ex¬ mounting lamp holders, for by this
plained that only direct current can means (using lamp resistances of a
be used for charging accumulators, voltage to suit the mains supply, but
and where the source of supply is of various wattages or candle-powers)
alternating current, it must be recti¬ it is a comparatively simple matter
fied in accordance with the instruc¬ to arrange a series of lamps to suit
15
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
the charging rate and voltage re¬ nect this wire to the negative accu¬
quired. No ammeter is required, and mulator terminal, making quite sure
the only disadvantage is the cost of that the wire is of the correct cur¬
charging (the installation itself is rent-carrying capacity (see page 13),
extremely low in cost), for the cur¬ and the other wire to the positive
rent dissipated through the lamp re¬ accumulator terminal. These ter¬
sistances, whilst having to be paid minals are marked + and — on
for, is wasted. the top or sides of the accumulator.
It is also possible to charge accu¬ Positive is red and negative black.
mulators by means of a motor gener¬ Do not put the switch in the “ on ”
ator, but this does not come within position whilst the accumulator is
the scope of this section. being charged. Otherwise you will
If it is desired to charge a small short circuit it, and it will be ruined.
number of cells, say one or two, by Leave the accumulator on charge
means of the lamp-resistance method. until the plates gas freely, that is,
until bubbles issue freely
from them.
The arrangement just
described is shown dia-
grammatically in Fig.
20D.
Using Lamp Resist¬
ances. The following
simple example will
clearly illustrate the use
of lamp resistances for
accumulator charging.
Let it be supposed that
it is required to charge a
2-volt accumulator from
150-volt D.C. mains, and
that the charging rate is
to be 2 amps. Connect
a number of lamp resist-
the first thing to do is to remove the ances in circuit until, by taking am¬
switch cover, after having wired the meter readings, the correct charging
lamp resistance in parallel. Next rate is obtained.
determine the polarity of the mains Connecting Cells. If it is conveni¬
by connecting a length of wire to ent to do so, the accumulators may
the switch terminals (taking care to be connected in series groups and
keep the switch in the “off" posi¬ parallel groups. For example, if
tion), baring the other two ends, twenty cells are to be charged, you
and then immersing them in a cup may arrange two groups of ten cells,
(non-metallic) of water to which a each connected in series, and then
few drops of vinegar have been connect the two groups in parallel or
added. Keep the two ends of the vice versa. This system is known as
wire as far apart as possible. series parallel, and its chief advantage
Bubbles will issue from the wire con¬ lies in the fact that it permits cells
nected to the negative terminal as of assorted capacities to be charged
already explained. at the same time and without risk of
It is now only necessary to con- over-charging.
16
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
Corrosion. To prevent corrosion, therefore very necessary to make up
wipe with a rag, wet with ammonia, the water lost by evaporation, but
and then coat with pure vaseline. quite unnecessary to add acid. Fresh
Once corrosion has started, it must acid should only be added when
be removed from all metal surfaces some of the original electrolyte has
by scraping, filing, or with a wire been lost through spillage, and it
brush. Ammonia and vaseline should should then be carefully adjusted to
then be applied as before. Pay par¬ the correct strength before adding.
ticular attention to keeping the top Never allow the level of the elec-

Glass

Fig. 21.—Hydrometer.

of the affected accumulator clean trolyte to fall below the tops of the
and dry. Vaseline is specified as a plates. The best time to add dis¬
preventive of corrosion, because ord¬ tilled water is just before charging,
inary grease contains animal or vege¬ as the gassing of the accumulator en¬
table fats which increase rather than sures the liquid being well mixed.
prevent the evil. Never carry or store water in any
Use Distilled Water only. Under metallic vessels other than lead.
normal conditions, nothing but pure Glass, earthenware, or lead-lined ves¬
distilled water should ever be added sels are the most satisfactory, and
to an accumulator. Water evapor¬ they should be kept clean and well
ates, sulphuric acid does not. It is covered to keep out impurities.
17
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING

Precautions. When handling and now be apparent why specific gravity

mixing acid, the precautions already readings are the most reliable means
given and here tabulated should be of ascertaining the state of charge
observed : in an accumulator. It has been ex¬
(i) Use glass, china, earthenware, plained that the density of the elec¬
or lead-lined vessels. trolyte increases on charge and de¬
(2) Pour the acid carefully into creases on discharge. This density
the water—not the water into the or specific gravity is measured by
acid, as this may cause spluttering means of a hydrometer (Fig. 21).
and possible personal injury. This hydrometer should have a
(3) Stir very thoroughly and use graduated float showing the actual
a wooden spoon or paddle. strengths of the acid as in the en¬
(4) Allow the liquid to cool be¬ larged view (Fig. 21). Another type
fore taking hydrometer readings. is shown in Fig. 54.
Chemical Action Explained. Be¬ Use of the Hydrometer. Hydro¬
fore proceeding further, it would, meters of the “floating ball” type
perhaps, be as well to explain the are practically useless to the accumu¬
chemical action which takes place in lator man, as they give no indication
a cell during charge and discharge. when the acid is too strong or too
In a fully charged cell (Fig. 19) the weak. Electrolyte fifty points in
negative plate is spongy lead (Pb) excess of the strength specified by
and the positive plate lead peroxide the makers is quite sufficient to ruin
(PbO 2), while the electrolyte is a the plates in most accumulators.
mixture of sulphuric acid and water Hydrometer readings can some¬
(HjSO, and H 2O). This electrolyte times give a false indication. If,
is now at its maximum strength. for instance, acid has been added to
When the cell is placed on dis¬ an accumulator instead of water, a
charge, the acid splits up into H, and hydrometer reading might incorrectly
SO 4. The H 2 combines with some indicate the accumulator to be fully
of the oxygen in the lead peroxide charged.
and forms H,O, while the SO 4 com¬ To correct such false readings, the
bines with the liberated Pb to form accumulator should be placed on
lead sulphate (PbSOJ. As the dis¬ charge until the gravity will not
charge continues the gravity of the rise any higher. The electrolyte
electrolyte falls, both plates become should then be adjusted by removing
entirely sulphated, and the current some of the liquid and replacing with
finally ceases to flow. The strength distilled water until working strength
of the acid is now at its minimum is obtained.
(Fig. 20). To adjust low specific gravity,
Direct current must now be passed charge until no further rise takes
through the cell in order to recharge place, then empty out the electrolyte
it. When this is done, a reverse and replace with the correct strength.
action to the above will take place. Charge again until the accumulator
The lead sulphate on the plates is gasses freely and leave it so gassing
converted into lead peroxide and for one hour, and then make any
spongy lead, while the acid which further slight adjustments that may
has combined with the active ma¬ be necessary.
terial in the plates is driven back Additional causes of false hydro¬
into the electrolyte. meter readings are:
Having obtained a clear under¬ (1) An inaccurate or cracked hy¬
standing of the above facts, it will drometer float.
18
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
(2) Taking readings when freshly too high a rate. Ill-treatment of this
added water has not had time to mix nature causes high temperatures and
with the acid. subsequent ' ‘ growing ’ ' oí the posi¬
(3) Wide variations in electrolyte tive plates. It is impossible to cure,
temperatures. and a seriously affected accumulator
Hydrometer readings may always generally requires new plates
be supplemented by means of voltage A small deposit of sediment in the
tests. Use an accurate moving-coil bottom of a cell is no cause for alarm,
voltmeter, reading 3-0-3 volts, and as there is a slight deposit in even
take all readings while the cells are a brand-new cell. Excessive deposit,
on discharge. Voltmeter readings however, indicates that the active
taken on open circuit are liable to be material is being forced out of the
misleading. Low voltages registered plates—probably through over¬
■on open circuit indicate that the charging.
cells are exhausted or unhealthy, but White deposits of lead sulphate or
high readings do not always mean hydrate are caused by leaving the ac¬
that the cells are in good condition. cumulator standing in a discharged
Having discussed the charging and condition or allowing the level of
general treatment of a normally the electrolyte to fall below the tops
healthy accumulator, let us now con¬ of the plates. Small deposits may
sider the various unhealthy cells often be removed by means of a
which every accumulator man is long, slow charge at, say, half the
called upon to handle from time to normal rate, but a seriously sul¬
time. phated cell will often require new
Overcharging. A furred or blis¬ plates and separators.
tered appearance of the negative Reversed Charge. It sometimes
plate is often an indication of over¬ happens that an accumulator is “re¬
discharging. If hydrometer readings versed ’’— i.e. connected to the charg¬
suggest the presence of strong acid, ing board so that the current flows
charge fully, and then make the through in the wrong direction. In
necessary adjustments or change the this case an attempt should be made
electrolyte entirely. Over-discharg¬ to recondition the accumulator by
ing cannot be remedied, but it should means of a prolonged, slow charge
be checked at once, and tne accu¬ in the right direction. This treatment
mulator given a long, slow charge at is generally successful unless the re¬
a reduced rate. If the evil has gone versal has been going on for a con¬
unchecked for a considerable period, siderable period.
the accumulator may require new Choosing a Wireless Accumulator.
plates. The average wireless set to-day re¬
Excessive frothing on charge and quires an accumulator capable of giv¬
discoloration of celluloid boxes is ing a small supply of current over
another indication of too strong acid. an extended period. A few years
Frothing is sometimes caused by the ago radio valves were exceptionally
presence of an impurity in the elec¬ “ greedy,” but nowadays their cur¬
trolyte, and in this case the accu¬ rent consumption is comparatively
mulator should be treated as for small. Accumulator makers have
strong acid. Wash thoroughly with kept pace with these changes, with
distilled water before adding the the result that the thick-plate type of
fresh electrolyte. accumulator has been evolved.
Swollen or broken positive plates These cells have exceptionally thick
are often a sign of over-charging at and robust plates, specially designed
10
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING
to give a small flow of current for a slightly—and this gradual fall con¬
considerable period. Moreover, they tinues until the battery is useless.
are not so liable to deteriorate if left Now the voltage drop in a wet ac¬
standing in a discharged or semi-dis¬ cumulator is not gradual—it is rapid,
charged condition for any reasonable but it does not take place until the
length of time. end of the charge is reached. This
For about 12s. it is possible to pur¬ ensures a steady flow of current dur¬
chase a splendid 2-volt accumulator ing discharge and improved recep¬
of this type, which will work the tion.
average three-valve set for about a There is, unfortunately, always the
hundred and fifty hours. Using the question of expense to be considered.
set five hours per day, this gives a Not all can afford to lay out the
period of one month between re¬ money for a new set of wet accumu¬
charges, and is about the cheapest lators. Dry batteries are cheaper to
and most satisfactory form of low- buy, but in the long run will prob¬
tension supply for wireless receivers ably prove the more expensive.
obtainable. For about ¿3 10s. one can obtain
For these reasons, the owner of a splendid large-capacity ioo-volt wet
any set taking | ampere or less is accumulator (fully charged). This,
strongly advised to consider the thick¬ with reasonably good care, should
plate type of accumulator, which will give at least four years’ service, and
prove very satisfactory for his re¬ the only expense after the initial
quirements. outlay will be for occasional recharge.
There are, of course, a number of The Size of an Accumulator. Many
enthusiasts with much larger sets re¬ wireless amateurs purchase accumu¬
quiring a low-tension current of 1 am¬ lators far too small for the sets they
pere or even more. For them, the use. It is necessary, when purchasing
thin-plate type of accumulator is an accumulator, to estimate how much
still the best proposition. Thin-plate current in ampere-hours is to be taken
cells are constructed to stand a far from it. Most accumulator manufac¬
higher rate of discharge than the turers clearly state on the label
massive-plate type, but they are, as affixed to the accumulator its dis¬
a rule, more expensive to operate, as charge rate, which should not be ex¬
they require more frequent charging. ceeded. For example, suppose you
The purchaser of one of these cells have a three-valve set using three
must remember that, to keep the ac¬ ■25-amp. valves, the total current
cumulator in first-class condition, it consumption per hour will be -75
is essential to recharge at least once amp., and it is no use purchasing an
a month—whether it has been in use accumulator which will not stand this
or not. rate of discharge. Another factor is
The first question to be asked will that you require the accumulator to
almost inevitably be—“Wet or work the set for at least a fortnight
dry? ” For all-round satisfaction a on one charge. In selecting an ac¬
good wet accumulator is unbeatable. cumulator, proceed on the following
The mam argument in favour of the lines : total up the current consump¬
wet accumulator is that it gives a tion of the valves used in your set;
fairly constant supply of current until assume this to be -75 amp., and that
the voltage drops below 1-7 volts per you wish to use the set for three
cell. hours every evening. If you use the
The moment you put a dry battery set for three hours every evening it
on your set, the voltage begins to fall will be consuming -75 amp. for
20
 ACCUMULATOR CHARGING — REPAIR
twenty-one hours a week, equal to the paste into the pockets of the grid.
approximately 16 ampere-hours. In A piece of newspaper is then placed
a month this would total 64 ampere- on top of the plate, and another flat
hours, and to allow a slight margin board on top of that. This enables
to meet the case an 80 ampere-hour the plate to be turned over so that
accumulator should be purchased. it can be pasted on the opposite side.
Whether the accumulator is re¬ Drying. Stack the plates carefully
quired for a wireless set or ior any in a warm room to dry. After three
other purpose it is necessary, in order or four days dip the plates in sul¬
that you should choose the correct phuric acid (125 specific gravity)
type, to know what current is to be and re-dry.
taken from it. Paste for Negative Plates Use the
following ingredients : 5 parts by
weight litharge, 1 part by weight of
i-io specific gravity sulphuric acid.
Mix, apply, and dry as for positive
plates.
For a high-rate discharge cell, the
paste for the negative plates can be
varied as below :
Litharge, 99-96 per cent.; lamp-
black, -03 per cent.; wood flour, -or
per cent. One-sixth of the total
weight of the above of rio specific
gravity sulphuric acid.
Use acid of 112 specific gravity,
charge at the rate of about -02 amp.
per square inch of the plate area,
counting both sides of the plate.

ACCUMULATOR REPAIR.—Ac¬
cumulator failures and troubles are
usually due to one of the following
F1C. 22.—Sediment should be removed periodically,
causes : sulphated plates, short cir¬
to prevent short-orcuiting oí pistes. cuits inside the battery low level of
acid, wrong specific gravity of acid,
ACCUMULATOR PASTES.— The buckled plates, shedded plates (that
following ingredients are required : 4 is, plates from which some of the
parts by weight rediead (Pb 3O4), 1 part paste has fallen out), loose connec¬
by weight litharge (PbO), 1 part by tors between the cells, faulty ter¬
weight sulphuric acid (1-12 specific minal connections. The usual voltage
gravity). Add the acid gradually to and specific gravity tests of in¬
the mixture of rediead and litharge, dividual cells will indicate the faulty
stirring well until a fairly stiff paste cells and the probable cause of the
has been formed. Thorough mixing trouble, but it is possible for a bat¬
is essential, and care must be taken tery to have a comparatively low
not to make the paste too thin. output or capacity whilst the voltage
How to Apply. Place the grid on and specific gravity readings are
a flat board and use a scoop to place apparently correct.
the paste in the grid. A wooden Examination of the Battery. Open
spreader should then be used to force the case and scrape away as much
21
 ACCUMULATOR REPAIR
dust and dirt as possible by means then be found possible to remove the
of a brush; then clean off all grease plates by means of two pairs of pliers
and acid with a cloth moistened in a gripping the terminal posts. In cases
solution of washing soda or a brush where a blowlamp cannot be used,
dipped in petrol. Do not allow the soda immerse the battery in boiling water.
to mix with the electrolyte. Examine Examining the Plates. Gently prise
the terminal connections. If they are the plates open and make a prelimin¬
loose, tighten them; if they are badly ary examination. If the condition is
corroded, scrape them clean. Ex¬ fairly good remove any visible short
amine the connections to the battery circuit and insert a small piece of
and make sure that they are not ebonite to prevent the trouble re-
frayed. Look for cracks in the seal¬
ing compound, test the level of the
electrolyte, and if the level is low
fdl up with pure distilled water so
that the level is about J in. above
the top of the plates. After the bat¬
tery is fully charged test the specific
gravity of each cell after it has gassed
freely for some time. If the battery
is in good condition, the reading
should be 1250 to I’joo.
Dismantling and Repair. Accumu¬
lators of the bitumen type are usu¬
ally made up of single containers in
a wooden case with both lower and
top covers burnt on to the connect¬
ing straps and terminals. Before any
repair can be undertaken the accumu¬ F1C. 23.—Method of preventing corrosion of terminals
by means of a vaseline gland.
lator should be drained and thor¬
oughly washed out.
Removing Connecting Rars. Use a
drill of the same size as the post, and curring. Now place the group of
drill a hole partly through strap and cells back in the container, fill up
terminal Place a piece of bar iron on to the correct level with acid, re¬
the edge of the case, and with a screw¬ place the connecting straps, and
driver prise off the bars (Fig. 22), charge at about one-third of the nor¬
removing the cover and compound. mal rate until the colour of the plates
The compound softens at about 200 o is good, and see that they are gassing
F. It should be heated up with a freely. No attempt should be made
blowlamp, after the vent plugs have to straighten the plates or replace
been removed and all gas blown from the separators until this charge has
the inside of the cell by means of a been given, as this charge anneals
pair of bellows. It has been known them and renders then soft and work¬
for explosions to occur through failure able. After charging, drain and re¬
to observe this precaution. Keep the move for further examination. Open
flame on the move, and then with a out the plates, remove a few separa¬
large screwdriver, which has been tors, and joggle the plates free of
heated, clean out the compound along each other and the separators. It
the edges of the case and work it will be found that positive plates
about until the cover is free. It will suffer more than negative. A slight
22
 ACCUMULATOR REPAIR
rub with the finger on the negative An oxy-coal, gas, or acetylene flame
plates should produce a shiny lead is required for burning. The parts
appearance. If they are hard bulged, to be joined should be thoroughly
and have a rough granulated ap¬ cleaned by scraping, and heat being
pearance, and if the positives are applied carefully by a small pointed
cracked, soft, or brittle or thin, due jet, lug and connecting strap are
to shedding, the plates are useless, melted together, lead being added as
and new ones should be obtained. required.
If the positives and negatives are Renewing the Separators. Always
hard, white with sulphate, and dry, renew the separators after the plates
do not waste further time upon them. are removed, when they are made of
If the plates are usable wash them wood. Hard rubber and ebonite
under the tap, and interleave wooden separators can usually be used again.
boards of the correct thickness, finally After replacing the assembled plates
pressing them between wooden cramps and separators in the cell, immedi¬
in the jaws of a vice. Charged nega¬ ately fill with electrolyte of specific
tives should not be kept out of acid gravity 1-300 to | in. above the tops
or water for more than a few minutes of the plates. Scrape the inside clear
at a time. of compound ready to receive the
The Positive Plates. Now attend covers. Clean these with boiling
to the positive plates. These are water. The covers can be fitted over
rather more delicate; if they are the plate posts before or after fitting
buckled they may be straightened in in the boxes. When the cover has
the vice in the same manner as the been fitted, pour sufficient compound
negatives, or the edges may be gently around the edges to effectively seal
gone over with a pair of parallel jaw the top, and level off by application
pliers. of the gas flame or a piece of hot
Lead Burning. This requires con¬ iron. If the cover is a loose fit, a
siderable experience and apparatus. piece of asbestos string can be in¬
Plates of different ages or types serted to stop’ the compound from
should not be used for the repair of running through. The compound is
any particular group, but a positive heated in a plumber’s ladle on an
group need not necessarily be of the ordinary gas-ring. Next charge the
same age as the negative group used battery at about one-third of its
with it. If all the plates are bad it normal rate, and if at any time dur¬
is cheaper to buy a new set. but if ing this period the temperature ex¬
only one or two require replacing this ceeds 100° F. reduce the charging
may be attempted. current. Continue the charge until
If the plates to be replaced are on no further rise in voltage or specific
the outside, saw them off just below gravity takes place for a space of
the connecting strap. If one or two four hours, after which the charge
inner plates are to be replacée, break may be considered complete.
them off at the lug close to tfie junc¬ Adjusting the Electrolyte. Various
tion with the connecting strap by changes will have taken place in the
bending backwards and forwards with newly added electrolyte, due to the
a pair of pliers. action of sulphate soaking into
Saw slots in the strap to receive separators and plates, and the effect
the lugs of the new plates with a of charging. At the end of charge,
good fit. if the specific gravity of any cell is
A burning rack is now required to above 1-300 draw off some of the
hold the plates firmly in position. electrolyte and replace to correct level

«3
 ACCUMULATOR REPAIR
with distilled water. Use good-quality duct of hours and amperes gives the
acid when necessary to replace it. capacity in ampere-hours.
If the specific gravity is below 1-300 Effects of Overcharging a Battery.
draw off some of the electrolyte and Except in the case of a sulphated
make up with acid of 1-400 or 1-350 cell, when gassing takes place at the
specific gravity. Charge the battery plates at all times, gassing on a large
again to mix the electrolyte thor¬ scale only occurs when the chemical
oughly, and test again. Continue the changes at the plate are nearing com¬
adjustment, until with the electrolyte pletion. Consequently, continued
at the correct level the specific gravity gassing after such completion of
is 1-300. Never add any but dis¬ charge has taken place is simply
tilled water. Tap water should never wasting energy. In any case, the
be used. Refer to the tables on charge should be reduced so that gas¬
page 4- sing is not excessive. If continued in
Correction for Temperature. The excess the gas which is being pro¬
values given on page 4 are correct for a duced in the pores of the plate causes
temperature of 70 o F. A correction disruption of the paste, loss of capac¬
must be made if the temperature ity due to shedding, and perhaps
differs from this. To obtain the short circuiting. A battery is kept
actual specific gravity at 70° F. add in better condition if at some period¬
one point to the reading obtained for ical time, say once per week or fort¬
every 3° the temperature is above night, it is given a prolonged gassing
70°, subtracting one point for every charge, as this ensures all the active
3° below this temperature. Some material being in a healthy condition.
makers prefer a lower specific gravity, This will give an efficient battery, but
and in such a case the table given overcharging generally is of no value,
here should be used. and may be detrimental both to the
life and capacity of the cells. It is
Actual Hydrometer Readings at indicated by high specific gravity at
Temperatures shown below to
Condition give 1-280 at 60° F.
all times.
of Effects of Under-char ging . Habitu¬
Cells.
4o°F. 5o°F. 6o°F. 7o°F. 8o°F. 9o°F.
IOO® ally under-charging, on the other
F.
hand, is bad policy. It is not good
-,-|'
practice to get as much out of a bat¬
Fully
charged 1-288 1-284 1-280 1-276 1-272 1-268 1-264 tery as possible nor to use it without
Half dis sense or reason. Nothing undermines
charged 1-207 I-2O4 1-200 1196 I-I93 1-189 i-i86
Fully dis the efficiency of a battery so much
charged 1-115. I-II3I-II0 1-107 I-X04 1*101 1-098 or reduces its useful life to such a
degree as persistent under-charging.
To ensure satisfactory working the If the voltage per cell is allowed to
battery should now be charged at fall below j-8 repeatedly, and dis¬
its normal rate until fully charged, charge is continually drawn from it
when it should be discharged through at this or lower values, sulphation in¬
a coil or water rheostat at its normal variably occurs. The sulphate so
discharge rate until the voltage equals formed is the same as that produced
an average of i-8 per cell. This dis¬ when a battery is left for long periods
charge current should be kept at a in a discharged state, and is of the
constant value by varying the rheo¬ hard, greyish crystalline kind, which
stat, and the number of hours for is an insulator, and is so hard to get
which the battery will give out this rid of. Under-charging is indicated
current should be noted. The pro¬ by low specific gravity.
24
 ACCUMULATOR REPAIR
really another
electrode
which forms
two other
cells with the
positive and
negative
plates and
the acid.
To make a
cadmium test,
place the cad¬
mium between
the plates
and the centre
sections
F1C. 24.—Testing a fully charged Accumulator
as described,
and make
The Cadmium Test far Faulty contact with the other voltmeter
Plates. An instrument known as a terminal on + and — lead ter¬
cadmium tester is really a -voltmeter minals of the cell alternately. The
with a central zero reading on its reading with the contact on the +
scale, an arrangement which permits terminal should be to the right of
of polarity tests. Two flexible leads zero and about 2-4 to 2-5 volts. The
are attached to it. The positive lead reading with the contact on the
is of the ordinary type, but the nega¬ — terminal should be to the left of
tive lead has a piece of cadmium zero and about —0-15 to — o-2 volt.
about 4 in. long by j in. diameter This is obviously equal to a voltage
soldered to it. This cadmium ex¬ of 2-4 + 0-15 = 255 volts between
tremity has a perforated rubber battery terminals. If the positive
covering or ebonite tube covering, so reading is appreciably less than 2-4
that when used the metai cannot volts, or the negative near zero or
make direct contact with the plates. even on the + side of zero the posi-
This nega¬
tive lead is
placed
through one
of the vent
holes into
the liquid
between the
two plates,
and prefer¬
ably in the
centre of
the section.
It will
readily
be perceived
that the cad-
m i u m is

P.W.E.—B 25
 ACCUMULATOR REPAIR
tive or negative plates respectively which form it is supplied, add 1 lb
are defective. Towards the end of of solid to 2 lb. of distilled water,
charge the cell voltage is obviously or by volume 1 gallon of water, which
the sum of the two readings ob¬ is about equal to 10 lb., to 5 lb. of
tained. solid. Do the dissolving in perfectly
Celluloid Accumulators. Celluloid clean iron, glass, or earthenware re¬
cases are either moulded or built up. ceptacles. Galvanised or soldered
Plastic celluloid is made from a mix¬ vessels should not be used. The
ture of nitrate cellulose and gum cam¬ slightest trace of lead battery acid
phor in amylacetate, pressed in a in the electrolyte will lower the capac¬
mould or rolled into sheets. The ity of the cell, and greater quanti¬
sheets, cut to size, have their edges ties will destroy it.
stuck together with a paste made of The Nickel-Iron-Alkali Accumu¬
celluloid and amylacetate. lator. In this type of cell the posi¬
The onlv advantage of the celluloid tive plate is a stout steel frame in
jar is its transparency. Its great dis¬ which are fixed a great number of
advantage is its intlammability. perforated steel tubes filled with
Examination of plates can be made alternate layers of nickel hydroxide
without opening out. To open out, and nickel. The negative plate, also
when necessary, insert the blade of of steel, binds together a large num¬
a knife in the join between cover and ber of rectangular pockets filled with
side of jar and prise open. powdered iron oxide.
To repair case after overhaul of The electrolyte is a solution of
plates, scrape the edges of case and potassium hydrate having a specific
cover with a knife. Dissolve some gravity of 1-400. This alkali does
scrapings of celluloid in amylacetate not attack the steel grids or con¬
to form a thick solution and apply tainers, but if exposed to the air it
this to the edges to be joined. Clamp combines with carbon dioxide and
in position by clips until set. Keep forms useless potassium carbonate, so
all terminals and connectors coated that the containers must be almost air¬
with vaseline to prevent corrosion. tight, in order that gas may escape
Nickel-iron Cells. Top up with from the inside. The electrolyte is
distilled water to level indicated above necessary to bring about the transfer¬
plates; never add acid or use it in ence of oxygen from one plate to the
any way in dealing with this type of other on charge and discharge, but does
battery. Keep filler plugs tight, and not change in composition or specific
do not expose electrolyte to air longer gravity value during the working of
than necessary. the cell. Voltage readings, there¬
Keep cells clear of dust and mois¬ fore, form the only means of deter¬
ture. The specific gravity of the mining the state of the cell.
electrolyte falls with age and must The voltage of any cell depends on
be completely renewed when it falls the materials used for the plates.
below a certain value. Nickel-iron That of the nickel-iron type is found
cells are worked at specific gravity to be 1-25 when fully charged, and
1-190 and are considered exhausted about i-i volts when discharged. Its
when this falls to i-j6o. The cells great advantages over the lead-acid
can be stored for any length of time type are its smaller weight, greater
if charged and then partially dis¬ robustness or mechanical strength, ab¬
charged. Before being put in service sence of acid, and freedom from
again charge fully. To prepare the troubles caused by short circuiting.
liquid electrolyte from the solid, in The nickel-iron-alkali accumulator
26
 ACCUMULATOR REPAIR
discharge only the surface of the
Dynamo plates is acted upon, and acid dif¬
fusion being limited, the capacity
suffers temporarily. A sufficiency of
charge must, of course, have been
given to the plates to convert the
paste to chemically active material
in the first case. If a lead-acid cell
be discharged below 1-8 volts per cell,
trouble may ensue. The conducting
sulphate of the discharged negative
plate is converted to hard non-con¬
ducting sulphate, which is so difficult
to reconvert to useful spongy lead,
and covers up areas of useful paste
from the action of the acid. The
capacity therefore decreases when
such sulphate is produced, and in the
endeavour to get rid of it, shedding
of paste, with consequent loss of

Main
Terminals

F1C. 26.—Method oí testing a Dynamo for Polarity.

(Sae also Fig. F7.)

has been used with marked success

for motor-cycle lighting.
Capacity of a Cell. Capacity de¬
pends on the amount of active ma¬
terial available, the charge put into
the cell, the rare of discharge, the
temperature and the state of the cell
as regards sulpliation, and short cir¬
cuit. The condition of the plates has
a great deal io do with the capacity
of a cell and its ability to hold a
charge.
The amount of active material
available depends on the quantity
upon the plates and the acid which
has access to it. At slow rates of
discharge, the acid can circulate into
the pores of the plates, and thus the
greater portion of the paste will be
FlC. 27.—Method of testing Mains for Polarity.
chemically active. At high rates of (See also Fig. 17.)

27
 ACCUMULATOR REPAIR
capacity or internal short circuiting works with very little attention and
of plates, results with decreased has an output of 50/60 volts, 30 am¬
capacity, and still more sulphating. peres. This would charge up ten
Temporary loss in capacity therefore 6-volt or five 12-volt Latteries in
always results from too-rapid dis¬ series, or a larger number at a lower
charge, whilst prolonged discharges amperage than 30 in parallel.
below 1-8 volts, or leaving the cells A wall-type series resistance regu¬
in a discharged state results in sul¬ lator enables the set to be used for
phation and permanent injury, which charging as low as one 6-volt battery
it is almost impossible to rectify. alone, or more in series, according to
Removing Sediment and Sludge. the value of the resistance inserted in
If only one cell of a battery is de¬ the rheostat.
ficient, and it is required to empty For large garages and charging
the box of acid and sludge after the equipments, larger types of rotary
plates are taken out, this should be converters or motor-generator sets
done by a syphon or sludge pump. are perhaps more convenient. These
The case should not be tipped, or may be ordered for any given output
the deposit in the good cells gets on the D.C. side, and suitable for
mixed with plates and separators to connection to any A.C. supply at any
their detriment, considerably shorten¬ voltage and frequency. The particu¬
ing their life. lars required are the number of
A syphon can be made from a piece phases, single-, two-, or three-phase,
of lead tubing to which is attached of the A.C. supply, the voltage and
a longer length of flexible rubber frequency; and the output in volts
tubing. The syphon, filled with and amperes required on the D.C.
water and with both ends closed, side for charging the maximum num¬
should be placed with its lead end ber of batteries at once. Reckon
below the liquid level in the box, and about 3 volts per cell when calculat¬
the other hanging to a lower level ing the D.C. voltage.
outside, and then the ends opened. Portable Accumulators. One of the
Acid will then be drawn over, and many difficulties with which the de¬
the sludge, stirred about by the signers of portable wireless sets have
piece of lead tubing, will come over had to contend is the question of the
with it. Meanwhile, water is run low-tension accumulator. An ordin¬
into the box for so long as is neces¬ ary dry battery can, of course, be
sary to rid it of all traces of sedi¬ used for the high-tension supply, but
ment. the standard low-tension accumu¬
Battery Charging by Rotary lator is quite unsuitable for use in a
Machines. A number of single portable set owing to the danger of
machines of the rotating type for spilled acid.
rectifying A.C. are available when As a result of this, nearly all port¬
accumulator charging is to be done able sets are fitted with special un-
on a large scale. Connections at one spillable cells of either the "free
end are to the A.C. supply, whilst acid” or "jelly acid” type. These
from the commutator end of the small unspillable cells require rather
shaft connections are made through more careful handling than the ordin¬
an automatic cut-in and cut-out to ary low-tension accumulator, and
the batteries on charge. In larger some practical hints on their main¬
sizes a transformer is used, connected tenance now follow.
between the A.C. supply and the slip Firstly, the average unspillable cell
rings or terminals. The machine is very often too small for the job !
 ACCUMULATOR REPAIR — TROUBLES
The fault lies, not with the battery pere-hours in the capacity of a 20
makers, but with the designers of ampere-hour cell is a serious loss,
the sets, who leave a ridiculously in¬ and charging bills begin to mount
adequate space for the housing of the up at an alarming rate. It is advis¬
low-tension battery. It is obviously able to take your batteries to the best
false economy to fit a four- or five- charging station and to ensure that
valve set with a cell of only 15 to they are always returned in a fully
20 ampere-hours’ capacity, as the cell charged condition.
will spend as much time at the charg¬ The following few simple rules
ing station as it will on the set ! will enable you to obtain better ser¬
It is this smallness of many un¬ vice from your unspillable cells.
spillable cells that gives rise to a Charge whenever the specific
large percentage of our battery trou¬ gravity falls to 1100 or the voltage
bles during the summer months. to 1-8. In any case, charge at least
These cells are not designed to hold once a month.
their charge over a long period and, Unspillable cells of the " free acid ”
even when fully charged, they should type may be tested in the usual way
never be allowed to stand for more by taking hydrometer readings of the
than a month without a freshening specific gravity of the electrolyte. It
charge. If this precaution is neg¬ is, however, impossible to test the
lected, the cells show a tendency to gravity of a “jelly acid” cell, and
sulphate, and soon become quite use¬ the only way to ascertain the state
less. of charge is by taking voltage read¬
Sulphation takes place much more ings.
rapidly if the cell is left in a dis¬ Maintain the acid level by adding
charged or partially discharged con¬ distilled water only, but be careful
dition, and this is, unfortunately, all not to fill above the “ danger line.”
too frequently the case with unspill- Even an unspillable cell may leak if
able accumulators. Let us suppose the correct volume of electrolyte is
that the portable has been used in exceeded.
the garden during the week-end and Keep all terminals and connections
then closed up and forgotten for per¬ clean and well coated with vaseline,
haps a couple of weeks. The cell and make sure that the filling plug is
has been left in a half-charged state screwed up tight.
and, when warted, will probably be ACCUMULATOR TROUBLES-
found to have the plates covered with CAUSE AND CURE.— One of the
a white deposit of lead sulphate. most common causes of battery
Slight traces of sulphate may be failure is over-discharging and then
removed by slow and careful charg¬ leaving the battery in a discharged
ing, but a seriously sulphated cell condition. During the autumn and
will require extensive repairs, costing winter months the risk is, of course,
about half the price of a new accumu¬ greatly reduced, as the battery (par¬
lator. ticularly when employed for multi¬
Another point in connection with valve sets) is often in almost constant
these small-capacity portable cells is use, and is therefore charged and dis¬
that they require more careful treat¬ charged at fairly frequent intervals.
ment at the charging station. If we In the summer, however, the wire¬
are using a 60 ampere-hour cell, and less set or radiogramophone is no
are getting about 50 ampere-hours longer in such demand.
from it, we scarcely notice the de¬ Therefore, it is necessary to take
ficiency. But a drop of only 5 am¬ precautions that the wireless accumu-
29
 ACCUMULATOR TROUBLES
lators (and also wet high-tension bat¬ mediately, the nuisance will persist,
teries, when such are used) are not until eventually the acid will spread
left discharged and neglected, or sul¬ all over the cells, connectors, and
phation will inevitably follow and, even down to the battery box and
unless immediate steps are taken to to the floor. This acid “creeping”
check it, the affected batteries soon is more common in batteries known
become beyond repair. as “open topped." The prevention
Sulphation. It is worth repeat¬ and cure may be carried out by any
ing that certain types of batteries amateur with very little trouble and
are far better equipped to withstand expense by adopting the procedure
sulphation than others. Most bat¬ which is outlined below.
tery manufacturers market—under First of all, take the plates out of
various names—cells of the " slow- the cells and empty them of acid.
discharge ” type. They are generally Replace the plates and fill up the cells
assembled in glass containers, and with pure distilled water to } in.
have exceptionally thick and robust above the top of the plates. Now
plates. These plates are so con¬ put on charge for thirty hours. At in¬
structed as to give a small supply of tervals, see that the water covers
current over a long period, and are the plates. On no account must the
admirably suited for the average two- tops of the plates be allowed to pro¬
or three-valve set, or for bell work. trude the very slightest amount above
If the batteries are of this type, the surface of the water.
the risk of sulphation—even if the After being thoroughly charged,
battery is to stand idle for several empty the water out and wash the
months — need cause no alarm. cells clean and then dry. Next, not
Merely see that the cell is given a quite boil them in ammonia water for
long, slow discharge, clean and vase¬ five minutes. Clean and then dry
line the terminals, and it should thoroughly.
stand for a period of quite six months When handling the plates in this
without the slightest ill effect. It is condition, the utmost care should be
advisable to examine the cell from exercised that the paste is not dis¬
time to time to ensure that white lodged.
specks of lead sulphate are not form¬ Melt a sufficient quantity of paraffin
ing on th« edges of the plates. wax in a dish. Take great care not
Celluloid Cases. Batteries capable to tip the wax into the flame. Take
of standing a much higher rate of each cell and dip the top about | in.
discharge than the above are fre¬ into the wax. The connecting bars
quently assembled in celluloid cases, of the plates must be treated in the
and consist of a large number of thin same way.
plates with wooden or ebonite Allow the wax to harden and then
separators. While suitable for being re-assemble the battery. Fill up with
charged and discharged more quickly fresh acid of correct specific gravity
than the thick-plate type, these cells and charge in the manner already de¬
require more careful treatment when scribed.
not in use. iChat is the Electrolyte? It con¬
Stopping Acid from Creeping. sists of a mixture of pure sulphuric
When the acid in a high-tension acid and distilled water. If you are
battery begins to "creep,” the wire¬ filling your own batteries and "break¬
less enthusiast is placed in a decidedly ing down ” strong acid to the required
unpleasant situation. Unless the strength, the precautions already
problem is tackled correctly and im¬ given should be observed :
30
 ACCUMULATOR TROUBLES TYPES

When refilling the accumulator, use over-discharged, and immediately re¬

a small celluloid or glass funnel, charged, very little damage will be
taking care not to spill or splash the done.
acid over the top surface of the ac¬ ACCUMULATOR TYPES.— The
cumulator. for carelessness of this accumulator is obtainable in a number
of different types, the principal differ¬
ences being in the container or dis¬
position of the plates. The most com¬
mon form consists, of course, of the
celluloid container with thin plates
having a large discharge rate. The
glass container usually has the thick¬
plate arrangement giving slow discharge
rates but large capacity. In addition,
there are of course the larger moulded
case accumulators used for cars, etc.
The accumulator of to day consists
primarily of a number of positive and
negative plates bunched together and
immersed in a dilute solution of sul¬
phuric acid. Each set of plates is
connected to a common terminal, and
Fic. 28.—Section of e Heavy-duty type of the individual plates are kept apart
Accumulator. by means of wood or ebonite separa¬
description is the chief cause of cor¬ tors. The outside plates are always
rosion of terminals. negatives, so that there is always one
Corrosion is best prevented by re¬ more negative than positive (Fig.
moving all traces of acid from ter¬ 28).
minals and connections (by wiping The positive plates are of lead
with a rag moistened with ammonia) peroxide while the negatives are
and then coating all metal parts with composed of spongy lead. These
pure vaseline. active materials, as they are called,
Once corrosion has started, it is are imprisoned in the plate grids in
necessary to scrape the affected parts
dean, remove all traces of acid as
before, smear with vaseline, and then
carry out the instructions given on
earlier pages.
Rate of Discharge. No harm is
done to the plats if the battery be
discharged at any rate of current that
it will deliver. The higher the rate of
discharge, however, the faster the
drop in voltage, and if a battery is
discharged at higher than the “ nor¬
mal ” rate the full number of ampere-
hours will not be obtained. A high
rate of discharge should not be con¬
fused with overcharging (too many
ampere hours taken out of the bat¬
F IC. 29.—A Positive Accumulator
tery) . If a battery be accidentally Plate oí the Rosette type.
 ACCUMULATOR TYPES

ingly low. The robust design of the

plates renders them singularly free
from sulphation, and the cells are
therefore able to stand for consider¬
able periods without recharging.
Plates of similar design are em¬
ployed in the modern high-tension
battery, and in any accumulator
where the discharge is slow or inter¬
mittent, and where recharging may
only be carried out at infrequent
intervals. Slow-discharge cells are
particularly suitable for operating
bells, telephone, electric clocks, and
burglar, or fire, alarms.
Thin-plate Cells. Thin-plate cells,
as shown in Fig. 28, are recom¬
F le. 30. Section oí a Slow Discharge mended for heavier duty than the
type of Accumulator. “ slow-discharge ” type. The con¬
struction of the plates renders fre¬
a number of different ways. The
quent recharging essential, as they
grids art- merely supports for the
are more susceptible to sulphation.
active material, and are generally
These cells will give comparatively
made of an alloy of lead and anti¬
heavy currents over long periods, but
mony—this being harder than pure
should be recharged at least every
lead.
three or four weeks. They stand up
In many accumulators the active
to a quick charge, and discharge
material is “ pasted ” on to the grids,
better than the "thick-plate” types,
while others employ the " box ” type
and are suitable for multi-valve
of plate, consisting of a narrow, per¬
radio sets, model driving, and simi¬
forated box filled with active material.
lar tasks. These cells are assembled
Again, the active material is some¬
in both glass and celluloid cases, but
times forced into the grid in the form
owing to its heat-resisting properties
of rosettes of gimped lead tape (Fig.
the glass-case type is always recom¬
29).
mended for use in tropical climates.
Thick-plate Cells. There is, of The thin type of plate is also fitted
course, a very popular type of ac¬
in the small unspillable cells supplied
cumulator which often has only two
for portable wireless sets and elec¬
plates. These are known as the
tric hand lamps. These cells have
slow - discharge or thick - plate
type, and are particularly suitable
for working bells or supplying the
low-tension current for wireless sets.
These cells have exceptionally thick
and robust plates specially designed
to give a small flow of current over
an extended period (Fig. 30).
Thick-plate cells are intended
for small discharge rates only, say
up to 2 amperes, and the rate of
charge should be kept correspond¬ F1C. 31.—The Grid ready for pasting.

32
 ACCUMULATOR TYPES
an acid trap whic h permits the gases is pressed, the current: from the bat¬
to escape, yet renders the spilling of tery drives the starting motor, and
electrolyte impossible. Another im- this in turn "cranks” the engine.
While the engine is running, it drives
a charging dynamo and generates
current for recharging the battery.
This rate of recharge is very high
—anything from 8 to 20 amperes
under normal running conditions—
while the strain placed upon the bat¬
tery during the actual start is truly
tremendous. A standard car battery
of 100 ampere-hours capacity will
deliver a starting current of about
260 amperes for five minutes, or 120
amperes for twenty minutes.
Motor-cycle batteries, while not
called upon to deliver such large
currents as car batteries, are of simi¬
lar robust construction. Head and
tail lamps and an electric horn place
a very heavy strain upon the bat¬
tery, which has to be particularly
strong to withstand the abnormal
vibrations to which all motor-cycle
accumulators are subject.
Fic.32.—2-volt Cell for Radio purposes. The moulded
glass container obviati-s the use of separators.
For the lighting of trains and buses
and the propulsion of electric vehi¬
cles a special type of battery is
portant feature of their design is that again necessary. One method of
the plates are always immersed in accomplishing this is to enclose the
the acid even when the receiver is in active positive material in slitted
either the carrying or operating posi¬ ebonite tubes instead of the cus¬
tion. Many of these portable cells tomary grid of lead or lead alloy.
are rendered doubly unspillable by These slitted tubes allow the electro¬
filling them with ' jelly ’ electrolyte; lyte free access to the active ma¬
although their capacity for holding a terial, yet hold the latter in position
charge is considerably reduced. more satisfactorily than the ordinary-
Thin-plates are also employed in flat lead grid. This gives a longer
the construction of the modern car life, and enables the battery to
starting and lighting battery. withstand the abnormally heavy de¬
These batteries are assembled in mands made upon it from time to
non-conducting composition con¬ time.
tainers, or ebonite boxes in wooden Plante and Faure. In the large
trays. They have a large number of batteries for house-lighting and simi¬
plates per 2-volt cell (sometimes lar work, various types of plates are
twenty-five, or more), and are de¬ employed, but all are modifications
signed to withstand exceptionally of the two principal methods named
heavy rates of charge and discharge after their inventors—Plante and
(see Fig. 23). Faure.
When the electric starter of a car In the Plante type of plate, the
P.W.E.—B* 33
 ACCUMULATOR TYPES
active material is “ formed ” in a is a great advantage. Furthermore,
thin layer on the lead grid, and a they do not deteriorate if left stand¬
large surface is therefore necessary ing in a discharged condition, and
in order to get sufficient volume of the plates do not buckle or sulphate
active material. This difficulty is —serious defects in the lead-acid ac¬
usually overcome by grooving or cumulator. The only disadvantage
laminating the plate, and thus pro¬ of the Edison type of accumulator is
curing a surface area of about ten its low voltage, which is only about
times that of a plain lead sheet of 13 volts per cell.
similar size. The Faure type of Unspillable Accumulators. As al¬
plate is generally a pasted grid or a ready stated, there are instances, as
lead grid containing pellets of active with portable wireless sets, where it is
material. Box-type negative plates necessary that the accumulator should
are often used in conjunction with be unspillable. Most manufacturers
Plante positives, and the whole as¬ now list an accumulator of this type,
sembled in large glass containers. and it is marketed in two forms.
Tremendous batteries of this type The first consists of the usual acid-
are built up (some have a capacity filled accumulator with a non-leak¬
of over 2,000 ampere hours), and ing valve fitted in place of the usual
are used for a variety of purposes vent, and the second consists of an
—house, yacht, and factory lighting, accumulator with either a glass-wool
or supplying the extra power required or jelly electrolyte.
by electric sub-stations during ‘ ' rush An accumulator filled with jelly
hours.” They are also installed as electrolyte has one very obvious ad¬
emergency equipment (automatically vantage over the more common or
coming into operation when the nor¬ acid type—it is unspillable. In ad¬
mal supply fails) in banks, hospitals, dition to being of special value for
cinemas, large stores, and public portable wireless sets, jelly acid cells
buildings. eliminate the possibility of damage
Edison or Nickel-Iron Accumu¬ to furniture and carpets through spill¬
lators. It will be noticed that the ing or leaking.
foregoing types of accumulators are Jelly electrolyte consists of sul¬
all of the lead-acid type, but this phuric acid to which a given propor¬
volume would be incomplete without tion of sodium silicate has been
some reference to the Edison or added. Jellification takes place at
nickel-iron type of battery—the only varying speeds according to the pro¬
practical accumulator that does not portions in which the two chemicals
embody the use of lead. are mixed. A suitable mixture which
The plate grids of the Edison ac¬ jellifies in five or six minutes is—i
cumulator are of steel, and carry per¬ part of pure sodium silicate (1,200
forated steel tubes or pockets con¬ specific gravity) to 3 parts of cold
taining the active material. The sulphuric acid (1,400 specific
positive plate is packed with alter¬ gravity).
nate layers of metallic nickel and As jellification takes place fairly
nickel hydrate, while the negative rapidly it is essential to arrange that
is packed with iron oxide. All con¬ the entire operation may be carried
tainers, terminals, and connectors through without any hitch or delay.
are of steel, and the electrolyte is a The cell to be filled with jelly acid
solution of potassium hydrate. should be given a first charge, using
These cells are remarkably strong, ordinary free sulphuric acid. This
and the absence of any corrosive acid acid should then be poured off, and
34
 ACETONE — AERIALS
the cell inverted and allowed to drain films, and yielding a glow which has
tor about half an hour. greater actinic value than a neon
ACETONE.— A colourless liquid lamp. A microphone is employed to
related to acetic acid; pyro-acetic convert the speech and music into elec¬
acid, sometimes used in wireless for trical vibrations, which are changed
jointing and repairing celluloid. Used into light variations (through the
as a solvent for fats, camphor, and medium of the Aeo Light), and are
resins, for making chloroform. Also thus recorded on the film.
known as dimethyl-ketone and methyl¬ AERIALS AND EARTHS.—The
acetyl. It is very inflammable. (See two most important factors in the
Amyl Acetate.) efficiency of an aerial are insulation
ACIDOMETER.— Apparatus for
measuring the strength of acids. A
hydrometer (which see).
ACLINIC LINES.— Any line on a
diagram or map which represents the
magnetic equator.
ACOUSTIC.—The sense ef hearing,
the science of sound is known as
acoustics.
ACOUSTIC FEED-BACK.— The
effect produced when the sound from
F1C. 34.—For a Single-wire Aerial
loudspeakers feeds back to the micro¬ three Insulators should be fitted at
phone. each end.
ACOUSTIC WATT.—Tlie unit of
sound energy, based on a reference and height. The energy collected by
level of io-^ watt per squ. centimetre. the aerial is quite small, and, con¬
(See Bel, Decibel, Neper, and Phon.) sisting of "high-frequency currents,"
ACOUSTIC WAVES.—S o u n d takes the shortest path to earth.
waves. One must therefore take care that the
ACTINOMETER.— A p p a ratus shortest path to earth is through the
which measures the actinic value of tuning coil of the set, and not via
light. the mast or house to which the aerial
ADAPTOR, SHORT-WAVE.— See is fixed. For the same reason the
Circuit and Short-ivave Adaptor. actual aerial wire should be suspended
ADMIRALTY UNIT.—The unit of in such a position that it does not
capacity run parallel with any earthed body,
known as the such, for instance, as a wall or roof.
Jar (which Three feet should be considered the
see). very minimum distance which should
ADMIT- be allowed between the aerial and
TANCE.— any other earthed body .
Anything The Mast. The most satisfactory
which aids
FlG. 33.—The wire passed mast consists of sections of steel tub¬
through the insulator to form a
double bight. current flow ing screwed together, with the bottom
in a circuit. section about 2 in. in diameter, and
May be calculated by dividing i by the top about i in. Lengths of the
the impedance. The uait is the Mho timber known as 2-in. quartering
(ohm reversed). may also be bolted together to form
AEO LIGHT.—A lamp used in the quite a good strong mast. A pulley
production of sound or " talkie ” should be fixed at the lop to enable
35
 AERIALS
the aerial to be lowered periodically In this way the aerial and lead-in are
in order that the insulators may be all in one, with no connection to be¬
cleaned. The mast should be sup¬ come corroded. If, however, owing
ported by guys at either side and at to your having insufficient wire or
the back. These may be of either any other reason, a joint has to be
rope or galvanised wire, and should made, it should be thoroughly sol¬
each be broken in two places and dered, and then bound with insula¬
insulators inserted. tion tape of the rubber variety, or
Where a total length of 60 ft. can painted, to avoid corrosion.
be obtained, use a single-wire aerial, Outside the window a lightning
but if th« amount of space at your switch should be fitted, and this
disposal will only allow a run of should be of the type known as
about 30 ft. or less, then use a " double-pole-double-throw " (unless,
double-wire aerial with the two wires
spaced by means of a bamboo stick,
with a separation of 3 ft. Do not
have the wires closer than this.
Egg and Reel Insulators. In¬
sulators of either the egg or reel
variety are both cheap and effi¬
cient, and in the case of a single¬
wire aerial, six should be the mini¬
mum to use, three at either end.
They should be joined together to
form a chain, as shown in Fig. 34,
and at the lower (or garden) end
one end of the chain should be at¬
tached to a length of good quality of course, you can afford one of the
rope threaded through the pulley. proper lightning arresters). The
One end of the aerial should be se¬ method of connecting up the switch
curely fixed to the other end of this is shown in Fig. 35, and if wired up
chain. At the house end, the other in this manner the aerial is com¬
chain of three should be fixed to a pletely disconnected from the house
pole, or a length of galvanised wire when the switch is in the “ off ” posi¬
attached to a staple in the wall or tion. The w ire to earth should be of
chimney stack, so that when the the same material as the aerial proper,
aerial is attached to the end of this or of some thicker wire. Do not use
chain the down lead will hang about anything thinner.
3 ft. from the wall, and, if passible, The Earth Connection. There is
directly above the window through no doubt that the ideal earth connec¬
which it is eventually to be led. tion is a buried plate of metal. This
The Aerial and Lightning Switch. should be as large as convenient (a
The best material for an aerial is the 7-lb. biscuit tin is quite good), and
stranded copper wire, known as 7/22s. the earth wire should be securely sol¬
This consists of seven separate dered to it. Dig a hole about 3 ft.
strands of No. 22 gauge copper wire, deep, place at the bottom a layer of
twisted together like a rope, and is coke or some similar rubble, put the
quite cheap. At the house end, the earth plate on this, and cover with
aerial wire should be passed through another layer of coke. Fill in the
the hole in the end insulator to form hole and saturate with water. Re¬
a double bight, as shown in Fig. 33. member that the earth connection
36
sivraav
KOOQNI
Fig. 37.

38
Fig. 38.

39
 AERIALS
should be kept as damp as possible to a switch which entirely isolates
keep the resistance low. Of course, if the receiver from the aerial and
a buried earth is inconvenient, a con¬ earth when placed in the earth posi¬
nection to the water pipe may be tion.
made, but this should be a main pipe, A simple switch, which answers
if possible, and connection made by the purpose very efficiently, is shown
means of a proper earth clip. What¬ in Figs. 42 to 46. The materials re¬
ever type of earth is employed, keep quired to make it consist of a piece
the lead to it as short as possible. of ^-in. ebonite, 4I in. long by 3 in.
Do not let it travel all round the wide, four stout terminals with
house, but take it by the most direct clamping nuts, a strip of sheet brass
route. in. long by J in. wide and in.
Gas pipes are not recommended for thick, two brass screws 2 in. long,
the earth, not so much on account of and a wooden bobbin.
the danger which exists, but because Construction Details. Mark out the
most of the joints are painted, and, ebonite as indicated in Fig. 45 and
therefore, if this has been well done, drill six holes through, the two to
the sections of pipe are insulated from take the fixing screws being counter¬
one another. sunk.
An Aerial Earthing Switch. A To make the switch arms, cut the
common practice with many ama¬ brass into two pieces of equal length,
teurs is to use a single pole switch and sei out the position of the holes
for earthing the aerial when their and slots according to the dimen¬
wireless set is not in use, the earth sions given in Fig. 46. The slots are
terminal of the set being directly made by first drilling holes in the
connected to earth all the time. A centre lines, and then with a hack¬
much better arrangement is to use saw cutting away the metal.

Fig. 40.—Conventional signs for outdoor and frame aerials, shown also pictorially.

41
 •siuajsÁg pi Jay snoijv^—• -dîj
N'MJ_ S33O3333^ 3/3000/3 33/AA 33/33^ 333^^ N/MJ_

' M-OV37. 03 'joo¿/ 30 amJ '33/^1 33'33(A 30 'OLi^'Sl33333yQ 30 3U37J S! OUSf 3fMO(J
 AERIALS

includes the aerial, leac-iu wire, earth

i wire, and the coil connected between
(ó o aerial and earth terminals) will re¬
sonate at a particular frequency de¬
k-->p' pendent upon its inductance and
capacity. When the grid circuit to
which this is coupled is tuned, the
P|l o (0
aerial is also tuned, due to the coup¬
—z&-*t ling between the aerial and grid coils,
but the resonance is most pronounced
Fie. 46.—Details <4 lite Switch Arms.
at the natural frequency of the aerial
All-zzave Anti-interference Aerial svstem. At harmonics of that ire-
Systems. The aerial system (which quency it will also provide strong
43
 AERIALS

resonance, and therefore it should be io feet or so in length, being included

possible to find a length which will in addition to the normal aerials.
give maximum response at two or These may be arranged in many ways,
three different frequencies or wave¬ and one of the most convenient is
lengths. In practice this is not easy depicted in Fig. 48. Here the two

Fig. 48.—All-wave anti-interference aerial.

to attain, and it is preferable to use broadcast aerials are joined end to

separate aerials, each chosen to re¬ end (insulated at the junction), and
sonate at a frequency roughly in the the short-wave aerial is suspended
centre of the waveband covered by from the point at which they are
the tuning coil being used. Thus for joined.
a three-band receiver three separate In some cases it may be necessary
aerials are desirable, a short wire, say to use even more than these three
44
 AERIALS

Fie. 49.—Connections for two types of impedance-matching transformer for anti-interference aerials.

aerials, including other lengths to aerials each consist of a dipole, or

resonate at some other part of the half-wave aerial, each built up from
wavebands covered. Such an aerial two quarter-wave aerial, and this
is known as the spider-web aerial, a necessitates twin feeder wires from
diagram of it being given at Fig. 47. the centre point. The advantage of
It will be seen here, however, that the an aerial of this type is that the
nj/zr^ã Cease Mauno. Seen

45
 AERIALS
feeder wire (or lead-in) will not pick wound, and in the centre of this 15
up any energy, as it is either screened turns of a similar gauge of wire are
or transposed throughout its length. wound for the secondary. The ends
This is the arrangement which has to of this winding should be anchored
be adopted if local interference is ex¬ with sealing wax or Chatterton’s
perienced, as the aerial array may be compound, and taken straight across
placed well away from the building the primary at right angles before
(out of the area of interference) and being led through anchoring holes
the lead-in will play no active part in in the ends of the former for con¬
picking up the signals. If a very long necting purposes.
feeder is needed it will be necessary This coil should be mounted inside
to include two transformers in the a small aluminium screening can, and
aerial system, one at each end of the the bottom of this should be sealed
lead-in, to balance out losses. This with a disc of waxed wood or ebonite.
is carried out by using a step-down Chatterton's compound or some
transformer at the aerial end and a similar wax will make it waterproof,
step-up transformer at the receiver. and the holes through which the ends
The two sections of the transformers of the aerial and lead-in are passed
which are connected together form a should also be sealed. The receiver
low-impedance circuit, and conse¬ transformer will be wound in exactly
quently the capacity between the the same manner, but the larger
feeders will not have such a marked winding (which is in this case the
effect upon the signals, which would secondary) must be tapped to pro¬
otherwise be seriously interfered with. vide the necessary wave-change selec¬
The usual way of arranging such a tion points. The ideal system is to
feeder is to use parallel-laid insulated use a two-point switch so that equal
wires in a heavy rubber cable. An tappings are selected from each end
alternative scheme is to use a single of the secondary, although in many
wire laid inside an insulated cable cases it is quite sufficient simply to
with a braided metal screen sur¬ transfer one connection by stages
rounding it, and this screen may form down the secondary, leaving the
one of the feeder wires by being con¬ earthed end permanently connected.
nected to one side of both trans¬ The receiver transformer should be
formers. The separate schemes are mounted as close as possible to the
shown in Fig. 49. The majority of aerial and earth terminals of the re¬
modern impedance-matching trans¬ ceiver, and the leads to these ter¬
formers employ iron-cored coils pro¬ minals should also be screened.
viding a high inductance-capacity It must be emphasised that these
ratio, and are accordingly beyond details will not apply to every set,
the scope of the average amateur to and therefore the constructor must be
build. A design whicn 'has been prepared to carry out some experi¬
found to offer good results from an ments as previously mentioned.
all-round point of view is to wind the Wire for Aerials and Earths.
aerial transformer (that is the one Stranded 7/22 insulated copper wire
joined direct to the multi-aerial is best for both aerial and lead-in.
system) with a primary of 100 turns It is not generally known that high-
of 28 D.C.C. wire on a r-in. diameter frequency currents travel on the sur¬
former, and to split this into two face of the wires; therefore, the more
equal sections, separated by J in. wires included in the aerial, within
Over the centre space three or four reason, the greater will be the sur¬
layers »f thick brown paper are face on which these currents can
 AERIALS
travel and the lower will be the re¬ feature of the earth connection is
sistance to their passage. The earth dampness, and therefore any chemi¬
should be for preference as short as cal or other device which will retain
possible and, as stated earlier, be of the earth in that condition should
at least the same gauge as the aerial. be used as a guarantee that the re¬
The earth should have as low resist¬ sistance of the earth is low. There
ance as possible, and to ensure this a are a number of chemicals which may
soldered connection should for prefer¬ be used for the purpose, the chief of
ence be employed. which are sal-ammoniac and ordinary
Useful Hints. The lead-in should washing soda. A large quantity of
be kept as far as possible from any either of these commodities buried
earthed objects. The aerial itself beneath the earth will ensure that the
should be situated at right angles to ground is kept damp. It is, of course,
any adjacent telephone wires or necessary to renew the chemical from
overhead tramway cables. If the time to time.
aerial is fixed parallel to them it will Another form of earth consists of
be screened and the reception will be soldering the earth-wire connection
difficult, and the set will suffer from to a sheet of zinc or an old galvan-
considerable interference. ised-iron bath and burying it at least
A vertical aerial, that is to say, one 3 ft. beneath the surface.
suspended from the top of the pole, Provision should be made for pro¬
is extremely efficient, although it is tecting the set from lightning. An
often not possible to erect a mast of aerial-earthing switch may be pur¬
the desired height. It is not neces¬ chased quite cheaply. If such is
sary to-day to use multiple wire not fitted, the aerial and earth ter¬
aerials. It is important to note that minals should be disconnected from
local authorities object to the erection the set, and the two ends twisted to¬
of an aerial passing over a street or gether.
other highway. The electric bell Aperiodic Aerial Coil. The effective
system may be used as an aerial if a length of the aerial can be modified
variable or fixed condenser of suit¬ by including a small untuned coil
able capacity is connected between it in series with the aerial and earth.
and the set. This is placed near the secondary coil
The Earth Connection. As already (which is the coil that is tuned by the
stated, the earth lead should be as tuning condenser), and the signals in
short as possible. A main water pipe this way are induced into the coil
makes the best earth, but if it is not instead of being conducted into it.
convenient to make such a connection Here is the way to make the coil.
an earthing tube driven into the soil (Obtain a quantity of No. 26 D.C.C.
may be used. It is important with wire. About 2 oz. will be enough.
this sort of earth to keep the soil This must then be wound in a hank
around the earthing tube moist. In of the same diameter as the coil to
any damp district trouble due to dry¬ which it is eventually to be coupled.
ness will not arise. The connection The simplest w'ay to do this is to
to the earth tube frequently corrodes wind it round a bottle or some simi¬
and needs periodic attention. When lar object and then slip it off after¬
dismantling it scrape the contacting wards. Wind on a total of thirty
surfaces quite bright, and after re¬ turns, making tapping loops at the
assembling coat the connection with fifth, tenth, fifteenth, twentieth, and
paint. twenty-fifth turns. Now tie this
It is stressed that the principal finished hank on to the present coil,
47
 AERIALS — ALPHABET
and connect one end of it perman¬ A.G.C., also A.V.C., meaning auto¬
ently to the earth connection. From matic volume control or automatic
the aerial terminal a short length of gain control. (See also A.V.C.)
flex should be connected, and this AIR CHOKE.— A coil of wire of
must be joined to one of the tapping such a size that it has a large im¬
loops, the particular one to use de¬ pedance and therefore offers a high
pending on the degree of selectivity resistance to high-frequency oscillat¬
required (Fig. 49A). (See also Short¬ ing currents, and therefore prevents
wave Aerials, pp. 180 and 181.) the passage of such currents. (See
AERIAL, NATURAL WAVE¬ also Chokes.)
LENGTH OF.—The natural wave¬ AIR CONDENSER.— A condenser
length of an aerial is approximately with air space as dielectric, e.g. a
four and a half times its electrical variable condenser which is not of the
length (length between insulators solid-dielectric type. (See also Con¬
plus length of lead-in). Standard denser and Variable Condensers.)
aerial of 100 ft. has a natural wave¬ ALL-WAVE AERIALS. — See
length of about 120 metres. If con¬ Aerials, p. 43.
nected direct to the grid of the de¬ ALPHABÉT, WIRELESS PHON¬
tector valve, it would receive trans¬ ETIC.— The phonetic alphabet gener¬
missions on this wavelength. ally used for wireless telephone call
AERIAL, P.M.G.— The maximum signs is as follows: A, Ack; B, Beer;
length of aerial, inclusive of lead-in, C, Charlie; D, Don; E, Edward; F,
permitted by the Postmaster-General Freddie; G, George; H, Harry; I, Ink;
is too ft. J, Johnnie; K, King; L, London; M,
AERIAL, REFLECTOR.—An ar¬ Monkey; N, Nuts; O, Orange; P, Pip;
rangement generally employing a Q, Queenie; R, Robert; S, Sugar; T,
dipole aerial, for preventing a signal Toc; U, Uncle; V, Vic; W, William;
from being radiated in all directions, X, X-ray; Y, York or Yorker; Z,
or for ensuring maximum reception Zebra.
in a given direction. It consists of a
vertical or horizontal aerial behind
which is erected a similar aerial (not
connected to anything), the spacing
between these being adjusted accord¬
ing to the frequency of the signals.
A multi-reflector system will gener¬
ally have the reflectors arranged in
the form of a parabola with the aerial
at the focal point.
AERIAL TUNING CONDENSER.
—The variable condenser by means
of which the aerial tuning induct¬
ance (the aerial coil) is tuned to a
required wavelength. Usual capacity
•0005 mfd. (See also Condensers and
Variable Condensers.)
ÆTHER.— See Ether.
A.F.—Audio Frequencies (which
see).
A.F.C.—See Automatic Frequency
Control. Ftc. 50.—-Variable condenser with air dielectric.
48
 ALTERNATING CURRENT — AMPLIFICATION FACTOR
ALTERNATING CURRENT.—A AMPERE TURNS.— The number of
current whose direction of flow surges turns in the coils of an electromagnet,
first in one direction and then in multiplied by the current flowing
another, and at a regular period (see through them.
Fig. 6). AMPLIFICATION.—In an ampli¬
ALTERNATION.—A complete fying valve the overall amplification
element of an alternating-current is to be measured by comparing the
cycle from zero point of one wave to signal voltage applied to the grid of
zero point of the next. the valve with the voltage developed
ALTERNATOR.—A type of dy¬ across some piece of apparatus,
namo in which alternating current termed the "load,” included in the
is delivered through slip rings, as anode circuit of the valve. By
against the usual method of using a studying Ohm's Law (given on a
commutator. later page) it will be observed that,
ALUMINIUM.— An extremely light for a given value of anode cur¬
and white elemental metal, much rent, the voltage drop across the
used for chassis in commercial re¬ load will be proportional to the im¬
ceivers. (See also Chassis.) pedance of the load. It would there¬
ALUMINUM.— American term for fore appear that the higher the load
aluminium. impedance the greater the voltage
AMATEUR WAVEBANDS.— See drop across it, and hence the greater
Wavebands, Amateur. the degree of amplification.
AMBROIN.— Insulating material To an extent this is correct for the
consisting of a mixture of fossil copal actual formula for the total stage gain
and silicates. in a resistance-capacity coupled stage :
AMMETER.— An instrument for Cl _ 111-;-5--J-¡
Resistance of load x amplification
---, factor of valve
-—-5
Anode resistance of valve -1- resistance of load
measuring the current (in amperes) (See also Stage gain. Push-pull,
flowing in a circuit. It must be con¬ Quiescent push-pull. Class A, Class B,
nected in series with the circuit. and Class AB.
Usual and cheapest type is the mov¬ AMPLIFICATION FACTOR.—The
ing iron. Other types: the hot wire ratio between change in plate current
and the moving coil, which see. (See and change in grid potential.
also Meter.)
AMP.— Abbreviation for ampere.
AMPERE.— The unit of measure¬
ment of current. The current which
will flow through a resistance of i ohm
under a pressure of I volt. With
small currents, such as that taken
from an H.T. battery in wireless
circuits, the milliampere is the unit
used. This is equal to one-thousandth
of an ampere. Even smaller cur¬
rents are measured in microamperes.
(Formerly Weber. which see.)
AMPERE-HOUR.— This unit,
chiefly used in connection with accu¬
mulators, is equal to i coulomb per
second for 3,600 seconds, or 3,600
coulombs. F1C. 51.—Ammeter.

49
 AMPLIFIER — AREOMETER
AMPLIFIER.— A valve used in the by which, a voltaic current enters an
amplifying stages of a receiver. A electrolyte. The plate of the valve.
complete unit coupled to an existing The opposite of Cathode.
receiver for increasing its output. ANODE OF ACCUMULATOR.—
AMYL ACETATE.—Chemical com¬ The negative terminal.
pound used for dissolving celluloid; ANODE BEND RECTIFICATION.
also for making celluloid jointing —A process of rectification which
cement; odour similar to pear drops. depends upon the bend in the lower
ANELECTRIC.— Any body unaffec¬ part of the grid volts /anode current
ted (i.e. does not become electrified) curve. If you examine such a curve
by friction. The reverse of dielectric. (one is always supplied with a valve
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE. — The by the manufacturers) you will see
angle from the perpendicular at which that at the bottom of the curve it
the sound waves impinge upon a sur¬ tends to become horizontal. The
face. result of applying a large negative
ANGSTROM UNIT.—A standard grid bias to the valve is to bring the
of measurement of the wavelength of working point to this bend. When
light. One Angstrom unit equals one oscillations are received by the grid
ten-millionth of a millimetre, or one of the valve the anode circuit can
ten-thousandth of a micron (which only increase at positive half-cycles,
see). (See Lux, Lumen, Foot-candle.) no change being recorded (theoretic¬
ANION.—Obsolete term for nega¬ ally) at negative half-cycles. The
tive ion. The electro-negative con¬ result of this is to rectify the incom¬
stituent of an electrically decomposed ing oscillations. A certain amount of
compound, appearing at the anode of amplification also takes place.
a voltaic battery. (Opposer to Cation, ANODE OF VALVE.—Terminal to
which see.) which high-tension current is applied.
ANNEAL.— To soften (a metal) by The plate of the valve.
heating and ANTENNA. — Obsolete term for
quenching or heat- aerial (which see).
ing and gradual $ ANTI - BREAK - THROUGH
cooling, Brass CHOKE.— Coil of wire connected in
may be annealed the aerial lead to prevent the passage
by the former of long-wave signals when receiving
method; steel is medium-wave signals. (See also
hardened by it. Chokes, High-frequency Chokes, and
Break Through.)
ANTI -INTERFERENCE
AERIALS.— See Aerials, p. 43.
ANTINODES.— In a series of
oscillations the points of greatest
amplitude. Known also as loops.
Gr/d Volts APERIODIC.—A circuit which is
untuned—or possesses high resist¬
ance, thus precluding oscillation.
FlC. 52.—Grid volts ARC.— When a current "jumps”
anode current curve for
anode bend rectifica¬ an air gap it is said to ‘ ' arc. ' ’
tion. AREOMETER.— Another term for
hydrometer, used to determine the
ANODE.— The positive voltaic specific gravity of a liquid. Some
pole. 1'he point where, or the path hydrometers of the “floating-ball”
50
 ARMATURE — ATMOSPHERICS
type are practically useless to the regenerative prin¬
accumulator user, as they give no ciple. The value
indication when the acid is too of the circuit ele¬
strong or too weak. Electrolyte ments are rather
fifty points in excess of the strength critical, and the ar¬
specified by the makers is quite suffi¬ rangement is now
cient to ruin the plates. chiefly used for
Hydrometer readings can some¬ ultra - short -
times give a false indication. If, for wave reception.
instance, acid had been added to an (See also Circuit.)
accumulator instead of water, a ARTIFICIAL
hydrometer reading might incorrectly AERIAL.—A non¬
indicate it to be fully charged. radiating trans-
mitting aerial. A
Additional causes of false hydro¬ "dumb” aerial.
meter readings at e :
ASTATIC.—Be¬
(i) An inaccurate or cracked
ing in neutral
hydrometer float.
equilibrium. A n
(2) Taking readings when freshly
astatic coil is one
added water has not had time
wound in two
to mix with the acid
sections, hilf the
(3) Wide variations in electrolyte
winding being on
temperatures.
one coil and half
Hydrometer readings may always on the other, but
be supplemented by means of voltage wound in the op¬
tests. Use an accurate moving-coil posite direction.
voltmeter, reading 3-0-3 volts, and The ‘ ' field ' ’ of
take all readings while the cells are each coil is there¬
on discharge. Voltmeter readings fore neutral¬
taken on open circuit are liable to be ised.
misleading. (See also Hydrometer.) ASTATIC GAL-
VANOMETER.
ARMATURE.—See Loudspeaker. —A galvanometer
(which see) having
ARMSTRONG.—The circuit em¬
an astatic pair of
ploying what is known as the super-
index fingers or
needles.
A.T.C. — Aerial
Tuning Condenser.

A.T.I. — The
Aerial Tuning In¬
Fie. 54.—Another type
ductance. The ci Hydrometer.
aerial tuning
coil.
ATMOSPHERICS—C r a c k 1 i n g
noises in the receiver. These do not
occur in this country except during
periods of thundery weather. What
Flc. 53.—The Armstrong Circuit. is often put down to atmospherics is

51
 ATOM — AUTOMATIC GRID BIAS
nothing more than crackles caused by red we find radio frequencies, and
a worn-out H.T. battery or some below these alternating and audio
faulty or dirty connection in the set. frequencies. Above the visible band
If you have any doubts as to the we find X-rays, gamma-rays, and
cause, disconnect the aerial tem¬ others not yet named, although the
porarily. If the crackles cease, they cosmic rays are found in these ex¬
treme upper ranges.
AUDIO FREQUENCIES.— Fre¬
quencies of less than 10,000 cycles
per second are assumed to be audible,
and so are described as of audible
frequency. (See ftadio Frequencies.)
AUDIÖN.— The de Forest and
Fleming types of valve. The main
feature is the second plate, which
makes it a rectifier and amplifier.
AUTODYNE.— Where the induct¬
ances of the grid and plate are part
of a common coil in a circuit, that
Fig. 55.—Autodyne Circuit. circuit is of the autodyne type (Fig.
55)-
are due to atmospherics. (See also AUTOMATIC CALL DEVICE.—
Interference and Noises.) An arrangement used chiefly on ships
ATOM.—All matter is composed of for giving an audible signal when
minute particles or atoms; elements distress calls are made. It usually
consist of atoms of one kind—carbon, consists of a selector so designed that
copper, gold, etc. Compounds con¬ a series of four-second dashes broken
sist of groups of atoms. Thus water by spaces of one second cause bells
consists of two atoms of hydrogen and to sound the alarm.
one atom of oxygen, forming a mole¬ AUTOMATIC FREQUENCY CON¬
cule of water. TROL.—The term applied to an
ATOMIC WEIGHT.—The weight arrangement which casses a circuit
of one atom of any element, as com¬ automatically to be tuned after the
pared with an atom of hydrogen. main control has been turned to
Atomic weight of hydrogen is unity. approximately the correct wave¬
ATTENUATOR.— A circuit or piece length setting. In its simplest form
of apparatus for reducing or cutting it consists of a double-diode valve,
off the output from a transmitter, re¬ each diode of which is coupled to the
ceiver, or amplifier. oscillator circuit in a superhet. The
ATTENUATION.—A lengthening out-of-balance effect of the signals on
out, or a thinning. The term is ap¬ the two diodes, after rectification, is
plied in wireless to a weakening of fed back to the oscillator circuit and
the frequency response at the ends causes a readjustment of this to bring
of the scales. For instance, if the the set into tune and thus an equal
constants of a circuit are designed voltage across the two diodes.
in such a manner that the high notes AUTOMATIC GRID BIAS.—The
are cut off, we say that the high object of biasing a valve is to render
notes are attenuated. the potential of the grid less than
AUDIBLE SPECTRUM.— This ex¬ that of the cathode, that is, the fila¬
tends above and below the visible ment in battery-fed valves. With
spectrum (which see). Below infra¬ ordinary battery bias, the cathode is
52
 AUTOMATIC GRID BIAS
at a potential equal to the potential drop through the biasing resistance
at the negative end of the high-ten¬ will rise in proportion, the negative
sion supply, and by connecting the bias will be increased, and the anode
positive pole of the grid-bias battery current again reduced to its normal
to the same spot the grid potential value. Further, the biasing resist¬
is equal to the voltage of as much of ance does not deteriorate as does a
the grid battery as is included in the grid-bias battery, does not vary in
grid circuit. In order to bias the value, and needs no replacement. If
valve, it really does not matter in the desired, the biasing resistance can be
least whether the cathode is at zero made variable, or semi-variable.
voltage and the grid at some negative There is one disadvantage. Any
potential, or whether the grid is at a biasing voltage thus applied is
zero potential and the cathode at subtracted from the total H.T.
some positive potential. This latter
condition is that which usually ob¬
tains when automatic bias is used. In
most of these arrangements, the grid
is maintained at the same potential
as the negative terminal of the high-
tension supply, while the cathode is
raised to a higher potential by the
inclusion of a resistance in the lead
connecting the cathode to the high-
tension negative terminal.
Voltage Drop. This will be made
clear by a reference to Fig. 56, which
shows the essential connections for F1C. 56.—A resistance inserted in the cathode lead of
automatic bias to an indirectly heated an indirectly heated valve.

low-frequency output valve. In this

diagram, certain refinements, such as voltage. This makes no practical
the decoupling arrangements, are difference to the efficiency of the
omitted for the sake of simplicity. average mains set where 200 or 250
It will be seen that the full high- volts H.T. is available from a mains
tension voltage exists between the unit, and the maximum bias voltage
points A and B, the point B being required does not exceed 20 or 30
at zero potential. It is obvious, volts. In the case of some of the
therefore, that there will be a drop bigger output valves, however, which
of voltage, equal in all to the total are designed to operate at about 400
high-tension voltage, along the com¬ volts on the anode, as each valve
plete valve circuit requires over 100 volts grid bias, the
Advantages of Automatic Bias. loss, if this amount of bias were sub¬
The advantages of automatic or self¬ tracted from the available 400 volts
biasing are many. In the first place, H.T., would be serious.
if the value of the biasing resistance Biasing Resistance. Biasing resist¬
is correctly calculated, there is no ances generally should be of the wire¬
possibility of under biasing or over wound type, and must be capable of
biasing the valve. Also the biasing carrying the full anode current of
resistance automatically controls the the valve continuously without over¬
value of the anode current, for should heating. In the case of early stage
the anode current rise, due, perhaps, low-frequency amplifiers and screened-
to an increase in anode voltage, the grid valves, ordinary spaghetti re-
53
 AUTOMATIC GRID BIAS
sistances are quite suitable, but for anode current being 30 milliamps.
output valves, where a certain amount The correct resistance for self bias
of preliminary adjustment of grid bias would be 32 multiplied by 1,000 and
is usually necessary, it is advisable divided by 30, or i,o666 ohms.
to use a variable resistor, or, prefer¬ Actually, a total resistance of 1,250
ably, a fixed resistor and a variable ohms would be used, consisting of a
resistor in series. This allows of 750-ohm fixed resistor in series with
adjustment, but at the same time a variable resistor of 500 ohms maxi¬
prevents the valve from being run mum.
entirely without bias if, by mistake, Decoupling Resistance. In addition
the variable portion is reduced to to the biasing resistance itself, cer¬
zero. For variable-mu valves, where tain additional apparatus is usually
continuously adjustable bias is re¬ required, by way of decoupling. If
quired, the resistance must naturally the anode supply is not efficiently
be of the variable type. The cal- smoothed, and a bad mains ripple is
present, there is a risk that this may
be transferred to the grid by the bias
arrangement, when the anode current
will be correspondingly modulated,
and serious mains hum result. More¬
over, there is always a chance that
the biasing circuit may pick up mains
hum from some other part of the
apparatus, while any other low-fre¬
quency component in the anode cur¬
rent will have a similar effect. To
reduce this risk, a grid decoupling or
smoothing circuit may be employed.
This consists of a high resistance,
FlC. 57.—The arrangement of Fig. 56 with a
Decoupling Circuit added. usually of about 50,000 ohms, in¬
cluded in the grid return, and by¬
passed to the cathode through a
culation of the correct value of bias¬ condenser which, in the case of most
ing resistance is a simple matter, and low-frequency valves, should be of
is merely the application of Ohm’s 2 mfd. capacity.
law. The formula is : Such decoupling is not essential,
but should be added without hesita¬
Value of biasing resistance in ohms =
tion if serious hum is noticed. The
condenser value of 2 mfd. is ample,
Desired bias in volts
and in many cases, especially in early
Anode current in amps. low-frequency stages, 1 mfd. may be
sufficient. On the other hand, where
As the anode current is usually ex¬ a very bad hum is present, especially
pressed in milliamps., the value of the if the output valve is a pentode, it
biasing resistance is found by multi¬ may be necessary to use a 4-mfd.
plying the desired bias voltage by condenser for decoupling the bias to
1,000 and dividing by the anode the last valve. Different designers
current in milliamps. prefer different arrangements of the
As a typical example, take an auto-bias circuit, but the circuits
output valve requiring a grid bias of given are tried arrangements, and
32 volts at full anode voltage, the quite suitable for the types of valves

54
 AUTOMATIC GRID BIAS AUTOMATIC TONE COMPENSATION

for which they are recommended. a directly heated triode or pentode

Fig. 57 is the complete arrangement output valve, a connection between
lor an early stags indirectly heated the common negative wire and the
L.F. amplifier, such as the input centre-tap of the filament winding
valve of a gramophone amplifier. It taking the place of the cathode lead
may also be employed where the de- in Fig. 58. For screened-grid high-
frequency valves, the circuit is as
shown in Fig. Oo. This arrangement
is similar to that in Fig 56.
For Portable Sets. It should not
be forgotten that automatic bias can
just as simply be applied to battery-
operated receivers. The essential cir¬
cuit is shown in Fig. 61. Here a wire¬
wound resistance capable of carrying
the total H.T. current of the set is
connected between H.T. — and L.T. — ,
and thus biases the output valve.
Fl<r 58.—An alternative arrangement of Fig. 57, AUTOMATIC TONE COMPENSA¬
in which the cathode is maintained at the normal TION.— The object of this scheme is
Begatiwe potential.
to compensate for the high-note cut¬
off introduced when reaction is ad¬
tector valve of a receiver is required vanced to its limit. The idea is that
to act also as first low-frequency am¬ an L.F. transformer of a type which
plifier with a pick-up. emphasises the high-notes is used
Precisely the same arrangement after the regenerative detector valve
may be used for a pentode output and the differential reaction condenser
valve of the indirectly heated type, is so connected that when its capacity
but for three-electrode output valves is reduced to a minimum it completes
a slightly different system
is preferable. For a triode,
the value of the biasing re¬
sistance is usually of the
same order as the resistance
of the load, and the loss of
power in the biasing resist¬
ance, if this resistance were
included in the load circuit,
would be serious. This is
avoided in the circuit shown
in Fig. 58, where the
cathode is maintained at
the common potential of
the set, and a negative
potential given to the grid
by the biasing resistance
connected between the
common negative wire and
the H.T. terminal.
Fig- 59 gives the variant
of this circuit for use with FlC. 59.—A Battery-heated Valve arranged in the same
manner as Fig. 58.
55
 AUTOMATIC TONE COMPENSATION — BALANCING CAPACITY

HT. H.T

Fig. 60.—The biasing resistance F1G. 61.—A common resistance connected up tc provide bias for two
arranged in the cathode lead of a battery-heated valves.
S.G. valve.

the circuit of a fixed condenser joined Diode ” detector valve or else a

in parallel with the primary winding " Cold Valve.” (See also Quiet Auto¬
of the special L.F. transformer. The matic Volume Control and Delayed
effect of the condenser is to reduce Automatic Volume Control.)
the high-note response. AUTO TRANSFORMER.— A trans¬
former having a single winding in¬
AUTOMATIC TUNING. — See stead of the usual two windings. Part
Push-button Tuning. of it is tapped off to form the primary,
AUTOMATIC VOLUME CON¬ the other part forming the secondary.
TROL, OR A.V.C.—A system by AUXILIARY ANODE.— The third
means of which the volume of sound electrode of a valve—the grid.
delivered by the loudspeaker is of A.V.C.—Automatic Volume Con¬
constant intensity regardless of the trol (which see).
station being received. A.V.C. thus
prevents overloading of the detector B
valve by a powerful local transmitter B.A.— British Association, also the
and also overcomes fading on distant screw-thread system used in the
stations. The principle of A.V.C. is wireless and electrical industries.
that the signal voltage fed to the de¬ BACK E.M.F.— Back or opposite
tector valve is employed to produce electro-motive force. Back E.M.F.
a negative bias voltage which is ap¬ in an accumulator or battery is due
plied to preceding variable-mu ampli¬ to polarisation. Produced in a cir¬
fiers. The negative voltage produced cuit by self-induction due to vary¬
is directly proportional to the de¬ ing input current.
tector signal voltage, and it produces BAFFLE BOARD.— A board on
a reduction in amplification of the which is mounted the cone of the
V.-M. valve or valves. As the reduc¬ loudspeaker. Its use k to accentuate
tion in amplification is proportional the bass notes.
to the signal voltage it will be seen BALANCING CAPACITY.— Any
that tile result mentioned above can artificial or capacity earth. Extra
be obtained. Most A.V.C. systems capacity inserted in the aerial circuit
depend upon the use of a " Double¬ to replace the earth.
56
 BAILISTIC GALVANOMETER BARRETTER
BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER.— types of band-pass tuner. (Refer
An instrument for measuring con¬ to Fig. 64.) (See also Tuning
denser discharges and similar currents Coils.)
of short duration. BAND-SETTER.— The larger of
the two condensers employed in band¬
BAND-PASS TUNING. —A system
spread tuning.
of tuning which enables a
BAND-SPREAD TUNING. — A
very high degree of selec-
method of ensuring good short-wave
tivity obtained.
signals in which two condensers
are employed in
QUID parallel across
the tuning coil.
One of these is a
high capacity
and the other a
very small ca-
pacify, and this
“ spreads ” out
the tuning and
thus gives a
similar effect
to a very accur-
F1C. 62.—A Capacity-coupled
There are three ways Band-pass Tuner.
a t e reduction
of arranging this band¬ drive tuning
pass tuning circuit. dial.
the differences being in the manner of BANK.-—A bank of condensers. A
coupling the two tuned circuits. For number of condensers self-contained
the aerial circuit, a coil of the ordin¬ as one unit.
ary size is tuned by a condenser as BARRETTER.— An American term.
is usual, and a similar arrangement In D.C. mains receivers, for instance,
is used in conjunction with this tuned designed for a 100-volt supply and
circuit, but connected in the grid connected to a 200-volt supply, it will
circuit of the valve. To connect these be necessary to include a lamp in
two tuned circuits together, in some series with the receiver to dispose of
cases a fixed condenser having a value the excessive 100 volts. Such a lamp
of -or is used (Fig. 62). is called a Barretter or Ballast Lamp.
In some c ; CHID
an1 inductance
resistance is used
to couple the cir-
cuits (Fig. 63). A
combination of these
two devices, with the
coupling inductance
arranged in a nega¬
tive manner, pro¬
duces the best signal
strength, combined FILAMENT
with the best selectivity, and this Resistance-coupled Band-pass
is the arrangement which is incor- Tuner. The dotted and broken
lines show alternative methods
porated in the better commercial oí coupling the two portions of
a Band.pass Tuner.
p.w.E.—c 57
 BASKET COILS — BERNE BUREAU
come the loss result¬
ing from secondary
CHID emission.
BEAM WIRELESS.
—A process in which
ultra-short w a v e -
lengths in conjunc-
t i o n with direc¬
tional aerials are
used. The result
of this combina-
tion is to direct the
FH-HMENT wireless signals in a
narrow channel in¬
BASKET stead of giving an
COILS.— equal radiation in all
Flat coils of the Fig. 64.—A combination directions. Owing to
of Capacity-coupled and
basket - weave Inductive-coupled Band¬ this, only a very
type. Now ob¬ pass Tuner. small power is neces¬
solete. sary to cover large dis-
BATTERY ELIMINATOR.—A de¬ tances, as all the energy takes one line.
vice for connection to the house BEAT RECEPTION.— One method
supply mains for obtaining high-ten¬ of detecting signals by making them
sion supplies without the use of dry interact with artificially produced os¬
batteries. For D.C. supplies, this cillations, local to the receiver, but of
simply consists of a smoothing circuit different and higher frequency. This
and appropriate voltage-dropping re¬ gives rise to a " beat,” the difference
sistances. The smoothing circuit between the two frequencies.
consists of an iron-core choke having BEL.— The unit of sound intensity.
a large inductance value, and a large- The bel is too large for measuring
capacity condenser joined across the the output of wireless apparatus, and
smoothed side of the mains leads. therefore one-tenth of the bel, or a
For A.C. supplies it is necessary to decibel (which see), is employed for
rectify the alternating current, and this purpose. (Named after Alexander
therefore some form of rectifying cir¬ Graham Bell, inventor of the telephone
cuit is included before the smoothing (1847-1922). See also Decibel, Neper,
circuit. For rectifying purposes it is Phon, and Acoustic Watt.)
possible to use metal rectifiers or BELLINI TOSI AERIAL.—A
valve rectifiers. The metal rectifier double-frame aerial, having the two
consists of a combination of metals sections arranged at right angles.
which permit of a flow of current in B.E.M.F. — Back Electromotive
one direction only, and the valve Force.
rectifier consists of a .valve with two, BERNE BUREAU.—The broad¬
or three electrodes. The two-elec - casting stations of Europe are subject
trode valve gives "half-wave” recti¬ to certain regulations laid down by
fication. and the three-electrode gives a governing body having its head¬
“full-wave” rectification. (See also quarters in Berne. The most im¬
Eliminators.) portant duty of this body is that
BEAM POWER.—Term applied in of settling the wavelength of each
modern valves, where electron flow station, and this is done in such a
is directed in beam formation to over- way that no station may use a wave-
58
 BIAS — BLUE PRINTS
length whose frequency is closer than of recording sounds by means of the
io kcs. to any other station. magnetic properties of steel. The
BIAS.—The voltage applied to a apparatus consists, in essentials, of
valve to ensure its correct working as a powerful electro-magnet with the
an H.F. or L.F. amplifier. A valve two poles arranged opposite each
operating as an anode-bend detector other and with only a small gap
also requires an application of bias to separating them. At each end of the
bring the working point to the cor¬ machine are two spools, one of which
rect portion of the curve. (See also contains a length of thin steel tape.
Grul Bias and Automatic Grid Bias.) This is taken across through the gap
BICHROMATE CELL.— A cell of the magnets and so to the other reel
containing two plates or rods of car¬ or spool. The tape then feeds from one
bon which are immersed in a solution spool to the other when t he mechanism
of sulphuric acid, bichromate of is set in motion, in the same manner as
potash, and water, with a zinc plate a typewriter ribbon. The sounds which
between the two carbon plates. Such are to be recorded are fed into the
a cell yields 2 volts, and is of low electro-magnet in the same manner as
resistance (Fig. 65). the wireless signals are applied to a
BIFILOR WINDINGS.— Windings loudspeaker, and the resulting mag¬
which are non-inductive. netic variations are impressed on the
BIG BEN TIME SIGNAL.— See steel tape This apparatus is now
Time Signal. known as the Marconi-Stille Recorder.
BI-GRID VALVE.— z\ valve hav¬
ing two grids, an anode, and a
BLOCK CONDENSER.— A number
cathode. This valve differs from a of fixed con¬
screen-grid valve, which has also two densers con¬
nected to¬
grids, in that one of the grids of the
gether. A
latter valve is biased to negative the
bank of con¬
results of the space charge. In the
densers.
bi grid Valve the two grids are used
separately for such purposes as com¬
BLOCK -
bined oscillator and frequency
ING CON¬
changer and for one or two other
DENSER—
A term
special purposes in superhets.
which w a s
BILLI.— A synonymous term for
employed in
millimicro (one billionth).
the early
BILLI CONDENSER —A tubular
days for a
condenser consisting of two telescopic
‘ ‘ by - pass
tubes—one metal and the other of an
condenser.”
insulating material with a metallic
lining.
FlC. 65.—Section of the BLUE
Bichromate Cell. A. «lass
GLOW. — A
BIMORPH.—Another term for the jar ; B and C, carhon rods ;
valve gives
D. porous pot ; E, zinc ; M,
piezo-crystal used in some speakers, mercury.
rise to blue
microphones, pick-ups, etc. (See
glow when excessive current is flow¬
Piezo-Electricity
ing from plate to filament. Blue glow
BINDING POST.— An American
signifies that the valve is ‘ ' soft ’ ’—
term for a terminal.
not completely exhausted of air.
BINDING SCREW.—The Ameri¬
can term for a terminal. BLUE PRINTS.— A photographic
BIPOLAR.— Possessing two poles. copy of a drawing. Probably the
BLATTNERPHONE. — A system quickest way of building a set exactly
59
 BLUE PRINTS — BOOSTER

to specification is to use a full-size components right away. If they are

blue print. Although primarily in¬ at all crowded you will find it best
tended for the guidance of the be¬ to fix them one by one, and complete
ginner, there is no doubt that even as much of the wiring as possible
the expert home constructor will find each time. In the case of sets em¬
his work greatly speeded up by using ploying under-baseboard wiring, all
a blue print instead of relying on the holes for the wires to pass through
usual small wiring diagram. Besides should be drilled before mounting the
that, there is the question of accuracy. components. In sets of this type you
With some modern receivers of very will usually find the underside of the
compact design the accurate position¬ baseboard will have to be marked out
ing of the components is of utmost as well as the upper. Any skirting
importance. to the baseboard should be fixed last
First stand the components which of all. As you wire each component,
are to be mounted on the baseboard cross off the corresponding wire shown
direct on the blue print and examine on the blue print. When you have
it very carefully. This will give you finished, all the wires should have been
some idea of what the finished receiver marked off. If any are not you know
will look like, besides showing you you have missed them out. At this
if you have forgotten any of the stage, however, you will not have
parts. You can now either take them crossed them all off, since you still
all off and stand them on the base¬ have to fix the panel to the baseboard
board in approximately their right and wire up any final points between
positions, and then make the final the two. This is the best method, as
adjustments by careful measuring if all the components and panel are in
from the blue print, or you can stand position first it is such a fiddling busi¬
them on the table while you mark ness making connections in the corners.
the positions by placing the print on Do not spread your blue print on
the baseboard and pricking through the baseboard and panel and fix the
it with a sharp bradawl. The latter components directly on top of it with
method is perhaps the better so long the idea of tearing it away when the
as you make the marks clear. The parts are all fixed. It is difficult to
same method can be employed with clear it away properly from between
the panel. each component. Also you will most
It may be that some of the com¬ likely want it as soon as it has been
ponents you are using are not the "scrapped.” When drilling holes
same make or quite the same pattern for chassis-type valve holders, etc.,
as those shown on the blue print. do not drill straight through from one
You may be using the alternatives side, but turn the work over as soon
to those specified in the list. In this as the point of the bit comes through
case it is usual to mount the com¬ and drill from the underneath.
ponents with the terminals in as BOARD OF TRADE UNIT—
nearly the same position as those 1,000 watt-hours, i kilow'att hour,
shown on the print. This may mean or 3,415 British Thermal units.
turning the component round. How¬ BOLOMETER.— A particular type
ever, in the case of unshielded coils of Wheatstone Bridge possessing a
or chokes it is better to lengthen or quickly-heating resistance.
shorten the leads rather than alter BOOSTER.— The booster is a
the position of the components in piece of electrical apparatus for in¬
relation to others. creasing voltage. A dynamo wired
Do not necessarily mount all the in series with it superimposes or
60
 BOOSTER
adds its voltage to that of the mains. lighting circuit irrespective of whether
All methods of accumulator charging the battery is on charge or not, for
have certain drawbacks, which the the booster will impose its voltage
booster entirely eliminates. For ex¬ sufficiently to charge all of the cells
ample, in electrical equipment, in of the accumulator simultaneously
which the battery is simultaneously and at an equal rate. A great ad¬
on charge and discharge, the accumu¬ vantage is immediately obvious, for
lator is arranged to be supplied it will not be necessary to run the
from a shunt-wound dynamo, a por¬ generating plant to charge the bat¬
tion of the current from which will tery so that, say, it can be used at
pass to the lamps. Assume that the night.
generator in such an installation gives Another type of booster is the auto¬
50 amps., and that the accumulator matically reversible, and it is chiefly

FlC. 66.—Circuit diagram showing how the Booster is connected.

is distributing 20 amps, to the cir¬ used where an electrical load is im¬

cuit. It will readily be seen that the posed which is subject to consider¬
end cells will be charged at the nor¬ able variations up or down. Such a
mal rate, but the 20 amps, imparted case would be in starting an electric
to the circuit must be subtracted crane or a tramcar, and in such cases
from the normal charging rate of the the plant must be capable of an out¬
cell interposed between the negative put sufficient to deal with the heaviest
eixl of the accumulator and the par¬ current drain. The period between
ticular cell wired to the discharge the load, therefore, necessitates run¬
switch. It follows that 80 per cent, ning the plant very much below its
of the cells will be charged at 20 maximum capacity. By connecting
per cent, lower rate than the re¬ an accumulator in parallel with a
mainder. For this reason the life of shunt dynamo the latter would be
such cells is comparatively short. aided by the discharge of the former
The booster entirely gets rid of this when the voltage of the shunt dynamo
trouble. dropped on account of electrical load.
A booster suitable for accumulator Pursuing this point further, it will be
charging can conveniently consist of seen that once this load is imposed
a shunt motor driving a shunt-wound the voltage of the accumulator would
dynamo. It may also consist of a also drop, thus rendering necessary
small shunt-wound dynamo driven some further aid. This assistance is
from an extension of the shunt motor forthcoming in the form of the re¬
shaft. It functions in the following versible booster, whfch, wired in
way : the constant voltage generator series with the accumulator, will in¬
will supply the amperage for the crease the voltage to an amount equal
 BOOSTER BREAK THROUGH
to the voltage drop of the battery. versible, and the chief features of it
This it does automatically and thus are the carbon piles which act as
maintains at a constant voltage the regulators. A lever is situated be¬
booster and battery system. tween these two sets of piles, and a
Another type of reversible booster soft iron core is attached to one end
of the lever. A
solenoid surrounds
the iron core. A
spring is secured
to the opposite end
of the lever, the
tension of which is
adjusted to coun¬
teract the pull of
the solenoid. Any
required load on
the generator can
thus be adjusted
to a nicety. Any
variations cause a
change in the car¬
bon piles which,
varying the resist¬
ance, thus controls
the degree of feel
excitation in the
booster. For ex¬
ample, if the elec¬
trical pull of the
solenoid on the
depends for its operation on varia¬ lever causes a deflection or extension
tions in its output and not at all on of the spring, a compression and re¬
variations in dynamo voltage. It is lease of the carbon piles will take
claimed that this type maintains a place, and if the spring conquers the
more even load than the former. thrust of the solenoid there will be
The diagram shows one of the most a reversal of direction of excitation.
popular systems in use, known as BORNITE.—An ore of copper.
the Entz. It consists of three cheap One of the elements of the Bornite-
parts—-the booster, the exciter, and Zincite crystal detector.
the motor itself. The complete plant B.O.T.— Board of Trade. (See
as sold is fixed to one bedplate cast¬ Board of Trade Unit and Abbrevia¬
ing. An examination of the diagram tions, page vi.)
indicates a divided busbar, and be¬ BRAUN TUBE.—The original name
tween this division is placed the coil given to the Cathode-ray Oscillo¬
which carries the generator current. graph, a device for producing visible
In series with the main busbars is indications of oscillating currents.
connected the booster armatures, and (See also Cathode-ray Tube.)
the battery is connected to the chief BREAK THROUGH.— A trouble¬
busbar. Only one field coil is fitted some form of interference sometimes
to the armature of the booster. met with in dual-range coils. It is
The Entz booster is instantly re- the breaking through of one or more
62
 BREAK THROUGH
powerful medium-wave local stations
on to the long waves. In extreme
cases the station or stations on the
medium waves which are causing the
trouble can be heard all over the dial
when the set is switched on to the
long waves. Usually, however, it is
not quite so bad as this, the inter¬
ference being most noticeable at the
lower end of the tuning dial and
very gradually decreasing towards the
upper end.
Curiously enough, the cause of the
trouble is usually due to an attempt
on the part of the designer of the
coil to obtain selectivity on the long¬
wave band. In order to do this it is
usual to employ either a separate
aerial coil of comparatively few turns
coupled to the leng-wave grid coil,
or to tap the long-wave coil near the
earthed end. This, of course, gives
the desired selectivity as regards the
long-wave stations themselves, but is in the " in ” position the medium¬
introduces break through with it from wave circuit consists of an aerial, or
the medium waves. primary coil A, of from five to fifteen
Examine the diagram (Fig. 68), turns, and a grid, or secondary, coil
which shows a typical dual-range B, coupled to it of about sixty turns.
circuit. In this case when the switch When the switch is “ont” the wind¬
ings C and D are included in series
with A and B respectively so as to
bring the total inductance up to that
required for tuning in the long-wave
stations. Now C may consist of
twenty or thirty turns, and this, to¬
gether with A, gives an aerial coil
of about forty turns. This winding
is not of itself very selective, and
being of about the right wavelength,
brings in the powerful medium-wave
local sufficiently strong to impose
the signal on to the grid coil BD.
In other words, the medium-wave sta¬
tion "breaks through." In the case
of the circuit shown in Fig. 69, which
is another popular arrangement for
a dual-range coil, the effect is simi¬
lar. Here the long-wave primary cir¬
cuit consists of windings A and C,
but C this time is not a separate coil,
Flc. 68.—Circuit of a Dual-range Coil but a tapped portion of D. The prac-
with which break through may occur.
63
 BREAK THROUGH
tical differ¬ pile winding is quite suitable, espe¬
ence is that cially as this method tends to limit
the circuit the external field. Fig. 72 shows a
of Fig. 68 very simple and effective method
is more which can be applied to the circuit of
tightly Fig. 68. A fixed condenser of -0003
coupled o n mid. or -0005 mid. is placed across
the long C. This again increases the wave¬
waves than length of the aerial coil without in¬
that of Fig. creasing the coupling. In this way
69. the selectivity on the long waves
Any a t - still remains good.
tempts at a Taking the wavelength of the aerial
cure must winding below the medium band is
be in the not generally considered good prac¬
direction o f tice, since it can only be done by
keeping the making both A and C very small,
n a t u r a 1 and this naturally increases the selec¬
wavelength tivity on both the medium and the
of the prim¬ long waves to a degree which is not
Fie. 70.—A very common
Circuit employed in commercial ary coil AC always desirable. However, it has
coils. Break through does not well away been found that where great selec¬
occur, but it is unsclective on the
long waves. from the tivity is necessary this method is ad¬
medium- mirable. The circuit is precisely the
wave band. Fig. 70 shows a very same as in Fig. 71, but A consists of
popular circuit much used in commer¬ about five turns tightly coupled to B,
cial coils where only the medium-wave that is, wound on top of B, and C
winding is tapped, but here, of course, is a tapping of about fifteen turns.
there is no attempt at selectivity on There is one advantage in this
the long waves. With the circuits
given in Figs. 68 and 69 there are
two courses open. One is to raise
the natural wavelength of AC above
the medium wave and the other is
to take it well below it. The usual
practice is to raise it. Fig. 71 show's
one method. This consists of intro¬
ducing a separate coil E in series
with A and C. This raises the wave¬
length of the primary circuit suffi¬
ciently high to clear the medium band
and at the same time does not de¬
crease the selectivity. The coil E
should consist of about fifty or sixty
turns, and should be placed a little
way from the tuning coil or with its
axis at right angles to that of the
tuning coil so as to prevent inter¬
action. Screening is hardly necessary
unless space is very limited. The de¬
sign of the coil is not critical, and
64
 BREAK THROUGH — BRITISH BROADCASTING STATIONS
method, and that is, there is no fear D farther apart, in the case of Fig.
of trouble arising through the use 72. (See also anti-break-through
of a condenser in series with the choke, Chokes, and High-frequency
aerial as a selectivity control. It Chokes.)
sometimes happens that when reduc¬ BRIDGE.—A Wheatstone Bridge.
ing the setting of such a condenser a BRIDLE.— The rope which is at¬
tached to each end of a spreader for
suspending an aerial.
X / Flc. 72.—Another cure BRITISH ASSOCIATION SCREW
’ ’ lor break through on
home-made coils. THREADS
(See also Screws and Wood Screws.)
(Dimensions in Millimetres)
p = pitch
d - depth = p X *6
Formula
r = radius = 2 x —
11

Outside Pitch Root Tap

No. Pitch, Diameter Diameter Diameter Drill
mm. mm. mm. mm. Size.

0 1-00 60 5 400 4-80 7

i 0-90 5'3 4-76.3 4-22 16
o-8i 4'7 421Í 3’73 22
3 0-73 41 3-660 322 29
4 0-66 36 3205 2-81 31
5 0'59 3'2 2-845 2-49 37
6 0-53 2-8 2-480 216 43
7 0-48 2-5 2-2IO 1-92 46
8 0-43 2'2 I 940 1-68 48
point is reached where break through 9 0-39- 1-9 1-665 1-43 À
occurs. This is because the natural IO 0-35 1-7 l’49o 1-28 54
031 1-5 1315 M3 56
wavelength of the primary circuit, 12 0-28 1'3 I-I3O 04)6 59
which in the particular coil used
would normally be well above the BRITISH BROADCASTING
break-through range, is lowered suffi¬ STATIONS
ciently to bring it into the danger (See also Short-wave Stations and
zone. Obviously, this cannot occur European Broadcasting Stations,
with the second method, since the and International Call Signs.)
natural wavelength of the primary B.B.C. Empire Call Signs
circuit is already below the medium¬ Mc/s metres
wave band, and the reducing of the GSA—A for Aerial 605 49-59
GSB—B for Broadcasting . 951 31-54
condenser setting would only tend to GSC—C for Corporation 958 3131
lower it still further. Where, how¬ GSD—D for Daventry 21-75 25-53
GSE—E for Empire . ri-86 25-28
ever, trouble of this sort does arise, GSF— F for Fortune . 15-14 19-81
the only cure is to increase the setting GSG—G for Greeting . 17-79 i6-86
GSH—H for Home = 1-47 23-97
of the series aerial condenser and GSI— I for Island 15-26 19-66
make up for the reduced selectivity GSJ--J for Justice 21-53 1393
GSJ2—J for Justice . si-56 Ï3-9I
by decreasing the coupling between GSL —L for Liberty . 6-11 49-10
the primary and secondary circuits. GSN—N for Nation . 11-82 25-38
GSO—O for Ocean 15-18 29-76
If the coil is a home-made one, this GSP—1* for Progress . *5-31 19-60
can easily be arranged, either by re¬ GST—T for Transmitter 21-55 23-92
GST2—T for Transmitter . 21-64 13-86
ducing the number of turns in the GSU—U for Unity 7-26 41-32
tapped portion C, in the case of Fig. GSV—V for Valour . x7-8i 16-84
GSW—W foi Westminster . 7-23 41-49
69, or by placing the windings C and
p.w.E.—c* 65
 BRITISH SYSTEM OF UNITS — CABINET CONSTRUCTION
Fre¬ Wave- The Proposed Wavelengths of B.B.C.
Power
Station quency length Programme Stations on and after March 4th, 1940
kW.
kcls. metres
New Present
200 1,500 150 National Station
Droitwich Wavelength Wavelength
Moorside Edge 668 449-1 70 North
Regional Droitwich . 1,500
Westerglen . 767 391-1 70 Scottish North Regional . 447 1 4491
Regional Burghead and Scottish
Westerglen . i,i49 261-1 50 S< ottish Regional 380-2 391-1
National Peninon and West Re¬
Burghead 767 39I-I 60 gional 344'4 373-1
Washford 804 3731 70 Welsh London Regional 327 5 342-1
Regional Northern Ireland Re
Peninon 804 373-1 5 gional . 285-4 3O7-I
Brookman’s 877 34 21 70 London Midland Regional 276 296 2
Park. Regional London Nat., Northern
Lisnagarvey . 977 307-1 100 Northern Nat., and Scottish
Ireland Nat. 262-9 26r-r
Regional Stagshaw . 253 267-4
Droitwich 1,013 296-2 70 Midland Start Point (neu,' station) 245 5
Regional Norwich (new station) 214
Stagshaw 1,122 267-4 60 Aberdeen . 212-6 233 5
Brookman’s Clevedon (new station) 2O4-8
Park. 1,149 261-1 20 National
Moorside Edge 1,149 261-1 20 National
Westerglen . 1,149 261-1 50 National
Aberdeen 1,285
1,050
233 5 5
loo )West
BUZZER.— A smaller trembler coil
Start Point . 285-7
Clevedon 1,474 203-5 20 f Regional of similar design to an electric bell.
Alexandra mc/s. Chiefly used for testing circuit con¬
Palace 45 6-7 17 t Vision
(Television) 41-5 72 3 1Sound tinuity. The buzzer portion is a
make-and-break arrangement.
BRITISH SYSTEM OF UNITS.— B.W.G.— Birmingham Wire Gauge.
The foot - pound - second system BY-PASS CONDENSERS.— A con¬
(F.P.S.). The poundal is the Unit, denser inserted in a circuit to provide
consisting of the energy of one pound an alternative and easy path for
moving i foot in i second. some frequency which it is desired
B.T.U.—British Thermal Units. should not proceed to other parts of
BUS BAR. — A bar connecting the circuit. A good illustration is in
several cells or pieces of apparatus. a decoupling circuit, where a lesist-
An omnibus bar. ance is inserted in the anode lead
to prevent the passage of
H.F. currents, and at the
high potential end of the
resistance a fixed con¬
denser is joined to pro¬
vide a bypass, or easy
path, for these H.F. cur¬
rents. This condenser is
joined direct to the earth
connection of the receiver.
C
CABINET CON¬
STRUCTION.— The
actual size is, of course,
ruled by the dimensions
of the set itself, and it is
impossible to begin until
Fig. 73.—The American style of Cabinet. this has been decided.
66
 CABINET CONSTRUCTION
well be plywood, as that
will not be seen, and, in
marking it out, remember
to make allowance for any
terminal strips or leads
which have to pass through.
The General Construction.
Mark out the boards care¬
fully with a square and
ruler, being particularly
careful to see that the two
ends are exactly the same
size. The three upright
parts are glued and screwed
to the base, and, if the lid
FlC. 74.—The base is improved by the addition of
beading glued in the corner angle of the two parts.

The boards should be J in. thick for

the smaller sets—say, with a panel
of 10x7 in.—and | in. thick for the
larger ones. The simplest construc¬
tion is shown by the cabinet illus¬
trated in Fig. 73.
Overlapping Parts. The base and
lid, it will be noted, overlap the sides
about 1 in., and this allows the edges
of the former parts to be rounded off
nicely, at the same time reducing the
possibility of the nails or screws
splitting the material. The back can

FlC. 77.—This shows plainly how corner

moulding simplifies the construction.

is not ready to fit on, it is advisable

to nail some thin strips to hold the
top edges upright until that part is
ready. Another good plan is to have
a thin baseboard first, and then a
larger and thicker one beneath. This
bottom board can be glued entirely,
and the angle of the two parts de¬
corated by the corner ornamental
beading, as shown.
The lid itself can be completed
Figs. 75 and 76.—This is the simplest method of either as one piece or in two parts.
fixing the lid by means of hinges. The detail shows the
extra strip for strength. This allows hinging, sc the top may
67
 CABINET CONSTRUCTION
be lifted to get at the “ works.” be added in order to decorate if so
Another method, of course, is to desired. In putting on these trans¬
screw and glue the top down en¬ fers or ornaments, do not overdo it,
tirely, but this necessitates the with¬ but add just one or two simple pieces
drawal of the set if anything goes which will lend dignity and a little
wrong inside. If the lid is to be in colour to the job.
two pieces (as in the cabinet shown), A more simple method of construc¬
a thin strip is cut to hold the front tion is, of course, by the use of the
edges of the ends together, whilst corner moulding. This moulding
(see Fig. 79) has a groove into
which the sides of the cabinet can
slide, thus forming a pillar at each
corner and providing strength as well
as covering any bad joints which
might otherwise be seen. This mould¬
ing is obtainable with a J-in. groove,
cox is cut to the height of the sides, and
is glued and screwed at the corners
through the base and top as before.
All screws, of course, must be sunk
well into the wood, so that their
F1C. 78.—Fancy beading which is excellent for heads are below the surface, and the
decorating the cabinet. holes filled with plastic wood to ren¬
the main piece of the lid is hinged der them invisible.
on at the back. The use of this moùlding certainly
The Grain in the Lid. Use a com¬ simplifies the construction of the
plete board for the lid, and saw off
the strip for the front. If two dif¬
ferent boards are used, the grain of
the top will vary and not look so
well. A third method is to cut the
lid into three, so that a strip is
screwed and glued to the back edges,
another to the front, and the mov¬
able lid hinged between. The method
of hinging is illustrated (see Fig. 76),
but it is also advisable to glue a strip of
wood along the top inner edge of the
plywood back, in order to provide
FlC. 79.—The shape and grooves of the corner moulding
greater strength for the flange of the are clearly seen here.
hinge. All the way through the build¬
ing of the cabinet tests must be made cabinets in every case. Where it is
with the square to ensure that the used, the worker must allow a little
parts are at right-angles, horizontal, greater width than the dimension of
and vertical, whilst sufficient room the baseboard between the ends.
must be ensured for the putting in Thus, if the baseboard of the set is
of the set itself. A more elaborate 14 in. long, a space of 14$ in. must
cabinet can, of course, be built by be allowed between the inside surfaces
means of a built-up base of a box¬ of the ends of the cabinet. The
frame style, whilst transfers or some shape of the moulding on the corner
of the wooden carved ornaments may turns over j in. inwards, and this
68
 CABINET CONSTRUCTION — CALIBRATING A RECEIVER
space must be allowed so that the it can be fitted in by putting orna¬
panel of the set can get between. The mental beading or moulding round
groove in this edge can either be the edge of the front of the panel to
filled with a small strip, or the ebon¬ form a frame for the tuning dials,
ite panel so fitted that it comes in etc.
line and prevents the groove showing. CABLE.—Any large rope of wire
A professional finish is possible of plural strands.
with these cabinets by the use of or¬
dinary stains and Hobbies Lightning
CAGE AERIAL.— Any aerial con¬
sisting of several wires arranged on
Polish. Having temporarily tested
and constructed the cabinet, take it spreaders in the form of a cage.
to pieces again and clean up all parts CALIBRATING A RECEIVER.—
thoroughly with glasspaper. Take Those who are able to receive foreign
care, however, not to round edges stations are often mystified by receiv¬
which should be left square, but get ing a station, and, being unable to
a nice rounded surface on any turned understand the announcements, can¬
beaded edge. Drill screw-holes be¬ not obtain an idea whether it is a low-
fore putting the parts finally to¬ powered station at a great distance,
gether. The pieces can now be col¬ or a high-powered station nearby. It
oured down all one shade by the use is convenient to be able to make a
of a spirit stain. If water stain is note of the various stations heard
used, it is apt to make the wood on a set, and at the same time to
swell, and, anyhow, to raise the grain be able to know where to set the
so that the work will need glass¬ tuning dials to pick up any station
papering down again. The depth of when one sees from the newspapers
colour is varied by the addition of or some other periodical that a cer¬
further coats or more crystals into tain item is being broadcast which
the liquid. When the stain is fixed, one would like to hear. It is not
the polish can be applied in the very difficult to draw up a chart
ordinary way with a bob. Remember which will make it possible to do all
that the edges will take considerably this, and it need only cost a few
more than the rest of the work, and pence. It will be found a most in¬
see that it is not dragged over to teresting job drawing the chart, and
leave a long smeary ribbon. A more if it is afterwards fixed inside the
simple plan is to mix some varnish lid of the wireless set it will always
with the polish, and apply it care¬ be handy for reference
fully and quickly over the parts with Marking out the Paper A sheet of
a varnish brush. This, of course, squared paper will be required, gener¬
will provide quite a bright polished ally known as graph paper. This is
surface, but, to the critical eye, the usually obtainable from most good
body of the varnish will always be stationers or artists' supply stores.
apparent. This, too, makes it more It does not matter whether the
likely to become scratched and show squares are in tenths of an inch or
any such marks. Polish, to be ap¬ millimetres, the actual size chosen
plied properly, must be put on with depending on the room the chart
a bob. Leave the completed cabinet is to occupy when finished. Rule
until the polish has thoroughly set along one of the lines near the
before bringing it into use, and then bottom of the sheet, and mark along
put the set in position. If it is likely this the numbers corresponding to
to be withdrawn, it can simply be those on the tuning dial. This may
slid into position, but, if preferred, be o to loo or o to i3o, it does not
 CALIBRATING A RECEIVER — CAPACITY
make any difference which it is. list of stations given in the press, one
Now at the left-hand side of the sheet should have no difficulty in ascertain¬
rule a vertical line running from the ing what the station is.
line marked with the o. Along this If the set consists of a detector
line clearly indicate the metres (or valve followed by L.F. stages, one
frequencies in kilocycles, whichever is will have to use reaction during the
wanted) corresponding to the tuning compilation of the chart, and to
range covered by the condenser. If avoid variations due to the varying
the tuning condenser is of the type amounts of applied reaction, use this
known as a "log’’ scale, then it is at its maximum. For receivers using
preferable to mark the tuning range H.F. stages, it is preferable to cali¬
in kilocycles. For the other types brate the condenser which tunes
of condenser use the metre scale. If either the H.F. transformer, tuned
it is preferred the constructor may anode, or detector circuit.
mark this in both the frequency and CALL SIGNS, INTERNATIONAL.
the wavelength. Having done this, —See International Call Signs.
one may settle down to the more in¬ CALORIE.— Same as Calory.
teresting job of calibrating the set. CALORY.— The unit of heat. The
First of all tune in to the local degree of heat required to raise a
station. If possible, avoid the use of gramme of water at 15 o Centigrade
reaction when carrying out this cali¬ by Io Centigrade (C.G.S. system).
bration. Having tuned in to the CANAL RAYS.— Diacathode Rays
exact spot, make a careful note of the (which see).
reading on the dial. Now find this CAPACITANCE.— The potential
spot on the bottom line of the chart, difference existing between a body
and run the pencil up the vertical line and surrounding bodies when a quan¬
above this spot until it arrives at the tity of electricity is imparted to it.
place where the horizontal line corre¬ Unit, the Farad.
sponding to the wavelength of the CAPACITY.—The property of
station crosses it. Make a small dot storing electricity under electrical
at this spot. Now tune in another pressure (see also Condenser). The
loud station, and carry out the same property which some metallic bodies
process. When one has, say, three or possess of storing electricity is known
four dots on the chart, carefully join as the "self-capacity," and this must
them up with a light pencil line. Now not be confused with the capacity be¬
find the wavelength of a station which tween one metallic body and another.
has not yet been marked, but which The term "self-capacity” is also
can be received, and run along this often applied to the capacity exist¬
line until the pencil line is reached. ing between adjacent turns of an
Drop down the vertical line and see inductance. If two metal plates are
the dial reading this gives. If now joined to the terminals of a battery,
the dial is set to this spot the station and the plates are separated by air,
should be heard, but if any slight a certain capacity will exist between
retuning is necessary, carry this out, those plates. If the distance between
and make the necessary alteration to the plates is kept constant, but in
the pencil line. place of the air a sheet of glass is
Identifying a Station. To use the placed between the plates, the
chart in identifying a station which capacity will alter. Similarly, the
may be received, note the dial read¬ difference between different insulators,
ing, and, as explained above, find or as they are correctly called "di¬
its wavelength. If now one takes the electrics,” will vary the capacity.
70
 CAPACITY BRIDGE — CELLS IN SERIES

CAPACITY BRIDGE.—A device cathode, and will be driven with

for measuring the value of an un¬ great force on to the anode.
known condenser. It consists in princi¬ In the oscillograph a small pin¬
ple of a device similar to a Wheat¬ hole is made in the anode, and the
stone bridge, and the unknown con¬ force of the electron bombardment
denser is "balanced” against known drives some of the electrons through
values in the remaining arms of the this pinhole. The tube is not com¬
bridge. (See also Wheatstone Bridge.) pletely vacuated, but contains a
residuum of gas, and the gas tends
CAPACITY EARTH.—A counter¬
to conduct the electrons which pass
poise earth; or an earth consisting of
through the hole, so that a stream
some large bod}' of metal. Sometimes
of electrons passes from the anode
referred to as a balancing capacity.
down towards the fluorescent screen
CAPACITY REACTANCE.—The or plate. Immediately beyond the
portion of the aggregate impedance
anode are two pairs of plates, one
due to capacity.
pair disposed horizontally and the
CARBORUNDUM.—A compound other vertically. These are suitably
of carbon and silicon made by heating connected to a circuit so as to form
sand and coke in an electric furnace. magnetic fields, or fields of stress
Also, a crystal rectifier used in con¬ between the plates, and these fields
junction with steel. divert the stream of electrons. The
CARBOY.—A large glass jar used fluorescent plate glows where the
to store acids. stream strikes it, and the size of the
CASCADE.— The same as Series. hole and all other internal.details of
CATHODE.— The positive pole of a the oscillograph have to be so designed
cell or piece of electrical apparatus. that the spot of light on the plate is
The terminal by which the current only a mere point. Various improve¬
leaves the cell or piece of apparatus. ments on the above simple arrangement
CATHODE RAY TUBE.—An have been carried out. (See also
electrical device for giving a Braun Tube and Television.)
visual indication of the magnitude, CATION.—Obsolete term for posi¬
shape, etc., of an oscillating current. tive ion. An element which in elec¬
It may also be employed, by suitably trolysis is evolved at the cathode.
connecting it in circuit, to provide Sometimes spelt Cathion. Opposed to
actual images of valve characteristics Anion (which see).
and other wireless data. It consists C.C.—Cubic centimetres.
of a large glass tube which is conical CELLS IN PARALLEL.—All posi¬
in shape. The large end, or the base tive poles joined together and all
of the cone, is coated on the inside negative poles joined together. An
with some fluorescent material. At arrangement for obtaining a greater
the point of the cone, or the narrow current from a number of small cells.
end of the tube, is sealed a cathode. The voltage remains unchanged.
A short distance from this cathode CELLS IN SERIES.— Positive pole
is fixed an anode. The arrangement of one cell joined to negative of the
so far, then, is a replica of an or¬ next cell. An arrangement for ob¬
dinary wireless valve, and it works taining a greater voltage from a num¬
on practically the same principle. If ber of small cells. In this arrangement
a negative potential is applied to the the capacity will remain unchanged.
cathode and a positive potential ap¬ A good example is a high-tension bat¬
plied to the anode, a stream of elec¬ tery, w’here individual cells of 1-5
trons will be shot off from the volts are joined together.

71
 CENTI CHARACTERISTIC CURVES
CENTI.—One-hundredth. Volts.” Sometimes these three sets
CENTIGRADE.—The system of of figures are referred to by the tech¬
measuring temperatures, in which boil- nical references Vg for grid volts, Va
for anode volts, and la for anode
current. The grid volts line is usually
divided into two parts, a zero line
being placed near the right-hand
edge, and the volts to the left of
this being marked “negative,” and
those to the right "positive." Now,
this set of curves will give us all the
details which are known as the
valve’s characteristics, and they may
be ascertained in the following man¬
ner.
How to ascertain a Valve's Char¬
acteristics. Connect up a valve
holder, grid-bias battery, H.T. bat¬
tery, and L.T. battery, as shown in
the diagram Fig. 82. A milliam¬
meter should be inserted in the anode
lead between plate and H.T. positive.
Now prepare a piece of squared paper
with a zero grid-potential line, as
shown in Fig. 80, and mark the
right-hand line with a series of num¬
F 1C. 80.—The ordinary grid-volts anode current curves. bers from o to 30, and insert a valve
in the valve holder. With no grid
ing-point is 100° and freezing-point bias and 60 volts H.T., note the cur¬
o°. rent indicated by the milliammeter.
CENTRE TAP.— See Tapping.
C.G.S.— The centimetre - gramme - Anode I/olts
second system of units. (See also
Absolute Units.)
CHARACTERISTIC CURVES,
MAKING.—When you buy a valve
of well-known make you will find in
the box a small pamphlet—the actual
arrangement differing with different
makes of valves, but all of them
give certain data relative to the
valve, and these details are known
as the valve’s “characteristics.” In
addition to the tabulated details,
there is a chart similar to that shown
in Fig. 80. The right- or left¬
hand edge of the squared section
bears a number of figures marked
' ‘ Anode Current, ’ ' and the thick
lines running across the squares are
labelled with figures termed ‘ ‘ Anode
72
 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES, MAKING
On the squared paper on the zero in grid volts. (The sign which
line make a dot where the line cor¬ is the Greek letter mu, is used for
responding to the anode current in- this particular characteristic.) When
terseets. Now plug the grid-bias plug preparing the curves as explained

Fig. 82.—How to arranje the necessary parts in order to read a valve and prepare your own curves, or check your
valves.

into the 1-5-volt socket, and note above, it was noticed that as the
tiie anode current, making a dot on grid bias was increased and the
the chart above the i-5-vdt line at H.T. volts left unaltered, the anode
the point of intersection with the current decreased. In our example,
new anode current. Proceed in this you will see that with 100 volts
way with various H.T. and G.B. H.T. and no volts on the grid,
values, joining up all the dots for the anode current is, roughly, 15
each H.T. value The result of this milliamps. When the grid bias is
will be a set of curves exactly the increased by 3 volts the anode cur¬
same as those supplied by the valve rent will drop to just under 10 milli¬
makers, and the various figures, such amps., a drop of approximately 6
as amplification ratio, slope, etc., milliamps. Therefore, to obtain the
may now be found. same anode current without alter¬
Amplification Ratio. This figure ing the bias it will be necessary to
(which is wrongly termed "Amplifi¬ increase the H.T., and in the example
cation Factor") is the ratio of you will see that about 24 volts are
change in anode voltage to change required to get the same anode cur-

73
 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES, MAKING
bias is increased, and therefore
the slope is 2 milliamps, per volt,
or, as it is expressed on the valve
chart, 2-0 mA/v.
Impedance. This is one of the
most important figures to know,
as upon it depends the value of
resistance, etc., which is to be
used in coupling the valve to a
subsequent stage. No further
working has to be done to obtain
this figure, as the two previous
items, slope and amplification
ratio, are used to ascertain the
impedance. Simply divide the
amplification ratio by the slope,
and multiply the answer by 1,000,
/f/YODE yCMTS
which in the example we are using
FlC. 83.—The Dynamic Valve Curves—which are the
most important curves to have. will be 8 divided by 2 multiplied
by 1,000, or 4,000, and this figure
is quoted in ohms.
rent. We have therefore to add 24 Unfortunately, the above details
volts H.T. for every 3 volts G.B. —those which are given to you by
added, and this ratio, 24 over 3, is the valve manufacturers—are what
the amplification ratio, which in this are known as " static characteristics,”
case is 8(see Fig. 80). that is, they are only applicable to
A reference to the diagram will a valve which receives constant volt¬
make this clear. ages, and as everyone knows by now,
Slope. This term is the same as when the valve is being used to.
“Mutual Conductance.” It is the receive signals the grid and anode
change in anode current divided by voltages are constantly changing. It
change in grid volts, or, put in is therefore impossible to ascertain
another way, the anode - current from the curves we have so far
change per volt grid-potential change. studied such details as the “maxi¬
For this factor, the anode potential, mum undistorted output," correct
or H.T., must be left untouched, “anode load,” percentage of “second
and the grid bias only altered. As harmonic distortion," etc., and we
the bias is in¬
creased, we have
just seen that the
anode current will
decrease. There¬
fore we can obtain
a set of figures
from which we can
see, as in our ex¬
ample, that the
anode current de¬
creases 2 milli¬
amps. for every
volt that the grid

74
 CHARACTERISTIC CURVES, MAKING
have therefore to prepare a set of Undistorted Output. The curves
curves known as “dynamic” curves. shown in Fig. 83 may be expressed
These curves, unfortunately, are in a much simpler way for the pur¬
rather difficult for the amateur to pose of explaining the manner of
prepare, and what is still more un¬ ascertaining the undistorted output
fortunate, the valve manufacturers of the valve and the percentage of
for some reason or other
hesitate to publish them
for us. As a matter of
fact, during the Iasi few
months there has been a
suggestion that
the manufac¬
turers are alive
rh/ooi —
to the position,
as dynamic
curves are now
issued with
Fic. 85.—The
some types of ‘‘ power triangle "
power valve. marked out.
But if with one
type of valve,
why not with them all? However, second harmonic distortion, etc. We
to get back to our study of these therefore draw Fig. 84, which is the
curves. Fig. 83 shows the way these anode-current curve at normal grid
are drawn, and it will be observed bias, double and half-grid bias, all
that the values of both grid bias the other lines in Fig. 83 being omit¬
and H.T. are carried to a value ted. The diagonal line running across
higher than is normally used. Actu¬ the curves is what is known as the
ally, in order to make use of these ‘‘load line,” and this gives the value
curves we must show the current at of the resistance, which must be in¬
the correct working point, that is, cluded in the anode lead to obtain
correct anode volts and correct grid the maximum output from the valve,
volts, and in addition at half and or in other words, the correct match¬
double these values. It is taken for ing resistance. The line is drawn by
granted that the reader appreciates placing a ruler on the curves with
the fact that during the operation of its edge at the point where the
the valve (we are, of course, dealing normal grid-bias line, normal anode¬
with the valve as an L.F. amplifier) current line, and normal anode-volt¬
the grid potential varies, when the age line all intersect. The ruler is
valve is operating on the proper part then swung about this point until
of its characteristic, from half the an equal distance separates the zero
applied bias to double that bias. If grid-volts line and the line corre¬
it does not do this, then distortion sponding to double the normal grid
is taking place. The effect of the bias. (Actually the distances should
variation in bias is, as our other not be equal, but one side should be
curves have shown us, equivalent to slightly larger than the other, in
a change in anode volts, and, there¬ order to- obtain what is known as a
fore, the dynamic curves will show 5 per cent, distortion scale—but this
the anode current at various grid and need not confuse us at the moment.)
anode volts. Having drawn this line, we drop a

75
 CHASSIS
vertical line at the point of inter¬ with elsewhere in this volume under
section of zero grid volts, and draw their separate headings.
a horizontal line at the point of CHASSIS.—The supporting base
intersection of the load line and the (usually of aluminium or foil-covered
line corresponding to double the grid wood, but sometimes of wood or
bias. This gives us a triangle as bakelite) on which are placed the
shown in Fig. 85. Now, the formula components of a receiver or trans¬
for finding the undistorted output is : mitter.
In its simplest form a chassis is
d max—I min) x ( E max— E min) that which is built of wood and cov¬
8 ered with metal foil, and is seen in
Fig. 86, and while these are all very
In other words, it is the anode cur¬ well in their way, an all-metal chassis
rent difference multiplied by the makes a wireless set into a real en¬
anode voltage difference, divided by gineering job.
8. This figure is the most important
An all-metal chassis can be built
in the list of valve details, as it up in a variety of ways, and alumin¬
gives a true indication of the power ium has the advantage of being
which the valve will deliver. For easily workable. Fig. 87 shows one
instance, if we know that Cossard’s method of constructing a chassis. It
P-5 valve will give an undistorted will be noticed in this arrangement
output of 500 milliwatts (or 5 watts), that no sheet-metal bending is re¬
and that Mullor’s D.7 gives an un¬ quired. The metal panel is attached
distorted output of 900 milliwatts, to the platform with a convenient
we know that the latter valve is length of angle aluminium, and the
nearly twice as loud as the former. same material is used for the re¬
There are several other factors turned portion or terminal panel.
which can be ascertained from these Ihus the chassis comprises three flat
dynamic curves, but these are dealt pieces of sheet aluminium and a
couple of
lengths of
angle. This
material,
EQ/l by the way, is
COVERING obtainable i n
NOODEN CHASSIS various gauges
and with equal
and unequal
width of sides.
For the present
purpose, how¬
ever, J in. to
J in. width by
16 to 18 S.W.G.
thickness
is most suit¬
able. The sheet
aluminium and
Fig. 86.—A simple way
of making a “ metal ”
angles are
Chassis. A wooden framework joined together
covered with meta! foil.
by drilling holes
76
 CHASSIS CONSTRUCTION
through both pieces and fixing with portion of the front panel below the
small brass screws and nuts. In an¬ platform is completed by the addition
other adaptation of this arrangement of an angle piece running the whole
an ebonite terminal strip may easily length. The fitting of side pieces in
be incorporated as shown in Fig. 88. wood or metal as in Fig. 93 would
One further advantage to be obtained make this unnecessary.
from the adoption of this or a simi- A simpler form of chassis is now
lar form of construction is that, after available for the home constructor,
marking out the positions of holes consisting of a plywood base upon
i eq ui red to which is a coating of metal, sprayed
a c c o m m o- on under pressure and giving the
date fixing same effect as a sheet of metal. This
PANEL is easy to work, and the
surface may be scraped
PLATFORM
away with a pen-knife or
similar implement when
it is desired to mount a
component, which must
now be earthed. If
this type of chassis
is used for short-
w a V e apparatus,
the metal surface
TERMINAL PANEL should not be em¬
ployed for earth-
ANGLES FULL LENGTH return purposes,
as it may become
Fig. 87.—A metal Chassis using angle-irons instead of bending the aluminium.
damaged due to
handling anti thus
bolts for the components or for the give rise to a high-resistance joint.
passage of wires, the chassis members It is also possible to make a similar
may be taken apart, thus leaving the type of chassis, having the working
essential portions in the flat, thereby facilities of the wooden structure,
greatly facilitating drilling, and more with the advantages of the metal
especially will this convenience be arrangement, by using ordinary ply¬
appreciated where an irregular-shaped wood for the foundation and cover¬
hole or two has to be pierced with ing it with a layer of good copper or
a fret-saw. aluminium foil. For short-wave
The more usual form of chassis now
employed is made by bending sheet
metal into a fairly wide channel-section
formation, the panel
being either riveted
or bolted on to one
of the flanges or
narrow edges. Fig. 89
shows such a chassis. ANGLE
Another form of bend¬
ing is illustrated in Fig. 90. In this
the panel platform and terminal panel
are in one piece, and the remaining terminal connections.

77
 CHASSIS CONSTRUCTION
apparatus the copper is preferable, Now, unfortunately these long right-
and all earth-return leads may be angled or modified forms of bends
made through the foil, using holding¬ are not easy to make with the means
down bolts or screws as the anchor¬ at the disposal of home constructors
ing points for the earth connections. generally, and while beating the
It is also possible to solder the con¬ metal over an object with a square
nections at these points, but if the edge with a hammer or mallet might
latter is not adopted, the point at produce a very nice antique effect,
which the wire is attached should be the resulting chassis would not please
very carefully cleaned if H.F. cur¬ the discriminating wireless enthusiast.
rents are to be fed through the coil. Method of Bending. The only re¬
A word of warning should be added liable way of making bends of this
here not to use the various types of description is to employ some me¬
chanical means, and the following is
a short description of a simple appli¬
ance for this purpose. Reference to the
illustrations, Figs. 91 and 92, in which
the bender is seen in operation, shows
it to be a contrivance which anyone
with a very elementary knowledge of
woodwork could quickly make. The
essential parts are
a baseboard with
clamping bar fitted
to it with a bolt
and wing nut at
each end. The
bending flap is
hinged to the base¬
board, and is pro¬
vided with a short
handle for extra
leverage. Justa
word of warning : do not use timber
that is too light for the job. It should
metallised paper which may be ob¬ be i in. to i| in. thick, the latter
tained from various sources, such as for preference; use a good pair of
wall-paper and similar material, steel hinges, either back flap or butt
which consists of fine metallic powder pattern will do, secured with good
held in position by some adhesive stout screws. Arrange the position
material which does not provide con¬ of the hinges so that the unsupported
tinuity in an electrical sense, and part of the bending flap is divided
therefore the utmost care should be into three equal parts. The bending
taken if such material is selected. face of this flap, when lying flat,
For the same reason it is not worth should coincide with the top face of
while attempting to use small pieces the baseboard, so arrange the hinges
of foil-covered paper, joining them accordingly. See that the front edge
together by overlapping and sticking of the clamping bar lies parallel with
them down, as this will also break the the flap when it is in a vertical posi¬
continuity between adjacent pieces of tion. The two clamping screws are
foil. j-in. Whit, countersunk-headed ones;
78
 CHASSIS CONSTRUCTION
tight-fitting holes, afterwards counter¬ and with a steel rule placed against
sunk on the underside, are drilled in these marks, strike a well-defined
the baseboard to receive them, and line with a sharp-pointed scriber as
the matching holes in the bar are shown in the illustration. The re¬
drilled to give a slight clearance. maining edges are scribed off square
Provide two large diameter washers with the ready-finished edge. To
for the wing nuts to butt against. make a good job of the chassis the
In order that the work to be bent metal must be kept free from buckles,
should come out square, it will be and great care must be taken to main¬
necessary to pull the flap through an tain the flat surface during cutting
angle of a little more than 90°, so operations. So for this reason work
make an allowance for this by outside the wanted
planing the front edge of the clamp¬ portion, bending the
ing bar 1° or 2° scrap part as it is cut
out of square, at to provide an easy
the same time path for the snips.
making sure that Any roughness or ir¬
there will be room regularity caused by
for a thickness of a slight deviation
metal of the gauge from the line in any
to be used between
the bending faces.
A small radius
should be worked
along the bottom
front edge of the
clamping bar ; this
will leave a similar
radius in the
corner of the work
being bent.
Marking Out and
Cutting. Having Flc. 90.—An alternative method place is easily re¬
of constructing panel, baseboard,
decided on the sort and terminal strip in one piece. movable by draw¬
of chassis to be filing wit h a fine file.
made, the construction should be pro¬ The bending may now be com¬
ceeded with as follows. If possible, menced. Make a pencil line where
buy the aluminium already cut to re¬ each bend is required, keeping these
quired sizes with the edges, of course, lines, of course, parallel with the re¬
clean cut and square with one an¬ spective edges. Undo the wing nuts
other. Make allowance in the length and slide the metal under the clamp¬
for bends, but provided that the ing bar until bending line coincides
radius in the corners is not too small, absolutely with the front edge of the
it will be sufficiently accurate to make bar, afterwards tightening the nuts
the length before bending the total well down. Raise the lever until it
of the lengths of the sides. Should is in a vertical position, when bend
the material require cutting to size, may be examined for squareness.
it will presumably have at least one Owing to the slight spring-back on
clean-cut edge; if so, this is the one the metal a little extra bending may
to work from. Make a mark at each be necessary. Having attained the
end on the opposite side of the metal, desired result, the remaining bend or
79
8o
 CHATTERTON’S COMPOUND
bends may be completed in like the type provided with a quadrant
manner. and positive locking device, the end

The remaining work consists of of one leg being sharpened to a keen

drilling and needs no comment, but point. Hold the aluminium on a
the illustrations show a method of hard surface to prevent the leg in the
cutting large circular holes such as centre hole from pushing through and
are required in screens. A small hole enlarging it.

F1C. 94.—Conventional and actual diagram of two forms of L.F. Choke.

is drilled in the centre of the required CHATTERTON’S COMPOUND.—

hole and the metal is cut through A mixture of i part of Stockholm
from either side with a pair of tar, 3 parts gutta-percha, and I part
dividers. These dividers must be of resin. This forms a black insulating
 CHOKE — CIRCUIT
substance of a plastic character. wide. These should be slid over the
CHOKE.—A coil possessing high rod and stuck in position with Chat¬
self-induction, used to impede or terton’s Compound. Fig. 95 shows
check the amount of alternating cur¬ the appearance of the former, no
rent flowing in a circuit. It provides matter by which of the above two
impedance (which see). ways it is constructed.
CHOKE, MAKING A.— For the The most suitable gauge of wire
home-made choke a former and a is No. 36, and to enable the re¬
quantity of wire are required. Two quired number of turns to be ac¬
terminals may be used for connec¬ commodated in the slots it should be
tions, although these are not essential. preferably of the enamelled variety.
If one is lucky enough to own, or Anchor one end through the two
have the use of, a lathe, obtain a length holes, leaving sufficient for connec¬
of ebonite rod i in. in diameter, and tions, and in the first slot wind 500
turns. At the five-hundredth turn
allow the wire to run across the
separating flange, and continue the
windings in the second slot. Be
careful that the wire continues in
exactly the same direction. Wind
another 500, and carry on in this
way until you have 500 turns in
each slot, that is, 3,000 turns in
all (2 oz. of wire will be sufficient
for this). Anchor the end of the
wire, and the H.F. choke is com¬
plete. If desired, a piece of celluloid
or cellophane may be wrapped round
it to keep out moisture and to give
it a finished appearance. (See also
High-frequency Chokes, and Anti¬
break-through Choke.)
CHOKE-CAPACITY COUPLING.
Fig. 95.—A home-made —A form of low-frequency coupling,
Former.
in which a low-frequency (iron-
cored) choke is included in the
turn out slots about j in. deep by anode circuit of a valve, and the grid
just over J in. wide. Six such slots of the following valve is coupled to
will be needed, and there is no need the preceding anode by the custom¬
for great accuracy in the spacing. ary condenser. A grid-leak resist¬
In order to make the choke easy to ance is joined to the grid, and the
handle and mount, it is best to leave valve receives negative bias through
an inch or so at each end to carry this leak. It therefore only differs
the ends of the actual winding. If from resistance-capacity coupling by
one is not fortunate enough to be the use of a choke in place of a re¬
able to use a lathe, obtain a piece sistance in the anode circuit. (See
of j-in. diameter ebonite rod and a also Low-frequency Couplings.)
similar length of ebonite tube having CHOKE COUPLING— See Coup-
¿-in. walls and an internal diameter ling.
of J in. From this tube cut five CI RCUIT.—The path through
rings I in. wide and two rings i in. which a current flows from positive
 CIRCUIT

Fig. 96.—Crystal Circuit using tapped coil. Fig. 97.—The very simplest Crystal Circuit.

List of Components for Fig. 96 List of Components for Fig. 97

•0005 mfd. variable condenser (Ci). •0005 mfd. variable condenser (Ci).
I crystal detector. I crystal detector.
Plug-in coil holder. Terminals, connecting wire, and
Plug-in coils.
screws.
Terminals, connecting wire, and
screws.

to negative poles. (See also under coil ; Lz—a No. 60 coil ; and L3—
Hartley, ReinartArmstrong, etc., 50 coil. The H.T. should
Gramophone Amplifier, etc.)
Typical Circuits
Two simple crystal circuits are
shown in Figs. 90 and 97.
Circuit No. The simplest
form of single-valve receiver is
shown in Fig. 98. The tuning
arrangements consist of three
baseboard mounting coil holders
screwed on to a baseboard side
by side, with just sufficient space
between them to allow the largest
size of coil to be comfortably in¬
serted. Care should be taken O +
with the connections to the coil
holders, the earth lead being
taken to the pin of the aerial
and grid coil holders, and the
anode lead being taken to the
pin of the reaction coil holder. Fig. 98.—Circuit No. 1: The simplest One-valve Circuit.

A set of plug-in coils will enable

you to listen on any wavelength. For have a value of 60 volts, and the
the normal broadcast band the coils valve should be of the general pur¬
should be as follows : Li—a No. 35 pose type.
83
 CIRCUIT
List fff Components for Circuit No. I on all wavelengths you will require a
•0005 mfd. variable condenser (Ci). complete set of coils, and these should
consist, for the broadcast bands, of
•0003 mfd. variable condenser (C2).
the following : Nos. 35, 50, 60, 75,
•0002 mfd. fixed condenser (C3). too, 150, 250. Instead of a No. 75,
I 2-megohm grid leak and holder (Ri). another 60 may be used in some
I valve holder. cases. For the long-wave stations
3 baseboard mounting coil holders. the centre coil is a No. 250, and the
I on-and-ofi switch (Sr). left-hand and right-hand coils are re¬
spectively 100 and 150. For the short
Set of plug-in coils.
waves you will require a set of short¬
i H.F. choke. wave coils. These are wound with
Terminals, connecting wire, and very thick bare wire and have only
screws. a few turns. They are generally num-

Fic. 99. Circuit No. 2 : a similar circuit to Fig. 98, employing a different system of reaction
control.

Circuit No. 2. This (Fig. 99) is a bered according to the number of

similar arrangement to the previous turns, and Nos. 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10
set, except that differential reaction will cover the band from about 20
control is fitted, no terminals are used, to 100 metres, whilst Nos. 15 and
and other little refinements are incor¬ 20, in conjunction with the smaller
porated. sizes of the broadcast range, will en¬
This receiver is a simple one-valve able you to cover the gap from 100
set, which is so designed that it may metres up to the broadcast band.
be used for reception on all wave¬ The largest of the coils should always
lengths from 20 metres up to 2,000. be in the centre socket, and the other
The actual construction calls for no two sizes should be so chosen that
skill, and it forms an ideal set for the the right degree of selectivity and
new-comer to wireless. smooth control of reaction will be
In order that you may use the set obtained.
84
 CIRCUIT

List of Components for Circuit No. 2 •0002 mfd. fixed condenser (C3).
i H.F choke.
1 panel, 12x7 in.
I 2-megohm grid leak and holder (Ri).
i baseboard, 13 x 9 in.
Valve holder.
i cabinet to fit.
On-and-off switch (Si).
I -0005 variable condenser with dials.
Terminals, connecting wire, and
I -0002 differential reaction condenser.
screws.
I -0003 fixed condenser.
i 2-megohm grid leak.
Circuit No. 4. Fig. 101 shows a
I holder for same.
two-valve set, designed for purity of
i on-and-off switch.
reproduction Plug-in coils are used.
i valve holder.
Remarks in Circuit No. 1 relative to
3 coil holders.
this part of the circuit will also
I 400-ohm potentiometer.
apply. The resistance R2, the con¬
I H F. choke.
denser C4, and the resistance R3
4 terminals.
are all incorporated in the commer¬
1 4-way battery cord.
cial type of resistance-coupling unit,
Circuit No. 3. Fig. too shows a and this may be used instead of
simple one-valver employing home¬ the separate components if desired.
made coils. The second valve should be of the
L.F. type, and the H.T. should have
List of Components for Circuit No. 3 a value of 120 volts, with the grid
■0005 mid. variable condenser (Ci). bias adjusted according to the particu¬
-0003 mfd. variable condenser (C2). lar instructions of the valve maker.
 CIRCUIT

List of Components for Circuit No. 4 •01 mfd. fixed condenser (C4).
i 2-megohm grid leak and clips (Ri).
0005 mfd. variable condenser (Ci). i ioo,ooo-ohm resistance and holder
•OOO2 mfd. differential reaction con¬ (R2).
denser (C3). i25,000-ohm resistance and holder
•0002 mid. fixed condenser (C2). (Kj).
86
 CIRCUIT
2 valve holders. L2, L3, and L4 are included in a
I on-and-off switch (Si). commercial six-pin coil unit Several
3 coil holders. firms make this H.F. transformer, as
Set of coils. it is called, and therefore any par¬
Terminals, connecting wire, and ticular make may be chosen by the
screws. constructor. Care should be taken
that the transformer for use with
Circuit No. 5. Fig. 102 is a S.G. valves is obtained, as there is a
similar set to the preceding one, but different type of transformer for the
this time an ordinary L F. trans¬ triodes, or ordinary three-electrode
former is employed. In order to valve. Differential reaction control is
keep the quality of reproduction on employed for stability, and the de¬
a high standard, this transformer is tector valve may be of the H.F. or
parallel fed, that is, the primary is general purpose type. As there are
not placed direct in the anode cir¬ two tuned circuits in this receiver,
cuit of the detector valve, and there¬ care will have to be exercised in tun¬
fore no current passes through its ing in, as, unless both circuits are
primary. This keeps its inductance tuned to the wavelength of the de¬
high and preserves the bass notes. sired station, nothing will be heard,
Further, the values of the grid con¬ unless, of course, the station is very
denser and leak have been modified close.
to give what is known as power grid
detection. Consequently, provided List of Components for Circuit No. 6
plenty of H.T. is employed, this 2 0005 variable condensers (Ci and
receiver will give absolutely tiptop C2).
quality. i 0002 fixed condenser (C3).
i 2-megohm grid leak and holder
List of Components for Circuit No. 5 (Ki).
•0005 mfd. variable condenser (Ci). idifferential reaction condenser (C4).
•0001 mfd. fixed condenser (C2). i H.F. choke.
•0002 mfd. differential condenser (C3). i 6-pin H.F. transformer and base.
i i-mfd. fixed condenser (C4). i plug-in 2-pin coil holder.
I 25,000-ohm resistance and holder i 60 X coil.
(Ri). 2 valve holders.
i30,000-ohm resistance and holder I on-and-off switch (Si).
' (R2). Terminals, connecting wire, and
iL.F. transformer. screws.
3 coil holders.
Set of coils. Circuit No. 7. This unit (Fig.
2 valve holders. 104) has been designed for attach¬
On-and-off switch (Si). ment to existing sets. Those pos¬
Terminals, connecting wire, and sessing ordinary receivers, which
screws. have been built for the broadcast
band, often wish they were able to
Circuit No. 6. The two-valver tune down to the short waves and
shown in Fig. 103 is designed pick up stations situated as far away
primarily for long-distance headphone as America or on the other side of
work, and consists of a screen-grid the globe, Kenya, etc. These short
H.F. stage followed by a simple de¬ waves seem to come in remarkably
tector valve. The aerial circuit con¬ well, and the short-wave unit here
sists of a No. 60X coil, and the coils described may be connected to any
87
 CIRCUIT
FIG. 102.—Circuit No. 5 : A Two-valve Circuit with L.F. Transformer Coupling.
»0
*
ft

Fia. 103.—Cii cuit No. 6 : Two'valve 9et for Lon^-distance Headphone Reception.
 CIRCUIT
ordinary receiver (provided it is not serted without touching its neigh¬
a mains-driven set), and which will bour. The only two terminals re¬
enable reception to be carried out on quired in this unit may be mounted
the very shortest of wavelengths at on a spare piece of ebonite, or one
present in use. The
unit is quite cheap,
and the total expendi¬
ture need not exceed
¿i. No extra valve is
needed, as will be ex¬
plained on the follow¬
ing page, the detector
valve from the set being
used.
The list of compon¬
ents should be studied,
and practically any
make of standard de¬
sign may be used.
The only point which
requites careful atten¬
tion is the method of
connection used in the
variable condensers.
These must be fitted
with “pig-tail” con¬
nections if rustling
noises are to be avoided
when tuning in on the
short waves. Most of
the better makes of
variable condenser now
employ this method of
connection.
Having obtained the
various parts, proceed
to mark out the panel,
using as your guide the
measurements given on
the “wiring diagram.”
The exact size of the
holes will depend, of
course, on the particu¬
lar make of component Fig. 104.—Circuit No. 7: Wiring Diagram for Short-wave Adapter Unit.
chosen. Mount up the
condensers and then proceed to fix of the special terminal blocks may be
the remaining components to the purchased.
baseboard. Pay particular attention When everything is in its place
to the coil holders, allowing sufficient you may proceed to wire up. This
space between them to permit the should be carried out with heavy¬
largest of the coils to be safely in- gauge wire, say 16 or 18 bare copper.
90
 CIRCUIT
well spaced, and by the most direct and taken to the two terminals on the
method. Do not try to make this unit. The earth terminals of receiver
part of the work look neat by taking and adapter should be joined with a
the leads a long way round with short length of wire. If the receiver
nice right-angle bends. Where short is now switched on, the short¬
waves are concerned the leads must wave unit becomes a very efficient
be as short and direct as possible. one-valve short-wave set, and the
Do not let any wire run within j in. low-frequency stages of your present
of another unless it crosses at a dead receiver serve to amplify the received
right-angle. Attention to this part signals.
of the work will be well repaid in The following refinements may be
efficient working. Note also that the mentioned to ensure maximum results
moving vanes of both condensers are in short-wave work. If oscillation
connected together and to earth. seems rather erratic, carefully ad¬
When the unit is wired you will have just the position of the arm of the
to make the actual connecting link potentiometer. If this does not seem
with your present receiver, and this to help matters, look at the H.F.
will have to be made of such a choke in your existing receiver. This
length that it will comfortably reach may not be good enough for short¬
your present detector socket. Three wave work, and you should there¬
single lengths of flex are required, fore obtain one which is efficient on
and to avoid mistakes these should all waves. Tuning on the short
preferably be of different colours. waves is very critical, and you will
Alternatively, you may cut three have to adjust the tuning dial with
lengths of ordinary flex and bind the much more care than you are accus¬
ends of each separate strand with a tomed to employ on the ordinary
different-coloured thread. These broadcast band. If you buy a com¬
three strands are connected up in the plete set of short-wave coils, try the
following way. One strand to each effect of different sizes of coil in
of the filament terminals of the valve the left-hand, or aperiodic aerial,
holder in the unit, and to each fila¬ coil holder. Generally speaking,
ment pin of the valve adapter; the this coil should be two sizes smaller
remaining strand from the plate ter¬ than that used in the centre holder,
minal of the valve holder to the and the right-hand, or reaction coil,
plate pin of the adapter. No connec¬ should be of a size between these
tion whatever is made to the grid pin two.
of this adapter. For those who wish to make their
Having finished this part of the own short-wave coils, it is best to
work, carefully check over all con¬ make up a set having 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
nections, and when you are quite 12, 14, and 16 turns of No. 16 gauge
sure no mistakes have been made, tinned copper wire, wound round a
you may proceed to connect it to 3-in. diameter former and then al¬
your present receiver. This is quite lowed to spring off. The four smaller
a simple job. Take out the detector sizes should be allowed to space
valve of the set, and plug it into themselves out with about £ in. be¬
the valve holder of the short-wave tween the turns, and the four larger
unit. The valve adapter is then ones should have a space between
plugged into the now empty valve turns equal to the thickness of the
holder of your existing set. The wire. The ends of the coils may be
aerial and earth leads should then made fast to ordinary plug-in coil
be disconnected from your receiver, holders, and provided care is taken
91
 CIRCUIT
in handling them, they will be found The wavelength range covered by
to keep themselves quite rigid. the set, with the coils recommended,
whether commercial or home-made,
List of Components for Circuit No. 7 is roughly 15 metres to 120 metres.
Panel, 10x7 in. Within this range there are some¬
Baseboard, 10x8 in. or 9 in. thing like 120 high-powered broad¬
i ooa25-mfd. variable condenser, with casting stations, all of which are well
slow-motion dial. within the range of the set. Un¬
I -oooi-mfd. variable condenser, with fortunately, some of them do not
slow-motion dial. operate regularly, and others are only
3 baseboard mounting coil holders. received in this country at times
i -0002 fixed condenser. when the average British listener is
i 3-megohm grid leak and holder. unable to listen-in.
I 400-ohm potentiometer for base¬ Dozens of other stations may be
board mounting. logged, as one would expect, includ-
List of Components for Circuit No. 8: One -oooi mid. short-wave
tuning condenser and slow-
motion dial.
One -0003 mfd. reaction con¬
denser.
One -0002 mfd. fixed condenser.
One short-wave H.F. choke.
One L.F. transformer (ratio
4 or 5 to i).
One i megohm grid leak.
One 3 megohm grid leak.
One on/off switch.
One set short-wave coils.
Two 4-pin valveholders.
Seven terminals (aerial, earth,
H.T.i, H.T.2, H.T. —,
L.T. —, and L.T. 4- ).
Ebonite panel, 12 x 8 in.
Baseboard, 12 X 9 in.
Two wander plugs (G.B. —
and G.B. + ).
Flex, wire, screws, etc.
Fie. 105.—Circuit No. 8 : Circuit for a Short-wave Two-valve Set. One general purpose valve
One L.F. valve.

I anti-microphonic valve holder. ing amateur transmissions from sixty-

I set of short-wave coils. four different countries, and many of
i plug-in valve adapter. the broadcasting stations transmit for
Flex, wire, screws, etc. many hours both during the daytime
2 terminals. and also at night.
The most conspicuous of all the
Circuit No. 8. This is a set “landmarks” is Rome on 254
(see Fig. 105) designed for those metres. It is receivable at a tre¬
who are tired of receiving the local mendous strength throughout the
stations only, and yet do not feel whole evening. Immediately below
like tackling a complicated multi- this, and audible by 10.30 p.m. or
valver fur receiving the more distant just after, is W8XK, the short-wave
stations. The short-wave receiver is edition of the famous KDKA station.
an ideal set for everyone—as you re¬ The best American station, how¬
ceive programmes from seemingly ever, is W2XAD, on 19 56 metres.
impossible distances, with the mini¬ This starts at about 9 p.m., at which
mum of trouble and the minimum of time it is not always very strong,
expense. but by 10 or 11 p.m. it is quite
92
 CIRCUIT
uncomfortable in the headphones, un¬ other simply by his placing in the
less it is an abnormally bad night. “ group."
It will be noticed that the broad¬ W2XAD, on 19-56 metres, how¬
casting stations are arranged in ever, is isolated and therefore all the
more conspicuous.
Spread over the entire short¬
wave spectrum are the Trans¬
atlantic telephony stations.
Most of them have some dis¬
torting system to prevent
eavesdropping, but. neverthe¬
less, they provide a useful test
- both of the receiver and of
■| radio conditions.
The amateur wave bands in
t greatest use in most countries
_g are just above 20 and 40 metres.
J On the 20-metre band, almost
•j any evening, the Americans
“ can be heard in scores. Most
■g of them work in Morse, but
* there are about a dozen par¬
'S ticularly good telephony sig-
3 nais. WiCCZ at Cape Cod is
ã always among the best. Others
ï heard regularly are W3ZX and
• W8DLD, respectively, at Col-
> lingwood, N.J., and Cleveland,
ï Ohio. Such is the "skip dis-
H tance ’ ’ of this wave that the
* Americans will probably be
z stronger than the numerous
■5 British stations that work with
0 them. Although in this coun¬
try there are about two thou-
2 sand licensed and active ama-
g teur transmitters, you will not
u hear much of them unless you

move to a point 1,000 miles or

more away.
On 40 metres, particularly
on a Sunday morning, scores
of Britishers may be heard on
“phone” as well as Morse.
Circuit No. 9. This re¬
groups on the short waves. One ceiver (Fig. 106) is best operated
“ band ” is in the region of 25 from the electric-light mains, and
metres, another round about 32, and will give the most power for a two-
a third in the neighbourhood of 48- valver, in view of the fact that a
50 metres. This makes it fairly easy pentode valve is used for the output
to distinguish one station from an- stage. The detector part of the re-

93
 CIRCUIT
ceiver is similar to Circuit No. 10, Any reputable make of component
and the L.F. transformer should have may be used for the circuits herein
a ratio of 3: 1. H.T.2 should be as described.
high as the valve will take, and Circuit No. 10. Fig. 107 shows a
H.T.i should
be adjusted to
give best re¬
sults, so far as
quality and sig¬
nal strength
are concerned.
Use a general-
purpose valve
for the detector,
and make quite
sure that the
pentode valve

F1G. 107.—Circuit No. 10 : A Simple Three-valve Circuit.

has sufficient
grid bias. The
valvemakers’
i n s t ructions
should be very
carefully a d -
hered to in this
respect.

List of Com-
p o n e n t s for
Circuit No. 9
I -0005 - mid.
variable con¬
denser (Ci).
i-oooi - mid.
fixed con¬
denser (C2).
I -OOO2 differen¬
tial condenser
(C3).
I 25,000-ohm
grid leak and
holder (Ri).
I low - ratio
L.F. trans¬
former.
3 coil holders.
2 valve holders.
Set of plug-in coils. very simple three-valve set, con¬
i on-and-off switch (Si). sisting of a simple detector followed
I H.F. choke. by two transformer coupled L.F.
Terminals, connecting wire, and stages. The first transformer should
screws. be of low or medium ratio, say 27
94
 CIRCUIT
or 3 : i, and the second may be of i 3-gang superhet midget variable
the 5 : i type. Plug-in coils are em¬ condenser and disc drive.
ployed for tuning. The valves re¬
2 “Practical Wireless” I.F. trans¬
quired are detector, L.F., and power,
formers (no kc/s).
the first valve having about 60 volts
H.T., the second roo volts, and the i 002-mfd. preset condenser.
last, or power, valve having the i 5o,ooo-ohm potentiometer.
maximum which the makers recom¬
mend. As mentioned in previous cir¬ i i-mfd. fixed condenser.
cuits, pay particular attention to the 2 '5-mfd. fixed condensers.
adjustment of the grid bias, as you
i oi-mfd. tubular condenser.
will thereby prolong the life of both
H.T. battery and valves. 2 -oooi-mfd. fixed condensers, type 34.
3 resistances, 150,000, 100,000, 30,000.
List of Components for Circuit No. to
i L.F. transformer.
I -ooo5-mfd. variable condenser (Ci).
I potentiometer bracket.
i -0002-mfd. fixed condenser (Ca).
I 3-point on off switch.
i 0002 differential reaction condenser
(C3). i 7-pin sub-baseboard valve holder,
terminal type.
I 2-megohm grid leak and holder
(Ri). I 5-pin sub-baseboard valve holder,
terminal type.
iH.F. choke.
2 L.F. transformers. i 4-pin sub-baseboard valve holder,
terminal type.
3 valve holders.
I Westector, type W6.
3 coil holders.
3 wander plugs (H.T. 4-1, H.T. 4-2,
r on-and-off switch (Si).
H.T.-).
Set of plug-in coils.
2 spade terminals (L.T. 4-, L.T. — ).
Terminals, connecting wire, and
3 G.B. plugs (G.B. 4-, G.B. —i,
screws.
G.B. -2).
Circuit No. ri. This is a three- 2 terminal strips (A.-E. and L.S.).
valve receiver employing the superhet I Metaplex chassis, 11 x 10 in., with
feature, and to keep the number of 2|-in. runners.
valves to a minimum (thus giving
economy of operation) a Westector or 3 valves, pentagrid, var.-mu H.F.
cold valve is employed in place of pentode, and output pentode.
the second detector. Coupling to the i P.M. loudspeaker.
output valve is by means of a special i 120-volt H.T. battery.
high-ratio auto-transformer, and al¬
though economical to operate, this i G.B. i6J-volt battery.
receiver may be relied upon to pro¬ I L.T. 2-volt accumulator.
vide a considerable number of sta¬
tions, with a very high degree of
selectivity. Circuit No. 12. This is an all-wave
receiver designed to utilise ordinary
List of Components for Circuit No. n plug-in coils for the short waves, but
I set 3-gang superhet coils with standard screened coils for the

95
 CIRCUIT
FlC. 108.—Circuit No. II : A Three-valve Battery-operated Superhet.
 CIRCUIT
broadcast wavelengths, and the change List of Components for Circuit No. 12
from one band to another is carried
out by means of a special multi¬ I 2-gang coil unit.
switch unit. Three pentodes are em¬ 2 short-wave coils.
ployed for maximum gain, and the r 2-gang condenser (Cr, C2).
first valve employs variable-mu con¬
trol, that is, the volume may be con¬ i 2-bank multi-switch.
trolled by varying the grid bias i ■00015-mfd. differential reaction
applied to the valve. Resistance¬ condenser (C3).
capacity coupling is employed be¬ I horizontal drive with trimmer.
tween the detector and output
pentodes, and this preserves quality 3 valve holders (two 4-pin, one 5-pin),
as well as cheapening initial costs. V3.
The connections to the switch unit 2 coil holders (one 4-pin, one 6-pin).
are given to enable this part of the 2 extension rods.
constructional work to be followed,
I volume control, 50,00c ohms, with
but for the remainder the standard
3-point switch (R7).
type of layout should be followed.
That is, the ganged tuning condenser 6 fixed resistances: 5 megohm (Ri),
should be mounted in the centre front 1,000 ohms (R2), roo.ooo ohms
of the chassis, with the two-gang (R4), 100,000 ohms (R5), 2
broadcast coil unit on the left. The megohms (R3), 1 megohm (R6).
volume control should be mounted 7 condensers: r mid. (C6i, -I mfd.
on the right of the condenser, and the (C8), -or mfd. (C5), or mfd.
second two valves (V2 and V3) should (C9), -0005 mfd. (C4I, -ooor mfd.
be placed one behind the other at the (C7), -003 mfd. (Cío).
rear of this control. The four-pin
5 component brackets.
short-wave coil holder should be
mounted behind the two-coil unit, 2 terminal strips : A. E. and L.S.
and Vi and the six-pin eoil holder I 100-mA. fuse and holder.
should then be mounted in a line be¬
3 valves : Var.-mu pentode, straight
tween the four-pin holder and V2.
pentode, and output pentode.
The reaction condenser and the multi¬
switch unit should be mounted in I Metaplex chassis ro x o x 3 in.
the centre of the under side of the I speaker.
chassis and extension handles con¬
i cabinet.
nected to the spindles for control
purposes. This avoids using long 7 plugs: H.T.r, H.T.2, H.T.3,
connecting leads, and two component¬ H.T.-, G.B.u, G.B.-r. G.B.
mounting brackets must be mounted — 2.
on the front of the chassis to hold 2 spades: L.T. +, L.T. — .
the extension handles firm.
In the following lists of com¬
ponents, whilst names of makers have Circuit No. 13. The receiver now
been omitted, it should be mentioned described (see Fig no) is entirely
that kit suppliers are willing to supply self-contained, although provision
complete sets of parts as used in the has been made for the attachment
original receiver. In ordering men¬ of an external aerial and earth, where
tion this volume and the circuit this is found to be necessary. No
number to enable the maker to select great skill is required in the con¬
the right kit. struction of the complete set, al-
E.W.E.—D 1 97
 CIRCUIT
F¡C. 109.—Circuit No. 12 : An All-wave All-pentode Battery Receiver.
 CIRCUIT
though those readers who are handy fleaving a length for connection),
with wood-working tools will be able and anchor oil.
to exploit their skill in the construc¬ Half an inch away from this last
tion of the case. turn make another pair of holes at
The Frame Aerial. The frame which to commence the long-wave
(15 j X I5{ X 5|) should be made winding. This commences with g
first, and this is made from |-in. turns, of wire, each turn touching,
softwood, the screws holding the after which a hole is made and a
joints being countersunk to avoid con¬ loop passed through as before, the

F1C. 110.—Circuit No. 13: Circuit diagram for a Three-valve Portable Set.

tact with the wire of the aerial. Two winding continuing for another 50
pieces of |-in. square-section strip¬ turns. Each section of these wind¬
wood are screwed on the inside of the ings should be in the same direction.
frame 7 in. from the top. The actual The tw'o loops of wire are bared and
winding consists of No. 26 D.C.C. joined together, eventually being
wire wound in the following man¬ taken to the centre contacts of the
ner. Pierce two small holes near one switch nearest the edge of the panel
edge of the frame, and thread the wire (Fig. in). The remainder of the
round the holes to make a firm an¬ connections to the switch are clearly
chorage, leaving a few inches of wire shown in the draw'ing.
for subsequent connection to the A small type of accumulator, pre¬
switch. Wind on tightly 15 turns of ferably filled with jelly acid, a H.T.
wire, allowing a space of in. be¬ battery of 108 or 120 volts, both of
tween each turn. At the fifteenth the type built for portable receivers,
turn pierce a hole through the frame and a 9-volt grid-bias battery will
and pass a large loop of wire through then occupy the bottom of the re¬
the hole, afterwards wedging the wire ceiver. A little care should be exer¬
in the hole with a small splinter of cised in the choice of these com¬
wood and a drop of glue. Continue ponents in view of the small space
the winding for a further 4 turns, available.
pierce two holes, cut off the wire The Valves. The valves required
99
 CIRCUIT
are a screen-grid, general-purpose, and L.F. transformer.
L.F. type, the screen-grid valve H.F. choke (S.G. type).
going in the socket on the right 2 flush-mounting sockets.
(when viewing the receiver from the
3-pole change-over switch
back), the general-purpose valve in
the centre, and the L.F. valve in the Loudspeaker, chassis portable type.
remaining socket. Attach the leads J lb. No. 26 D.C.C. wire for frame
to the accumulator, plug H.T.+ i aerial.
into a tapping round about 80 volts, Wood for cabinet, silk gauze for
H.T. + 2 about 60 volts, and H.T. + 3 grille.
into the maximum voltage available. Screws, Glazite for terminals, wiring
This latter plug will have two wires up, wander plugs, etc.
attached to it, one from the loud¬
speaker and one from the H.F. J/v/rc/j 4s ktewfa /¿pom Atea# Of ffr
choke. This latter component must
be of the type specially designed for
use with H.F. valves, the ordinary
type not being generally suitable.
No difficulty should be experienced
in operating the set, the centre knob
being used to tune in the required
station, the small knob on the left
bringing the volume up to the re¬
quired strength. The switch when
pressed down will bring the long-wave
aerial into action; when raised, the
short-wave aerial is in use, and in
the centre position the valves are FlC. 111.—The Switch Connectioa to the Aeri«l
switched off. The actual position of of Circuit No. 13.
the receiver has a great deal to do
with the selectivity, the top of the Circuit No. 14. The circuit shown
set being pointed in the direction of (in Fig. 112) is a very good all¬
the station for maximum strength. purpose arrangement, consisting of
A turntable will be found very use¬ screen-grid H.F. stage, detector, and
ful for the purpose of searching, al¬ output valves, the latter being trans¬
though of course it is not essential. former coupled. This will give very
When an outside aerial and earth are good-quality loudspeaker results from
employed, very much louder signals a large number of stations and is
will be obtained, but the selectivity really simple to handle. The aerial
will fall off. circuit consists of a simple screened
coil of modern type, and the H.F.
List of Components for Circuit No. 13 transformer a similar type of coil.

Ebonite panel, 15^ x 4 in. List of Components for Circuit No. 14

•0005 variable condenser. I double-gang condenser, -0005 mfd.
•0001 reaction condenser. (Ci and C2).
■0002 fixed condenser. 2 Screened coils.
•0003 fixed condenser. I 00015-mfd. differential reaction
2-megohm grid leak. condenser (C5).
3 valve holders. 15:1 L.F. transformer.
100
 CIRCUIT

3 chassis-mounting valve holders. i on-off switch.

I H.F. choke. i 4-point switch.
i 2o,ooo-ohm i-watt electronic re¬ i 5-way battery cord, fitted with
sistance (R2). wander plugs marked H.T. —,
i 2-megohm i-watt grid leak (Ri). H.T. + 2, and H.T.+ , and spade
i 2-mfd. tubular fixed condenser terminals marked L.T. + and
(C6). L.T. —.

FlC. 112.—Circuit No. 14 : A Beginner’s Three-valve Set.

I i-mfd. fixed condenser (C3). i Metaplex chassis, 12x10 in., with

i}-in. runners.
I •0002-mfd. fixed condenser (C4).
3 component brackets.
2 terminal socket strips: one marked
A and E, the other L.S. and 3 valves : screen-grid, detector, and
P.U. power.
i 120-voh high-tension battery.
6 solid plugs (for use with terminal
strips). I 9-volt G.B. battery.
I grid bias battery clip, type No. 2. i 2-volt accumulator.
I fuse holder and fuse bulb. i cabinet.
101
 CIRCUIT
Circuit No. 15. This circuit (Fig. i i-mfd. ditto.
113) combines two of the latest types
i 30,000-ohm i-watt fixed resistor.
of valve—the pentode and the screen¬
grid. Consequently, the range and i io,ooo-ohm ditto.
volume of the three valves easily I 2-megohm grid leak.
equal that of a simple type of five-
2 4-pin chassis-mounting valve holders.
valver. The aerial circuit and H.F.
transformer consist of a pair of i L.F. transformer.
modern coils operated by two switches
I 16-henry 15-m/A L.F. choke.
actuated by a common control. All
the other components have been 2 toggle switches, and operating rod.
chosen with a view to high efficiency, i 0003-mfd. reaction condenser.
and there¬
fore the list
of parts
should be
rigidly ad¬
hered to.
The L.F.
choke in the
anode cir¬
cuit of the
pentode
valve must
be of the
type espe¬
cially made
for the pur¬
pose. The or¬
dinary type
of L.F.
choke will
not do. If
funds allow, FlC. 113. Circuit No. 15 : A Three-valve Set with Variable-mu Volume Control.
a special
pentode matching output unit may be 1 3-point on-off switch.
used instead of the choke and con¬
i 50,000-ohm potentiometer.
denser.
4 terminals, aerial, earth, L.T. + , and
L.T.-.
List of Components for Circuit No. 15 6 wander plugs, G.B. —2, G.B. —1
H.T.-, H.T. + i, H.T. + 2
2 0005-mfd. variable condensers. G.B. 4-.
I pair tuning coils. I 16-gauge metal panel and chassis.
i standard screened H.F. choke. i 7-way battery cord.
i special screened H.F. choke. Connecting wire, bolts, and nuts.
2 ooor-mfd. fixed condensers. i loudspeaker.
I01 fixed condenser. i 120-volt H.T. battery.
i 2-mfd. fixed condenser. i G.B. battery.
102
 List of Components
for Circuit No. i6
2 0005-mfd. variable
condensers (Ci and
C2).
i •0002-mfd. variable
condenser (C3).
i oooi-infd. fixed
condenser (C5).
2 2-mfd. fixed con¬
densers (C4 and C6).
I 25,000-ohm resist¬
ance and holder
(Ri).
iH.F. choke.
i input push - pull
foi

transformer.
i output push - pull
transformer.
I on-and-oS switch
(Si).
i2o,ooo-ohm spag¬
hetti resistance (R 2).
4 valve holders.
i baseboard mounting
coil holder.
I 60X coil.
FlC. 114.—Circuit No. 16 : Four-valve Circuit with two valves in Push-Pull. i H.F. transformer
and six-pin base.
Terminals, connecting
wire, and screws.
 CIRCUIT
I 2-voIt L.T. accumulator. Circuit No. 17. This is a simple
3 valves: var.-mu screen grid, H.F., three-valve mains receiver, entirely
and output pentode. self-contained, and possessing ade¬
quate selectivity for all normal re¬
Circuit No. 16. Although employ¬ quirements. Due to the elimination
ing four valves, Fig. 114 is actually of trimming adjustments, the rece
a three-stage receiver. In place of is extremely simple to set up, and the
the usual output valve, two valves layout may follow the circuit dia¬
are used in push-pull. The result of gram, with the small components
this is to give a greater output; in mounted on the under side of a
fact, it works out roughly at double. chassis if this form of construction
Special transformers have to be used is preferred. The mains section should
both in front of and behind these two be built on the rear of the chassis
valves, and these are made by and kept clear of the aerial side of
several well-known firms. The sig¬ the receiver in order to avoid hum
nal which is passed on from the difficulties. To simplify matters it is
detector valve, which works on the possible to build the receiver portion
power-grid principle, is sufficient to as a separate unit and to mount the
fully load the two push-pull valves, loudspeaker on the mains section,
and therefore sufficient signal strength erected in another part of the cabinet.
can be obtained for a small hall, or A receiver of this type may be used
a large room for dancing. The aerial for the construction of a radio-gramo¬
circuit consists of a plug-in coil of phone, and the mains section and
the X type, whilst the H.F. trans¬ speaker may then be mounted in
former should be a commercial arti¬ the lower part of the cabinet, with
cle. When purchasing the valves, the receiver about it connected
you should ask for two matched through a multi-cable.
valves for the last stage. Most manu¬
facturers will now do this, and better List of Components for Circuit No. 17
results are of course obtained when i double-gang condenser 0005 (Cl
the two valves are working to¬ and C2).
gether. 2 screened coils.

Fig. 115.—Circuit No. 17: A Simple Three-valve A.C.mains receiver.

I04
 CIRCUIT
1 00015-mfd. differential reaction i 30,000-ohm resistor (Ri).
condenser (C7). i 5,000 ohm resistor (R4).
i on-off switch, type S38. i i,ooo-ohm resistor (R6).
15:1 L.F. transformer, 1 350-ohm resistor (R8).
i H.F. choke. i 250-ohm resistor (R3).
i mains transformer. i i-megohm resistor (R5).
I smoothing choke. 2 20-mfd. electrolytic condensers (C8
3 2-in. component brackets. and Cío).
2 terminal socket strips (one marked i 4 + 4 mfd. fixed condenser (C11 and
Aerial and Earth, and one C12).
marked L.S. and P.U.). i 2-mfcl. fixed condenser (C9).
6 solid plugs for use with terminal i oooi-mfd. tubular fixed condenser
strips. (C6).
i L.T. switch. 2 -I-mfd. tubular fixed condensers
4 chassis-mounting 5-pin valve (C4 and C3).
holders. i i-mfd. tubular fixed condenser(C5).
I ioo,ooo-ohm resistor (Rg). i metallised chassis, 16 x 10 in., with
i 50,000-ohm resistor, (R7). 3$-in. runners.
I 40,000-ohm resistor (R2). I H.F. pentode valve.

105
 CIRCUIT
I triode valve. 1 side-contact chassis-mounting valve
I power valve. holder.

i Cossor rectifier. I 5-range coil chassis with switch.

Wire, screws, flex, etc. 5 coil units for above chassis, types
SW.24, SW.25, SW26, SW28,
and SW.29.
Circuit No. 18. Many districts are
at present supplied by D.C. mains, i 0005-mfd. slow-motion condenser.
and it is proposed to change these i 0002-mfd. midget condenser (for
eventually to A.C. To avoid scrap¬ reaction).
ping a receiver it may be built as i all-wave H.F. screened choke.
what is known as the Universal type,
that is, suitable for use on either i all-wave unscreened H.F. choke.
A.C. or D.C. mains without modifi¬ I 30-henry smoothing choke.
cation. This circuit employs three 8 i-watt metallised resistances; one
pentodes to provide maximum ampli¬ each, 40,000 ohms, 40,000 ohms,
fication, and is designed to tune 20,000 ohms, 600 ohms, 200
down to the short waves in addition ohms, 1 megohm, -25 megohm,
to the normal broadcast wavelengths. and 5 megohm.
It will be noted that to simplify
matters the aerial circuit is untuned, 3 -oooi-mfd. tubular condensers.
and if desired a good short-wave H.F. 3 fixed condensers, 1 mfd., 1 mid.,
choke may be included in place of and 2 mfd.
the -25-megohm resistance shown in i 25-mfd. electrolytic condenser.
this part of the circuit. The tuning
2 8-mfd. reversible electrolytic con¬
is carried out by means of a special
all-wave tuning unit into which five densers.
coils are inserted. This unit has its i i,ooo-ohm volume control poten¬
own selector switch and indicating tiometer.
plate, and thus enables the user in¬ i i : 3-5 L.F. transformer.
stantly to select the desired wave¬
4 Cossor valves, types 13VPA,
band without the complication of
13SPA, 40PPA, and 40SUA.
changing coils. The lower bands
may be selected to suit individual I Philips barretter, type C.i.
requirements, a good range of coils
will be found in most manufacturer’s
Circuit No. 19. This four-valver
lists for use with the tuner. The
is designed to provide large volume
coils given in the list of components
with a fair selection of stations, and
will cover the following bands: 20-
consequently two L.F. stages are
45, 49-80, 85-170, 200-500 and 1,000-
employed with a single H.F. stage.
2,000 metres. The switch and other
Transformer coupling is employed in
coil units are omitted from the cir¬
both L.F. stages, although in the
cuit diagram in order to avoid com¬
case of the second stage the trans¬
plication.
former is parallel-fed, and therefore
a commercial unit designed for the
List of Components for Circuit No. 18 purpose is used. Two screened coils
are used, and thus interaction is
i Metaplex chassis, 14 x 10 x 3 in.
avoided, and as the coils are carefully
i ebonite or plywood panel, 14 x 8 in. matched by the makers, a two-gang
4 5-pin chassis-mounting valve holders. or two-section condenser may be
106
 CIRCUIT
employed for tuning, giving single¬ 13:1 L.F. transformer.
knob control. The first valve is of i parallel-feed unit.
the variable-inu type, and thus a
volume control may be fitted to i 1,000 ohm i-watt resistor.
modify the grid bias applied to it and I io,ooo-ohm i-watt resistor.
therefore regulate the volume ob¬ I 2-megohm grid leak.
tained. The receiver may be built
upon an ordinary flat wooden base¬ i volume control with 3-pt. switch.
board, and no difficulty should be 4 4-pin valve holders, baseboard.
experienced in wiring this simple cir¬ i 500,000-ohtn volume control.
cuit. The output filter enables an
I fuse, 100 m/A., and holder.
extension speaker to be employed
without difficulty, and any length of 3 terminal mounts.
lead may be used for this purpose. 6 terminals, A, E, L.S. —, L.S. +,
List of Components for Circuit No. 19 P.U., and P.U.
I coil unit. Five-way battery cord.

Fig. 117.—Circuit No. 19 : A Simple Four-valve Battery Set.

1 2-gang 'OOO5-mfd. condenser with 5 wander plugs, G.B. —, G.B. 4-,

concentric trimmer. G.B.i, G.B.2, G.B.3.
I 0003-mfd. preset condenser. I wooden baseboard 12 x 10 in.
I -0003-mfd. reaction condenser. I 120-volt H.T. battery.
3 2-mfd. fixed condensers. i 9-volt G.B. battery.
i 0002-mfd. condenser. I 2-volt L.T. accumulator.
I -oooi-mfd. condenser. I loudspeaker.
i 0005-mfd. condenser. i VP215 valve.
I standard screened H.F. choke. i HL210 valve.
I H.F. choke. I L2 valve.
i L.F. 16 L.F. choke. I P220A valve.
107
CIRCUIT
Circuit No. 20. This circuit is a
very powerful four-valver, designed
to provide long range of reception.
It will be noted that two stages of
H.F. amplification are employed,
both of which are screen-grid valves.
A set of three-ganged coils is em¬
ployed, and they are tuned by a two-
gang condenser (for the first two
coils), and a single condenser for the
third coil. This enables the maximum
performance to be obtained without
tricky trimming adjustments, and
avoids one of the difficulties gener¬
ally met with by the beginner when
j endeavouring to adjust a three-circuit
tuner. High quality is ensured by the
J employment of resistance-capacity
J coupling between the detector and
j the output valve, which in this
1 case is a pentode. A tapped out-
□ put choke is provided, so that exten-
sion leads may be used to feed the
“ loudspeaker if desired.
c
J List of Components for Circuit No. 20
8 I 3-gang coil assembly.
Z I 2-gang condenser with drive.
3 i single-gang condenser with drive
Y I 0003 preset condenser.
“ i S.G. choke.
£ i S.G. choke.
i screened H.F. choke.
i L.F. transformer, ratio 3 : 1.
I pentode output choke.
3 i-mfd. fixed condensers.
2 0003-mfd. fixed condensers.
I 0002-mfd. fixed condenser.
2 'i + 'i C-mfd. fixed condenser.
4 chassis-mounting valve holders,
three 4-pin and one 5-pin.
4 i,ooo-ohm i-watt type resistors.
I ioo,ooo-ohm i-watt type resistor.
i 5,000-ohm i-watt type resistor.
108
 CIRCUIT

I 2-megohm grid leak with wire ends. strips found in a well -known construc¬
tional toy. The speaker grille is 5| in.
3 terminal mounting blocks. in diameter, and is covered on the in¬
I 4-way battery cord. side with silk or the special fabric ob¬
6 terminals : A, E, Pick-up (2), and tainable from any good radio dealer.
L.S. (2). The cabinet is afterwards covered with
leatherette glued in position, and a
I fuse holder, with fuse.
carrying handle is attached to the
I 50,000-ohm potentiometer. cross-strips on the upper surface. The
I -ooo3-mfd. differential reaction con¬ front of the cabinet is attached by
denser. hinges to the lower edge so that it
may be lowered to insert the batteries
I 3-point switch.
and make tests or voltage measure¬
I ebonite panel, 16x8 in. ments.
I chassis, 16 X 10 in., with 2-in. The frame aerial is wound on the
runners. inside of the front, spacing-strips of
ebonite being screwed diagonally in
4 valves: type 220SG, 220SG, 210HF,
the four corners. These strips are no
and 220PT.
longer on the market but may be
made by obtaining a piece of j-in.
Circuit No. 21. This is a four- ebonite and cutting strips J in. wide
valve portable receiver, with self-con¬ and 2} in. in length. Drill holes at
tained frame aerial and a Class B each end so that they may be screwed
output stage giving considerable to the front of the cabinet and then
volume. with a hacksaw make eight cross¬
The framework of the cabinet is cuts about J in. deep, followed by
constructed from stripwood 1 in. wide two further slots, made by making
by J in. thick, and this is screwed two cuts and breaking out the inter¬
together by means of short metal vening piece of ebonite so that these

Fig. 119.—Circuit No. 21 : A Four-valve Portable.

IO9
 CIRCUIT
two slots are nearly J in. in width. a length of ordinary screened sleev¬
All of the slots should be cut at an ing and the sleeving connected by
angle, so that when the wire is wound means of a short length of wire to
in it will be prevented from falling the nearest earth terminal. The leads
out. One end of the 24-gauge wire is to the reaction condenser may also be
soldered to the upper right-hand con¬ screened in a similar manner, whilst
tact of the tuning condenser, and the in a very severe case of instability,
wire is then passed across to the the two leads to the loudspeaker may
upper slot of the nearest spacer. Run also be similarly screened. It must
the wire across to the left, through be emphasised, however, that such
the upper slot on the left-hand spacer extreme screening should not be
and down to the lower spacer, across necessary unless the wiring is very
the lower edge, and so continue to badly carried out or some other diffi¬
the slot where you commenced. culty arises.
Carry the wire through this slot
again, and make a further turn, re¬
peating the process so that there are List oj Components for Circuit No. 21
three turns in the first slot. Pass to 2 bakelite variable condensers, 0005
the second slot, and wind three turns mid.
in this, after which two turns only
are wound in each remaining slot I 0003 variable condenser.
until eight slots have been used. i H.F. choke.
There now remain the two wide slots. 1 dual-range coil.
The end of the 24-gauge wire must
i io,ooo-ohm wire-end resistor.
be cut, and it should be soldered,
together with the beginning of the i 50,000-ohm wire-end resistor.
34-gauge wire, to the upper terminal i ioo,ooo-ohm wire-end resistor.
of the three-point switch. The long¬
3 4-pin chassis-type valve holders.
wave winding consists of twenty-three
turns in each slot, and the finish of i 7-pin chassis-type valve holder.
the winding is joined to the lower i on-off switch.
terminal of the left-hand tuning con¬
I 3-pt. switch.
denser. Upon completion of the
frame-aerial winding the slots may be i Class B driver transformer.
sealed with sealing-wax or Chatter¬ i 2-megohm grid leak with wire ends.
ton’s compound.
I 01-mfd. fixed condenser.
Normally, the receiver should be
perfectly stable in operation, but it i 0003-mfd. fixed condenser.
was originally found that, due to the i 0002-mfd. fixed condenser.
compact form taken by the receiver,
1 -oo2-mfd. fixed condenser.
some constructors experienced in¬
stability. This is due to the fact that i -i-mfd. fixed condenser.
many of the wires were run too close i i-mfd. fixed condenser.
together, and thus thè first step to
I 220 S.G. valve (metallised).
take if this trouble is experienced is
to space out the wiring as much as i 210 H.F. valve (metallised).
possible. Initially, no screening of i 215P valve.
leads should be introduced, but if it i 240B valve.
is found impossible to obtain stable
working the lead from the anode of i loudspeaker. Class B.
the S.G. valve may be passed through Quantity 24 D.C.C. and 34 D.S.C. wire.
no
 CIRCUIT
I 120-volt H. T. battery. on a rigid metal chassis and precau¬
tions should be taken to avoid shocks
i 9-volt G.B. battery.
from the high voltages which are
i 2-volt accumulator. present.
4 wander plugs, H.T. +, H.T. —,
G.B. + , and G.B. —.
List of Components for Circuit No. 22
2 spades, L.T. + and L.T. —.
Connecting wire, flex, screws, wood r-push-pull input transformer.
for case, leatherette, carrying 2 volume controls—500,000 ohms.
handle, and hinges.
i r fixed resistances : 30,000 ohms
(R11); 2 100,000 ohms (R9, Rio);
250,000 ohms (R6); type F J. 2
Circuit No. 22. This circuit of a
750 ohms (R3, R7) 30.000 ohms
12-watt amplifier is a comprehensive
(R5); 50,000 ohms (R4); type Fr.
one capable of delivering sufficient
20,000 ohms (RS); type F3. 2
volume for a small hall for dancing
r,6oo ohms (R12, R13); type
purposes, but may be coupled to a
Spirnhm.
radio unit for reproducing the wireless
programmes. The output stage is of 10 fixed condensers : 4 mfd. (C8),
the push-pull type, and the input cir¬ type 95; 2 8 mfd (C4, C7), type
cuit is split so that the operator may 805; 4 mfd. (C3), type 812; 2
use a microphone and pick-up and 8 mfd. (C9, Cio), type FT150V;
fade from one to the other for an- 2 25 mfd. (Cr, C5), type FT25V;
Bouncement purposes. The com¬ •25 mfd. (C6), type 250; -02 mfd.
ponents should preferably be mounted (C2), type 300.

Fig. 120.—Circuit No. 22 : A 12-watt Amplifier.

Ill
 CIRCUIT

2 L.F. chokes: 50H/25 mA.; series, and the higher value of bias
2oH /150 mA. obtained in this way.
The above remarks apply, of
i mains transformer : 400-0-400V/120 course, only to the use of the ampli¬
mA.; 4V/2-5A; 4V/2A; 4V/2A; fier with a valve set. In the case
4V/2A. of a crystal receiver being used, the
5 valve holders : two 5-pin; three H.T. — lead is joined to the L.T. —
terminal, and in addition a lead is
4-pin; type Vi without terminals.
taken from this terminal to earth.
6 insulated terminals. So much for the design of the am¬
1 on-off switch. plifier, and now to deal with its
construction, which is of the very
i fuse plug.
simplest, and should cause no trou¬
18 in. metal-screened lead. ble, even to the very youngest novice.
Connecting wire and screws. The only components are a trans¬
former, valve holder, switch, ter¬
5 valves: MH4 (non-met.); ML4
minal strip and terminals, wire for
(non-met.); 2 PX25A; MU14. wiring-up, grid-bias leads, and wan¬
Metal chassis. der plugs. The ratio of the trans¬
i 12-watt speaker with separate push- former will depend on the use to
which the amplifier is put. If added
pull output transformer to match
to a crystal set, the transformer
two PX25A.
should have a ratio of 7 : 1. If used
after a single detector valve, the
A Battery Universal Amplifier. ratio may be 5:1; whilst if added to
This amplifier is called “Universal,” a receiver employing two or more
as it is so wired that it may be con¬ valves, then the ratio should not be
nected to any battery receiver, more than 3:1.
whether crystal or valve. A glance The panel of the amplifier may be
at the wiring diagram (Fig. 121) will constructed from 3-ply or any other
show that no terminal has been pro¬ wood, although if you wish to match
vided for the H.T. negative lead, and your present set you may employ
also that a grid-bias battery is sup¬ ebonite. This is an unnecessary ex¬
plied for the amplifier. These two pense, however. In the centre of the
facts are easily explained, however. panel mount the on-and-off switch.
In any valve receiver the H.T. — The transformer and valve holder are
wire is connected to one or other of screwed down to the baseboard as
the L.T. terminals, and, therefore, shown in the wiring diagram, leaving
when the two L.T. terminals on this sufficient space at the right-hand side
amplifier are joined to the correspond¬ for two grid-bias batteries side by
ing terminals on the receiver with side. The terminal strip with the six
which the amplifier is used, the H.T. — terminals fitted is then screwed to the
lead is automatically joined in cir¬ rear of the baseboard. Use glazite or
cuit. The existing receiver may em¬ some similar wire for wiring-up, and
ploy a grid battery, but in this case take care that the two leads to the
there is not the slightest objection primary of the transformer (that is,
to having a separate battery for the those lettered P. and H.T.) are con¬
amplifier, especially as a valve will nected to the input terminals, so
be needed in this case taking a higher that when these latter are con¬
value of bias, and then two of the nected to the ’phone terminals of
9-volt batteries may be joined in your present set, they will be in
112
 CIRCUIT — COHERER
the correct direction. For this reason CLASS A-B.—The method of L.F.
it is preferable to use the type of amplification where the voltage ap¬
terminals which have engraved let¬ plied to the grid is half-way between
tering so that no mistake can occur. the normal bias and the double value
The input terminals are then joined used for Class B working.
to the 'phone or L.S. terminals of CLASS B.— A form of push-pull
your present receiver, and if this is a amplification in which two similar
valve set, two insulated leads should valve assemblies are mounted in one
then be joined from the two L.T. ter¬ glass envelope. The valves are of the
minals on the amplifier to the corre¬ type which require no grid bias, and
sponding terminals on the set. A the working point is so arranged that
separate flexible lead is joined to the grid current flows. The transformer
L.S. + terminal on the amplifier to used to feed this dual valve is of the
an appropriate tapping on the H.T. step-down variety (as compared with
battery. If added to a crystal set, a the step-up of ordinary L.F. amplifica¬
separate lead should also be joined to tion), and the secondary winding has
the L.T. — terminal, and this lead to be of extremely low resistance to
should be plugged into the H.T.— avoid distortion due to the grid cur¬
tapping. Adjust the grid-bias tap¬ rent. The transformer is called a
ping according to the H.T. value "driver ” transformer, and the valve
and the valve makers’ instructions. which feeds it is called the " driver ”
valve. The out¬
- Z/rPur + ¿T+ put is arranged as
in push-pull. (See
Driver Transformer
and Driver Valve.)
C L O S E
COUPLING. — The
arrangement of two
inductances to ob¬
tain maximum in¬
duced currents.
C L U B S . — See
Directory of Radio
Societies, p. 148.
COAXIAL.—Term
applied to a special
cable for television
land-line transmis¬
F1C. 121.—A One-valve Amplifier. sion and H.F. work.
One conductor is
Components for Universal Amplifier
placed inside the other.
i L.F. transformer; r valve holder;
i on-and-off switch; 6 terminals; CODE.—See Morse, Q.R.T., Colour
Ebonite strip. Codes, and Abbreviations on p. vii.
CIRCUIT, REJECTOR.—See Re¬ COERCIVE FORCE.—The mag¬
jector Circuit. netomotive force required to annul
CLASS A.— The method of L.F. the residual magnetism of a sub¬
amplification where the valves receive stance.
the correct values of grid bias. (See also COHERER.—A form of detector in
Amplification, Class A-B,and Class B.) which a non-conducting tube is filled
HJ
 COIL
with metallic filingslooselypacked. The spaced. For the purpose of this de¬
application of a current to the filings scription we will take it that there are
causes them to ‘ ' pack ” or “ cohere ’ ' eleven of them, although you may
and so provide a conducting use any number that is not divisible
path. by two or three.
The best
/facr/ON way to space
-©
out these
facr/ON nails evenly
Co/l is to draw a
circle of
«§> 2 in. dia¬
meter con¬
■©
centric, of
course, with
g G#/#
the circum¬
o C&L
ference of
the block. If
you then
mark the
■©
positions for
the nails,
FlC. 122.—Theoretical and actual diagrams of an Aerial Tuning Coil. just under
j in. apart.
COIL.— An aerial tuning induct¬ starting from any given point, you
anee, incorporated so that the circuit will find them practically regular.
will respond or tune to various fre¬ If you like to operate with a
quencies. (See also Chokes and High- protractor and draw angles of 33 o
frequency Chokes, and a companion all round, you will be still more
volume, " Coils, Chokes, and Trans¬ accurate.
formers, and How to Make Thein,** Knock the nails in sufficiently hard
Tuning Coils and Tuning Systems. to prevent them from bending inward
For Oscillator Coils, see Intermediate¬ under
frequency Transformers.) pres-
Making Tuning Coils. The first sure, but
type of coil here described is known not so
as the “basket-weave” variety. It hard that
should not be confused with the they can¬
basket coil, generally wound on card¬ not be ex¬
board. The “ basket-weave ” coil is tracted.
self-supporting, very easy to make, Winding
and probably the most efficient of the Coil.
all. The actual
Fig. 1-23 shows the only “appara¬ winding
tus ” necessary. This is a circular is simple.
wooden block, 2J in. in diameter (to Fig. I2X—The wooden block and
Take the nails for making a Basket-weave
standardise the turn numbers), round end of Coil.
the edge of one flat surface of which the wire,
are a number of nails. These nails twist it round any given nail,
should be driven in | in. from the and go off round the circle as
circumference, and should be equally follows. Take it inside the second

“4
 COIL
nail, outside the third, inside the turns are spaced from each other by
fourth, and so on. When you have one other turn, and, with the second
got back to the starting point you type, there are three different kinds
will find the second turn naturally of turns before a return to the first
goes out- one is made.
si d e the The " Sub-ioo-Metre ” Coil. Now
nail that for more detailed particulars. For
it was pre- wavelengths above 100 metres, the
V i o us1y coils will be rigid enough with No. 22
inside, D.C.C. wire. Naturally D.S.C. may
and, when be used, but it hardly warrants the
you have extra expense. For the “ sub-100-
con tinued metre ” coils No. 18 should be used,
for ten since they have few turns and are
turns or not too rigid otherwise. Further, the
so, you will use of thick wire has the desirable
F1C. 124.—The finished Coil. effect of increasing the spacing be¬
see the coil
take shape. tween turns.
On reaching the desired number of The following table gives a rough
turns, simply bind the coil round indication of the turn numbers re¬
with cotton in six places (it is best quired for various ranges. It is
to tie the cotton round the thin ” made out for a 0005 condenser above
portions where two sets of turns cross 100 metres, and a -0001 below:
—that is, midway between any two
nails), pull the nails out, and the Wavelength Range
Turns Metres
coil is complete. The ends are simply
twisted once round the nearest nail. 2 8- 14
Reference to Fig. 124 will show the 5 13- 27
general idea and, roughly, the ap¬ 9 25- 42
pearance of the finished coil. 12 30- 60
18 55-125
Previously it was said that the
25 100-180
number of nails must not be a multi¬ 160-400
50
ple of three. This is because it is pos¬ 220-560
75
sible to make an even neater coil, as a 100 360-740
“de luxe’’ job, by taking your wire
inside two nails, outside the next
one, inside two again, outside one
once more, and so on. You may
experiment with various methods of
winding, since these slight alterations
will not seriously affect the turn num¬
bers given in the table farther on.
These "basket-weave” coils are
particularly suitable for short-wave
work, since no two adjacent turns
are really concentric. Any turn is
only touching its next-door neigh¬
bours at the points that were half¬
way between the nails when the
winding was being carried out. In
Flc. 125.—The Coil mounted on a strip
the case of the first type, concentric of ebonite.

»5
 COIL
Another and more elaborate scheme though, that this treatment is not
is shown in Fig. 128. In this case a for any reason connected with a more
hole is drilled in the centre of the efficient dielectric material ! The re¬
cardboard, and two shaped pieces of verse, unfortunately, may be the
ebonite are bolted, one on either side, case, but at the same time the losses
through this hole, and again at the are not high enough to worry about.
bottom. Fig. 126 shows the arrangement.
The remarks made previously about This consists of a circular piece of
cardboard of any diameter, with slots
running towards the centre and stop¬
ping on the circumference of a circle
with a diameter of i| in. This dia¬
meter should be kept constant for all
sizes of coil, and naturally the num¬
ber of turns in the coil will decide
the outside diameter.
Eleven or nine slots are the usual
numbers, but any odd number of slots
may be used.
Winding. The winding procedure
is similar to that for ” basket-weave ”
coils. Simply bore a hole just inside
the unslotted area of the cardboard,
twist round sufficient wire to make
connection to the mounting scheme,
and go off round the circle, winding
outside one " prong,” inside the next,
the reaction coil still apply—use the and so on until the required number
next smallest in the scale through¬ of turns has been wound on. Then
out. make the end fast through a hole in
The true ‘ ' basket ’ ’ coil was used the nearest prong, and you have a
long before the so-called “basket- very serviceable coil.
weave” coil was first invented. It is Two hints that will save unneces¬
probably still the most popular type sary waste of time are these : ( 1 )
of home-made coil, for two reasons. make your slots roughly three times
First, it is absurdly simple to make. the diameter of the wire to be used;
Secondly, it is very rigid, and will and (2) pull the wire tight as you
stand a greater amount of knocking go along. The second may seem too
about than any of the self-support¬ obvious to need mentioning, but
ing types of coil. there is a fascination about winding
The ‘ ' frame ’ ’ of the basket
coil is a circle of cardboard,
with slits cut in it to accom¬
modate the winding. Simply
as a precaution against the
possibility of its absorbing
moisture, it is advisable
to "dope” the cardboard,
though not too liberally,
with shellac or varnish. It
should be emphasised, Fic. 127.—How the Coil is mounted,
lió
 COIL
these coils that tends to make the to become a little unwieldy, and
novice run blithely on, only to find really substantial cardboard should
a contraption like a wire entangle¬ be used.
ment in his hands at the finish ! An ideal set of coils for all wave¬
Below are given the turn numbers lengths could well be made up by
for wavelengths of 100 metres up¬ using the “basket-weave” type up
wards, and carrying on higher up the to 200 metres or so, and carrying
scale than in the table given on an on with cardboard-supported basket
earlier page. coils after that. Remember, incident¬
ally, to standardise your
direction of winding for all
the coils.
On the subject of ' ' dop¬
ing,” it cannot be em¬
phasised too strongly that
the self-supporting type
should never be doped at
all. The others should
likewise never be smeared
all over with shellac, as is
sometimes done, after they
have been finished. The
former is the only part that
needs it, and you can be
very sparing with that !
Mounting the Coil. As
regards the mounting of
Fig. 128.—The finished Coil. basket coils, probably the
best scheme is to fit one edge
The Wavelength Ranges. These of the cardboard former into a slot
are approximately correct with a cut in the piece of ebonite that is
•0005 condenser, and for wire of to take the terminals or plugs. Fig.
No. 24 gauge up to 500 metres, above 127 shows a suggestion for doing this
which No. 30 is used. neatly.
The figures given are for use when
Wave Range No. of Gauge the coil is a closed circuit, without
Metres Turns an aerial tapped on to it.
A Reaction Receiver. Where the
100— 220 24 No. 24
No. 24 coils are to be used in a reaction re¬
150- 34° 35
No. 24 ceiver, it is well to make the whole
25°“ 560 55
500- 1,000 No. 30 set once only, and it will usually be
95
900- 2,000 190 No. 30 found that for a given coil in the
1,800- 3,800 300 No. 30 grid circuit, the next smaller coil will
3,500- 7,000 550 No. 30 serve for reaction.
6,000-19,000 1,000 No. 36 As regards the mounting of the
coils, tie them down to a strip of
Some of the turn numbers may ebonite with a plug at each end, as
seem peculiar in relation to the shown in Fig. 128. This makes quite
ranges covered, but you must re¬ a rigid jol> for experimental purposes,
member that tke diameter is steadily and the wide spacing between the
increasing. The very largest are apt plugs makes for greater efficiency
117
 COIL
than one generally associated with actually only 2 oz. of wire is needed).
two-pin coil mounting. The coil is "pile wound,” which
If it is not desired to use a series makes for easier winding, and saves
of plug-in coils, naturally one large the tedious method of layer winding
"basket-weave” coil
may be wound, and
tappings brought out
at the necessary
places. For this pur¬
pose it is best to give
the wire an outward
twist where it takes a
turn round one of the
nails. The loop
formed may be bared
afterwards, and con¬
nection made by a
crocodile clip in the usual way. —which is the bugbear of amateurs.
Making a Dual Coil. The coil In "pile winding” the wire is
simply wound on anyhow (the turns
on top of each other), in the slots or
spaces on the coil, and the whole
winding can be done in a quarter of
an hour by this method.
The reaction winding has been
placed be live en the short- and long¬
wave windings, and this gives far
more even results in both wave bands.
The reaction is also provided with a
tapping (a most useful feature not
found on manufactured coils), which

Fig. 129.—The completed Coil.

shown in Fig. 129 has been specially

designed For easy construction.
The results are also an improve¬
ment in that the coil is a "General
Purpose ” one, and can be used in Fig. 131.—A nail driven in the bench to
circuits ranging from a crystal set hold the reel while the wire is wound on
the coil.
to screened grid.
The materials required are few, and is a proved success, and provides a
the only item which need be bought simple method of adjustment.
is the wire, which is usually sold at To start the Former. This is
rod. or is. per 4-oz. reel (although wound with five windings of insulat-
118
 COIL
i s commenced.
Drill two small
holes in the first
slot (bottom
slot}, thread the
wire through
several times to
secure it, and
leave about 6 in.
of wire inside of
the former for
connecting
up. Wind fifty
turns in the first
slot, then cross
over and con¬
tinue winding in
secoud slot, cross
over again from
ing or electricians' tape (as it is second slot to the third slot, thus
called). These "windings” are } in. winding fifty turns in each slot,
apart; about four layers of tape to making a total of 150 turns on the
each "winding” will suffice to form long-wave winding (Fig. 132). Drill
the " slots ’ ’
or spaces for
Sorrow Wooc
the wire to Strip
be wound in.
The insu¬
lating tape f/X‘NG TOBASE
should
be doubled Small Wooo
as it is Screws
F1C. 133.—The top wooden Strip. FlG. 134.—The bottom wooden Strip.
wound o n ,
as shown
in Fig. 130. This operation, although two more holes and secure coil end
sounding tedious, actually only takes as before. The easiest way is to
a few minutes. The reel of wire is count ten turns and then jot it down
then taken and slipped over a long with a pencil, then wind ten more,
nail (Fig. which is Æ E
clamped in a vice or nailed on
Ebonite Strip
the table top, and the winding
^ood Co/l Base
Wooo 3E AC TIOAt
Screw Through
Hole in Strip TernihvalS
Top Riling Cote
oSail
3 Scre in Holes Eor
Ftxing to Baseboard

Coil. Base Fig. 136. —A top view oí the

Fig. 135.—The Coil fixed to the base. Coil.
II9
120
 COIL
and so on. No mistake or miscount fixing to the coil ends. One strip is
is then made, and one can complete used for fixing the coil to the base
the whole of the windings in a few (Fig- 135), and the others as the re¬
minutes. action terminal strip (Fig. 136). Be¬
The short-wave windings are not fore fixing this, connect up the re¬
wound in slots owing to the small action windings (Fig. 137) and ter¬
amount of wire used, but be careful minals to the strip, for if the strip
that these windings are wound on (top) is fixed before connecting up,
fairly tight to prevent them “spring¬ difficulty will be experienced in
ing ” after completion. reaching the windings from the in¬
side of the coil The base is now
Al A 2 made, and the ebonite terminal strips
(Fig. 138) are cut to size and fixed
—this is really a simple job, and
the sketches should make everything
quite clear. The actual connections
are shown in Fig. 130, and the theo¬
retical circuit and practical wiring
diagrams are given in Figs. 140 and
14), so that no
to plate & further explanation
is necessary.
Points to Watch.
Do not forget to
test the coil before
0003 fitting it to the
set. This test is
for continuity, and
is quite simple, as
a break which is
'O ^¡-ACT/qn not discovered un¬
COnoensER
til after the coil is
This Mee
Visses urvot installed in a set
Conoervsee may lead to end-
less trouble in
searching for a
wwe ananas fault in the re-
runma
CQ^D^SEt mainder of the cir¬
F1C. 141.—How the Coil is fitted in the set. cuit. Connect up
as Fig. 141, first
Holes are drilled in the former for using the two outer terminals on the
all the winding ends, and these are reaction coil. If reaction is too fierce
pushed inside the former. reduce the high tension on your first
The Wooden Strips. To connect valve (detector) to as low as 30
un, these ends are brought down in¬ volts if necessary. If this fails, con¬
side the former, to their respective nect to the middle terminal on the
terminals, taking care that the dif- reaction coil as shown in Fig. 140,
ferent ends do not touch. but be careful to adjust with only
The two wooden strips are next one wire at a time, preferably the
cut to size (Figs. 133 and 134), and one leading to the plate and H.F.
holes are drilled in them ready for choke, leaving the wire on K.2 (which
P.W.E.—E 121
 COIL
COIL-WINDING TABLE
(LONG-WAVE COILS.)

Inductance Inductance Induc ta tice

1,600 Microhenrys. 2,100 Microhenrys. 3,000 Microhenrys.

Dia¬ T urns Turns Turns

No. of No. of No. of
meter of Wire. per . Wire. per Wire.
Slots. Slots. Slots.
Fortner. Slot. Slot. &

4 36 enam. 80 4 36 enam. 92 5 38 D.S.C. 95

i in.
5 36 D.S.C. 69 36 enam. 80 6 36 enam. 85
5

3 36 D.S.C. 7i 3 36 enam. 81 3 36 enam. 97

1 in. 4 36 D.S.C. 57 36 D.S.C. 65 4 36 enam. 78
5 34 D.S.C. 53 5 34 enam. 60 5 36 D.S.C. 72

3 34 enam. or 56 3 36 D.S.C. 65 3 36 enam. 77

36 D.S.C.
2 in. 4 34 D.S.C. 45 34 D.S.C. 51 4 36 D.S.C. 61
5 34 D.S.C. 3» 5 34 D.S.C. 44 5 34 enam. or 53
36 D.S.C.

(MEDIUM-WAVE COILS.)

Inductance Inductance I nducta nee

175 Microhenrys. 200 Microhenrys. 230 Microhenrys.

Dia¬ Length Length Length

meter of Wire. Turns. in Wire. T urns. in Wire. T urns. in
Former. inches. inches. inches.

32 enam. 84 I-OI 32 enam. 93 i-ii 30 D.S.C. "5 I-7I

if in. 30 D.S.C. 102
93 1-38 30 D.S.C. 32 enam. 102 1-22

30 D.S.C. 74 I’lO 30 D.S.C. 82 1-22 30 D.S.C. 90 1-34

in.
28 D.C.C. 94 2'24

30 D.S.C. 63 0-94 30 D.S.C. 68 I-OI 30 D.S.C. 76 113

in.
28 D.S.C. 6Z 116 28 D.S.C. 73 1-26 28 D.S.C. 80 1-38

30 D.S.C. 54 0-805 30 D.S.C. 59 0-88 30 D.S.C. 65 0-97

2 in.
28 D.S.C. 58 1*01 28 D.S.C. 64 1x3 28 D.S.C. 70 1-24

26 D.C.C. 70 1-96 26 D.C.C. 78 2-18 26 D.C.C. 86 2-40

28 D.S.C. 52 0-925 28 D.S.C. 57 i-oi 28 D.S.C. 62 I-IO
4 in. 2-08 24 D.C.C.
24 D.C.C. 65 72 2-30 24 D.C.C. 80 2-56

28 D.S.C. 47 0-835 28 D.S.C. 51 0-91 28 D.S.C. 56 1-0

2$ in.
24 D.C.C. 58 1-85 24 D.C.C. 64 2-04 24 D.C.C. 70 2-24

26 D.S.C. 41 0-86 26 D.S.C. 45 0-95 26 D.S.C. I 49 1-03

3 in. 22 D.C.C. 1-90 22 D.C.C. 2 09
50 55 22 D.C.C. 61 2-32

leads to reaction condenser) severely tape. One piece of wood 3} x 3) in.

alone. by about J in. thick. Two strips of
Materials Required. One cardboard wood 2¡| x I in. by about j in. thick.
former, 4J x- 2) in., 2 oz. No. 30 Two strips of ebonite 3| x 1 in. up to
enamelled wire. I in. thick. One doz. small brass wood
Seven terminals (any type, bell or screws (about j in. long). One j-in.
telephone). One small roll insulating wood screw (for screwing coil to base).
122
 COIL
■>HT+

F1C. 142.— In this H.F. Transformer coupling between F1C. 144.—In this arrangement a small
the two windings is carried out inductively. variable condenser provides the coupling and
thus the selectivity may be varied.

Making 465 Kc/s I.F. Trans¬ into ' sections to minimise self¬
formers. A transformer to tune to capacity.
465 kc/s—which approximates to an The transformer tan be used as
equivalent wavelength of 650 metres shown in the circuit in Fig. 142 by con¬
—can be made by using 120 turns of necting a 0003-mfd. pre-set condenser
36-gauge d.c.c. or enamelled wire for across each winding fur trimming pur¬
primary and for secondary. This is poses. It is better to employ one of
the total number of turns on each the new types of trimmer on steatite
former, although they are split up or similar bases.
By following the form of construc¬
tion shown in Fig. 143 it is possible
to alter the coupling between primary
and secondary, and thus to vary the
band-width covered; in other words,
to obtain variable selectivity. The
only objection is that the selectivity
cannot be varied by means of an ex¬
ternal control, and is therefore only
pre-set, being adjustable only after
removing the screening can and prob¬
ing inside the set.
There are various methods of pro¬
viding an external adjustment, one
of the simplest being bv using a -oooi-
mfd. variable condenser to provide
“ top-capacity ” band-pass coupling.
It is wired between th»- high-potential
ends of the windings, as shown in
Fig. 144 between the anode terminal
of the primary and the grid terminal
of the secondary. When using this
system, the I.F. transformer should
be mounted near to the panel control,
so that the extremely short leads can
be used between the condenser and
EBONITEBASE the transformer. Still further to as¬
Fk. 143.—A simple form of I.E, Transformer in
which variable coupling can be introduced.
sist in eliminating unwanted " pick-
123
 COIL
having a value of about 2500 ohms
—the exact resistance is not very
critical.
When the resistance is set to its
maximum value, the coil provides a
fair degree of coupling between
primary and secondary, but when it
is moved to zero the coupling is ap¬
preciably reduced. Thus the degree
of selectivity is increased, as is re¬
quired when listening to distant sta¬
tions or when interference is experi¬
enced. Experiment with different
sizes of coupling winding.
It will be understood that with any
of the forms of I.F. transformer de¬
scribed it is necessary to include the
•oooj-mfd. pre-set condensers in
parallel with the two windings for
trimming purposes.
Oscillator Coils. In making an
oscillator coil for use in conjunction
Fig. 145.—Variable selectivity is carried out in this
I.F. Transformer by rotating one of the windings. with these 465 kc/s I.F. coils, it will
be necessary to understand the prin¬
up ” and coupling, it is often an ad¬ cipal difference between an oscillator
vantage to screen the leads. With the coil and one used for tuning tc the
arrangement described, preliminary
adjustment can be made by varying
the distance between the two coils,
the variable condenser being used SECONDARY

only when the set is tuned to a signal.

In general, it will be found that the
<0 TURNS
coils must be well separated, for IN EACH
otherwise the coupling will be too SLOT
great.
Another arrangement is to mount e
the two coils so that one of them can 50
be rotated. The idea is shown in Fig. TURNS
145. Another system is to place a
third coil (which is not connected to
any part of the circuit) between the
primary and secondary windings.
The form of construction referred to
is illustrated in Fig. 146. Each wind¬
ing is divided into three sections J in.
apart, and there is a space of 1 in. earth
between primary and secondary. In
this spac e are wound fifty turns of
36-gauge enamelled wire, the ends of ribbed ebonite
the winding being connected to two
FORMER
FlC. 146. A third winding is used in this I.F. Trans¬
terminals of a variable resistance, former to control the degree of selectivity.
I24
 COIL
signal frequency. An aerial coil has we have still to compensate for the
to cover the wavelength ranges (very difference in ratio of the coverages.
approximately), 200 to 600 metres, This is done in part by the specially
and 900 to 2000 metres. The corre¬ shaped vanes of the oscillator section
sponding frequency ranges are, of the 465 kc/s superhet tuning con¬
roughly, 1500 kc/s to 500 kc/s and denser, but further compensation
333 kc/s to 150 kc/s, and these are must be provided by use of a pad¬
quite different from the tuning ranges ding and tracking condenser (C.3 and
which must be covered by the oscil¬ C.4 in Fig. 147). These two con¬
lator coil. The ranges of the latter, densers are of the pre-set type, and
in kilocycles per second, are 1965 to should have maximum capacities of
965, and 798 to 615 (the original •00016 mid. and -0003 mid.
figures, plus 465). This is for a super¬
het using the now general inter¬
mediate frequency of 465 kc/s.
The ratios between maximum and
minimum for the two ranges are also
different. For example, whereas the
ratio between maximum and minimum
frequencies covered by the aerial cir¬
cuit on short waves is 3:1, the cor¬
responding ratio in the case of the
oscillator circuit is onlv about 2:1.
On long waves there is still greater
divergence, for the aerial circuit fre¬
quency ratio is about 2¿:i, and the
oscillator ratio is about 1J : I.
Considered in another way, the
wavelength ranges of the oscillator FlC. 147.—Theoretical circuit of the frequency-
coil approximate to 150 metres to changing stage of a superhet receiver.
310 metres, and 375 metres to 500
metres. This means that the oscil¬ Using the number of turns men¬
lator coil requires to have fewer turns tioned above, the reaction winding
of wire than the signal-frequency coil. should have about 100 turns, these
On medium waves the oscillator coil being arranged as shown in Fig. 148.
requires about three-quarters of the The complete coil should be screened.
number of turns used for the standard The position is less complicated
coil, and on long waves less than half when the oscillator coil is intended
the number of turns is required. for use in a set with no kc/s inter¬
Thus, if the aerial coil is wound on mediate frequency, for the frequency
a i-in. diameter paxolin former, the and frequency-ratio variations are
numbers of turns for the two wind¬ then much less. Thus, if the aerial
ings are about 100 and 300; the cor¬ tuning circuit covers the range 1500
responding oscillator coil requires kc/s to 500 kc/s and 333 kc/s to
about 75 to 150 turns. 150 kc/s, the corresponding oscillator
A typical frequency-changer circuit frequencies are 1610 kc/s to 610 kc/s
using a pentagrid valve is shown in and 443 kc/s to 260 kc/s; these
Fig. 147. In the figures given above ranges are equivalent to wavelength
an approximate allowance has been variations of approximately 160
made for the maximum frequency metres to 500 metres, and 600 metres
(minimum wavelength) difference, but to 1150 metres. Thus the approxi-
125
 COIL
tial when using no kc/s I.F. If it
were not used, there would probably
be a good deal of second-channel in¬
terference. Even when using 465
kc/s, a band-pass circuit is desirable,
but not quite as important, since
second-channel troubles are less
severe.
When experimenting with the
home-made oscillator coils, it is essen¬
tial to deal with each wavelength
separately. First turn to medium
waves and, with the condenser set to
tune to a wavelength of the local
station, try the effect of setting the
trimmers. If it is found that what
appears to be accurate tuning can be
obtained when neither trimmer is at
its maximum or minimum capacity,
it can be assumed that the windings
are reasonably correct. On the other
Fie. 148.—Constructional details of an efficient hand, if one of the condensers can be
oscillator coil.
turned to its full capacity, it will
mate numbers of turns on a r-in. be an indication that the oscillator
diameter former would be 85 and 240; coil needs to be modified. Thus, if
the reaction winding should have the trimmer of the oscillator section
about 120 turns in all. is "full in,” additional turns must
The circuit for a no-kc/s fre¬ be used on the medium-wave section
quency changer is given in Fig. 149, of the coil; if the trimmer of the aerial
a pentagrid again being used. The section is "full-in”—or if the oscil¬
special superhet (no kc/s type, of lator one is “full-out ”—a few turns
course) tuning condenser provides the must be removed. A rough guide to
correct tracking, but a long-wave pre¬ the extent of the discrepancy can be
set padding condenser of 002 mid. is
required to compensate for the dif¬
ferent frequency ratio. This is short-
circuited by the wave-change switch
on medium waves, but is actually in
series with the oscillator section of
the tuning condenser on long waves.
Its effect is to reduce the maximum
resonant wavelength when the tuning
condenser approaches its maximum
capacity, but it has a negligible effect
on low settings; the -oooj-mfd. pad¬
ding condenser used in the 465 kc/s
I.F. circuit has a similar function. In
passing, it should be mentioned that
although a single-circuit aerial tuner
is shown in Fig. 149 for simplicity, a
F1C. 149.—Here is the circuit of the frequency changer
band-pass filter is a practical essen- stage of a superhet employing an I.F. of 110 kc/s.
I2Õ
 COIL
obtained by connecting a -oooi-mfd. Another strip of insulating tape and
variable condenser in parallel with a third washer complete the winding
the condenser section, whose trimmer sections for the primary.
is screwed right down. Should this So as to give correct spacing be¬
condenser require to be set to more tween the primary and secondary
than half its total capacity, a start can windings a |-in.-wide strip of insulat¬
ing tape is wound round the tube,
/nsulatmo Tape just touching the third washer. After
that, another set of three washers can
be fitted in exactly the same way as
the first three were arranged. A
"U” mounting bracket must, of
course, be attached to the lower end
of the former as it was in the previous
coils, and then the windings can be
put on. Start with the primary and
anchor the end of the wire in a pair
of small holes made in the paxolin
tube, wind on 250 turns in the first
slot, pass over to the second slot,
and complete the winding by putting
on another 250 turns, so making 500

be made by removing about five turns.

The same general method of pro¬
cedure can be adopted on long
waves, after setting the pad¬
ding and tracking condensers
to various positions in order to 5
note their effect. After obtain¬
ing a " balance ’’ when the set
is tuned to the powerful local
station, it should be tuned to
mother and the tests repeated.
Intermediate - frequency
Transformers for no Kilocycles. An in-
terminate-frequency transformer of Etc. 151.—Here are the details for an oscillator coil for
use with the l.F. transformer shown above.
the band-pass type can be made as
shown in Fig. 150. A r-in. diameter in all. The “finishing *’ end of the
paxolin former is fitted with six wire can be anchored by passing it
washers, so that four winding sections through two holes made in the former,
are provided; two of these will take or by running a spot of sealing-wax
the primary, and two the secondary on to it. When the primary is
windings. First, a strip of insulat¬ finished, the secondary can be wound
ing tape } in. wide is wound twice in exactly the same manner, and
round the former, and then a washer using the same number of turns.
is pressed closely against it. A second The ebonite measures 4 in. long by
strip of similar width is then wound 2 in. wide, and is drilled with eleven
on at the other side of the washer, holes. Seven of the holes are to take ter¬
after which a second washer is fitted. minals, and are in. diameter, and
I27
 COIL — COLOUR CODES
counter-bored -ft in. to receive the H.F. metal rectifier, can be used in
rounder heads of the terminals, two place of the detector valve in super¬
are | in. to take the mounting screws, heterodyne receivers, and can also be
whilst the remaining two holes are employed in various ways to provide
drilled in., and are then tapped A.V.C. Another use is as an " econo¬
out to 4 B.A. miser ” of H.T. current in conjunction
Details of the windings for an os¬ with large battery-operated power
cillator coil are shown in the dimen¬ valves. (See also Electron Multiplier.)
sioned drawing at Fig. 151. In order COLOUR CODES.—A method of
to obtain correct coupling on both identifying resistances, condensers,
leads, and fuses by colours indicating
their value. In the case of resistances
the body is marked with one colour,
the tip with another, and a dot or
band of colour is finally marked on
the body. To read the value the body
colour is taken first, then the tip
colour, and finally a number of
noughts as denoted by the dot (or
band) are added. The code is as fol¬
lows : o—Black; 1—Brown; 2—Red;
F1C. 152.—Connections for an oscillator coil in a 3—Orange; 4—Yellow; 5—Green;
standard circuit.
6 — Blue; 7 — Violet; 8—Grey;
9—White.
wavebands, the reaction winding is Examples: A 25,000-ohm resist¬
arranged in two parts, one of which ance would have a red body, green
is wound as side-by-side turns com¬ tip, and orange dot.
paratively near to the medium-wave A too.ooo-ohm resistance would
winding, and the other, of seventy have a brown body (1), black tip
turns, placed in a slot next to the (nought), and a yellow dot (the final
long-wave sections. All the turns are four noughts).
of 34-gauge d.c.c. or enamelled wire, The colour code adopted for fuses is :
and are put on in the same direction. Black, 60 mA.; Grey, too mA.; Red,
The coil is mounted on an ebonite 150 mA.; Brown, 250 mA.; Yellow,
baseplate measuring about 3x2 in., 500 mA.; Green, 750 mA.; Dark Blue,
with six terminals. The connections I amp.; Lt. Blue, 1-5 amps.; Purple,
for the oscillator coil in a battery- 2 amps.; White, 3 amps.
operated superhet of that kind using Mains transformers are sometimes
a separate oscillator valve (which is provided with coloured leads to in¬
generally better in home-constructed dicate the various outputs. The
battery sets) are given in the circuit official code is as follows : Primary :
at Fig. 152. Black, zero; Black and Green,
COLD VALVE.—This name is to volts; Black and Yellow, 210 volts;
actually a misnomer and is used in Black and Red, 230 volts; and Black
reference to a special type of high- and Brown, 250 volts. The secondary
frequency metal rectifier. It consists windings are as follows: H.T., Red,
essentially of the same elements as the with the centre tap Red and Yellow;
metal rectifier used for changing alter¬ rectifier heater winding, Green with
nating electric current into D.C., but Green and Yellow centre tap; valve
it is designed to have a particularly heaters, Brown with Brown and
low self-capacity. This cold valve, or Yellow centre tap. Any additional
128
 COLOUR CODES — CONDENSER
L.T. windings are coloured Blue with designed for the reception of amateur
Blue and Yellow centre-tap. If a transmissions. It is a short-wave
screen is fitted between primary and receiver incorporating every form of
secondary a bare wire should be joined circuit control.
to this for earthing purposes. COMPENSATED DUAL LOUD¬
Battery leads may be coloured as SPEAKERS.— See Loudspeaker.
follows, or plain leads may be used CONDENSER.—A piece of ap¬
with wander plugs, bearing the colours paratus designed to store electricity
indicated: Highest H.T., Red; 2nd under electrical pressure. It consists
highest positive H.T., Yellow; 3rd essentially of two or more metal
highest positive H.T., Green; 4th plates separated by an
highest positive H.T.. Blue; L.T. insulator. For wireless
positive, Pink; Negative (L.T. —, purposes two types of con¬
H.T. —, and G.B. + ), Black; maxi¬ denser are in general use,
mum G.B. negative. Brown; 2nd fixed and variable con- ■■■■■
G.B. negative, Grey; 3rd G.B. nega¬ densers. The property of ■■■■■
tive, White. If a 5th H.T. positive a condenser is known as
lead is provided it will be coloured the capacity, and this
Violet. varies directly as the size
Cable connections, or flexible leads of the conductors, and in- pæ. 153.—
to multiple condenser blocks are versely as the distance Jheore’ical
coloured as follows—from which it separating them. Ihep,^ Con-
will be seen that they are the same material used between the denser,
as for battery H.T. leads: Highest plates will also affect the capacity
positive voltage, Red; 2nd highest, of the condenser. The material
Yellow; 3rd highest, Green; 4th separating the plates of a condenser
highest, Blue; 5th highest, Violet; is known as the dielectric.
Making Fixed
INSULATING STRIPS Condensers. Fig.
154 shows the
construction.
To make up a
selection of con¬
densers, then, the
requirements are:

Matais Platts
F1C. 154.—The plates in a condenser, shown on an enlarged scale.

principal negative connection is copper or tinfoil sheet between 0 001

Black, the 2nd negative connection, and 0'002 in. thick, mica about 0 002
Brown, and the 3rd negative connec¬ in. thick for the insulating material,
tion is Grey. The centre connection scrap ebonite to make up the body
for voltage-doubler condensers is of the component, and a few small
White. If a condenser has two wires brass nuts, bolts, washers, and ter¬
only, they will be Red and Black for minals.
positive and negative respectively. Two formulæ are given on the
COMMUNICATIONS RECEIVER. next page, one with centimetre units,
—A special type of receiver primarily the other inch units. However,
P.W.E.—E' 129
 CONDENSER
Copper

Copper
Taking a
typical

suppose we wish
to find the capac -
of con¬
Flc. 155.—Pictorial diagram of the Copper and Mica Layers. denser using
copper foil plates,
should the measurements be in each 4 square centimetres in area,
inches, and one desires to use the the plates being separated by mica
other formula, it is only necessary insulating strips ) millimetre thick.
to multiply inches by 2 54, and they Substituting the values for the
are then reduced to centimetres. symbols :
The first formula is :
C 0 0885 X a X K X N
0-0885 X a X K X N 1,000,000 D
1,000,000 D 0-0885 X 4 X 6 X (11 — 1)
1,000,000 X -5
where C = capacity in micro-farads.
D = thickness of the insulating = 0-000424 micro-farad.
material in centimetres.
For practical purposes this can be
a = area of one metal plate in
called -0004 micro-farad.
square centimetres.
The second formula, where the
K = the dielectric constant.
measurements are in inches, is:
This is known as the
specific inductive capacity 0-225 X a X K X N
C =---—
(or S.I.C., as it is gener¬ 1,000,000 IJ
ally called) of the insu¬
Therefore, to find the capacity of
lating material. This
a condenser consisting of, say, 6
value is found from the
copper foil plates each ixj in., with
tables contained in this
mica insulators each 0-002 in. thick,
book. For example, the proceed as before:
table shows an average
value of 6 for mica. 0-225 Xix 0-5 X 6 X 5
N = the number of insulating 1,000,000 X 0 002
strips used. This is cal¬
culated simply by sub¬
2-000
tracting one from the
total number of copper or = •00168 micro-farad.
tinfoil plates. In Fig. 154 Having worked these simple exam¬
there are 7 plates, hence ples, and determined the capacity of
the value of N = y —1=6. a condenser from given values, let
Verify this by counting it now be assumed that it is neces¬
the number of insulating sary to know the number of plates
Strips, when it is found to be used in making a condenser of
there are 6, which is cor¬ o-ooi micro-farad, having plates j x J
rect. in. and mica insulators each 0-002 in.
130
FlC. 158.—Extreme right. Sec- CoPPÍP

131
 CONDENSER
thick. Do the same as before, and in excess of those required to satisfy
substitute the values known, except the value of N for this particular
that the formula is now rearranged capacity. They are merely placed
for the purpose : between the first and last metal
C X D X i,000,000 plates and the ebonite base and cover
respectively as additional insulation
0-225 * A X K
only. Notice also that these are of
O-OOI X 0-002 X 1,000,000 larger dimensions than those of the
~ -^3 X 0’75 X 0-5 X 6 copper plates; this is necessary to
2 prevent the metal plates from bend¬
ing over and touching each other.
= 0 506 aPP rox '
Cut a piece of ebonite zj x i| in.
Now, the values of N in the pre¬ (see Fig. 157) to form the baseplate,
vious examples were found by sub¬ and at the same time cut another
tracting I from the total number of piece ijxi| in. for the cover. Be¬
plates, hence I must be added to fore commencing assembly place the
the value of N just determined, i.e. smaller piece of ebonite on top of the
4 + 1 = 5- This is the number of larger, and drill four 8 B.A. holes
plates required. (number 42 drill) at the X positions
For the benefit of those readers indicated in Fig. 157, countersinking
who do not wish to spend time work¬ these if desired. With the ebonite
ing out values from the above for- base on a flat surface, place a strip
mulæ, a short list is appended, which of mica in a central position on the
will enable them to see at a glance face, the longer side being parallel
the requisites for a condenser of a to the 2j-in. side of the ebonite.
given value. Next, lay the first copper plate over
the mica, the lug being flush with
Copper Foil. Mica o'ooz in. thick.
the rj-in. side, cover with another
strip of insulating material, and place
Dimension of
C in Micro farad. Plate in In. No. of Plates.
the second metal plate over this,
so that the lug is on the opposite
side to the first, plate. A glance at
•001 i X i 5
•002 I X i 7
Fig. 158 shows how this should be
•003 1X1 7 done. Continue the process, feeding
•00015 i X 1 3
•0005 i X i 4
on alternate strips of mica and cop¬
•0006 I X I 2 per, using the additional insulator to
•0008 1 X I 6
cover the last plate. The ebonite
cover is then pressed over the whole,
This simple part completed, all in the same position as when the
that remains to be done is the con¬ drilling was done. Fig. 159 illustrates
struction. To make, for example, the assembly as it should now be.
a 0003-micro-farad condenser, cut Clamp the whole, and bolt together
seven pieces of copper foil to the with four 8 B.A. brass bolts as
shape and size shown in Fig. 156. tightly as is practicable. It is ab¬
The additional area on the left en¬ solutely essential that no air space
ables the plates to be joined together exists between the copper and mica
in the manner mentioned earlier. The strips, otherwise the capacity will be
shaded portion is actually the opera¬ affected. It will be understood that
tive area. Next cut eight mica strips this is so by referring to the formula,
each i|xi in. w It will be noticed where it was seen that the insu¬
that the number of insulators is two lating material possessed a certain
132
 CONDENSER — CORROSION
definite value, denoted by K. If air, CONDUCTANCE.—The property a
therefore, is present, the constant is body possesses for conducting elec¬
altered to a value dependent upon tricity. Reciprocal of resistance. The
the combination of mica and air. mho (ohm reversed) is the unit of
The remaining operation is to fix conductance.
the terminals. With a 6 B.A. drill CONDUCTIVELY COUPLED.—
(No. 24), drill two holes through the Direct coupled (which see).
plates and base, using Fig. 160 as a CONDUCTIVITY.— Ability to con¬
guide to their position. Reverse the duct heat or electricity.
condenser, and from the base side in¬ CONDUCTOR. — Any material
sert two 6 B.A. terminals, firmly bolt¬ through which a current may be
ing together with washers and nuts. passed. All metals are conductors.
The finished condenser should now CONTINUOUS CURRENT.-
resemble that shown in Fig. 159. Direct current.
To construct a condenser of any CONTINUOUS WAVES.—A train
other capacity adopt ihe same pro¬ of waves whose amplitude is never
cedure as used in the given example, varying. Produced usually by an arc
cutting the ebonite base and cover discharge, or by an oscillating valve, or
smaller or larger in proportion to the frequency multiplying transformers.
area of the copper plates employed. CONTROL, REMOTE.—See Re¬
(See also Variable Condenser.) mote Control.
CONDENSERS IN PARALLEL. CONVENTIONAL SIGNS. — A
—Condensers connected as in Fig. 5 to wireless circuit diagram consists of
increase the total capacity. The total some of the signs shown in Fig. 1,
capacity of the series is obtained by linked together in a certain way.
adding the capacities together. These conventional signs are shown on
CONDENSERS IN SERIES.—Con¬ p. viii. It will be seen from this that
densers connected as in Fig. 4 to re¬ various wireless components have a
duce the total capacity. The capacity standard form, and a wireless circuit
of a number of condensers so con¬ is a combination of some of those
nected would be the reciprocal of signs. A circuit, it should be remem¬
i i i bered, is a theoretical diagram; a
wiring diagram shows the actual com¬
Ci C2 C3 ponents with the wires attached. In
CONDENSER VALUES. — Series some of the sets dealt with in this
Aerial Condensers, -0001- 0003 mfd. book wiring diagrams are given; in
Aerial Tuning Condenser, 0005 mid. others the circuits only are included.
Anode Tuning Condenser, -0003 or CONVERTER.— See Circuit and
•0005 mid. Short-tvave Converter
Anode Coupling Condenser, 0001— COPPER PYRITES.—Copper ore
•0003 mid. crystal, containing also iron. Used
Grid Condenser, oooi--ooo3 mfd. as a rectifier. Correct name Chalco¬
Detector Anode Bypass Condenser, pyrites.
•0001- 0005 mfd. CORROSION.—The eating away of
R.C.C. Condenser, -oi—I mfd. metals or metallic bodies by acid or
Decoupling Condenser (H.F.), -i—1 acid fumes. To prevent corrosion in
mf<l. a new accumulator, simply wipe all
Decoupling Condenser (L.F.), 2-4 susceptible parts with a rag, wet with
mfds. ammonia, and then coat with pure
Smoothing Condenser (Alains Unit), vaseline. Once corrosion has started,
2-8 mfds. it must be removed from all metal
133
 CORROSION — COUPLING CONDENSER VALUES
COPPER WIRE DATA
Turns per inch.
Stand¬ Dia¬ Resistance Weight
Resistance
ard meter Lb. per in Lb. Yards
in Ohms in Ohms
Wire in Ohm. per 1,000 per Lb. Single Double i Single Double
per Yard. per Lb. Enamel
Gauge. Inches. Yds. Silk Silk Cotton Cotton
Covered.
Covered Covered Covered Covered.

IO •128 •001868 •0120 83-3 1488 6-67 764 7*55 704

Ji •n6 •002275 •0200 50-0 122-2 816 8-41 8-30 8*o6 769
12 •104 •002831 •0280 35-7 98-22 10-23 9'35 9-22 8-48
•092 8*93
13 •003617 •0550 181 76-86 13 00 10-5 10-4
•080 •004784 9'43
U •0820 12-2 58-12 1716 IM II-8 10-6
15 •072 •005904 •1400 7-14 4708 21-23 133 131 II-6
16 •064 •007478 •2021 4-95 37-20 26-86 150 14-9 146 132
17 •056 •009762 •3423 2-38 28-48 35'00 16-9 16-5
18 15-9 14'7
•048 •01328 •6351 1-56 20-92 47'66 19-8 20-0 19-4 185 17-2
19 •040 •OI9I3 I-3I5 •757 1453 68-66 23'7 23-8 230 21-7 20-0
20 •036 •02362 2*012 *497 11-77 85-00 261 26-3 21-7
25*3 23*8
21 •032 •02990 3'221 ■309 9299 107-6 29'4 28-2 26-3 23'8
29'4
22 •028 •03905 5498 •181 7120 140-6 33'3 31'8 29-4 26-3
•024 333
23 •05313 IOI4 •098 5231 191-6 38-8 38'5 364
•022 •06324 •069 33'3 29'4
24 14*38 4'395 228-3 421 421 40-0 35'7
•020 21 08 3i'3
25 •07653 •0471 3-632 275'3 46-0 46-0 43'5 385 33'3
26 •018 •09448 32-21 •0309 2-942 3400 50-6 50-6 47'6
•0164 41-7 35'7
27 •11138 46-55 •0215 2'442 410-0 559 55'1 51-6 446
28 •0148 37'9
•1398 70-12 •0141 I -989 503 0 614 60-4 56-2 48-1 40-2
29 •0136 •1655 9865 •0101 i-68o 596-6 66-2 652 60-2 510
30 •0124 •199t 42'4
142-75 •0069 i 396 716-6 73'3 72 0 671 54'4 44'7
31 •0116 •2275 185-80 •0054 1-222 820-0 77'8 70-9 56-8
76-3 463
32 •0108 ■2625 248-2O •0040 I 059 943'3 83-0 81-3 75'2
•0100 •3061 63'3 50-5
33 337-50 •0029 •9081 1100 88-9 87-0 8o-o 66-7 52-6
34 •0092 •3617 471-00 •0023 •7686 1300 98-0 70-4
•0084 93'4 85'5 54'9
35 •4338 67650 •0014 •6408 1556 106 loi 91-8 8o-6 61-o
36 •0076 •5300 IOO9 •00098 •5254 1903 I16 IIO 102 86-2 64-1
37 •0068 •6620 I574 •00064 •4199 2380 128 120 926
"° 676
38 •0060 ■8503 2598 •000385 •3269 3056 M3 I2I 100
133 71'4
39 •0052 1132 4645 •000217 •2456 4066 168 149 109
I34 75*8
40 •0048 1-328 6360 •000156 •2092 4766 180 114
159 I42 78-1
41 •0044 1*581 9020 •000112 •1758 5700 194 169 ISO
42 •0040 I 913 ISIS® •000076 •USS 6866 2U 191 I67
43 •0036 2-362 2OI2O •000050 •II77 7500 230 206 I79
44 •0032 2-989 322IO •000030 •O929 10766 253 225 I92
45 •0028 3'904 54980 •000015 •0712 14066 282 208
247

surfaces by scraping, filing, or with a of an electro-magnetic unit.

wire brush. Ammonia and vaseline COUNTER E.M.F.—Back E.M.F.
should then be applied as before. Pay COUNTE R POISE_ An ‘ ' earth ’ ’
particular attention to keeping the top system consisting of a wire suspended
of the affected accumulator clean and above the ground and parallel to the
dry. Vaseline is specified as a pre¬ aerial.
ventive of corrosion because ordin¬ COUPLING CONDENSER
ary grease contains animal or vege¬ VALUES.— The value of the coupling
table fats which increase rather than condenser depends upon the stage of
prevent the evil. (See also Accumu¬ the receiver in which it is employed,
lator.) and the correct value of the con¬
COULOMB.— The electrical unit of denser is best found by experiment.
quantity, named after Coulomb, the In the case of a detector valve, the
French physicist. It is the quantity value depends to some extent upon
which flows in i second through a the constants of the valve and upon
conductor carrying i ampere. One operating conditions. In a power
ampere-hour equals 3,600 coulombs. grid detector, for example, where
The coulomb is equal to one-tenth the coupling condenser usually is
134
 COUPLING
smaller than the conventional 0003 increased, with the result that it will
mfd., say -oooi mfd., and the valve reproduce as much bass as it is given,
is operated at a high anode voltage and, therefore, low notes must not
and current, a much smaller grid leak, be lost in the intervalve coupling.
generally of the order of a quarter It is a great mistake to assume that
megohm, is necessary. A fairly wide bass is more important than treble,
range of choice is usually given for the as very low notes indeed sometimes
value of the coupling condenser in low- rely upon very high harmonics for
frequency resistance capacity coupled their actual timbre or, if the expres¬
amplifiers. A capacity value between sion can be used, the personality of
•005 mfd. and -05 mfd. will be per¬ the instrument. Generally speaking,
fectly satisfactory, but the actual the treble is lost in the tuning circuit
choice depends very much upon the if these are unduly sharp or, alter¬
band of frequencies it is desired to natively, by the use of excessive
pass. If the set builder wishes for values of condensers connected across,
full round tone with plenty of bass, say, the transformer primary, where¬
then the value of -05 mfd. or even as bass is usually lost after the de¬
greater should be chosen, while a tector valve.
lower value, by cutting off some of The question of tuning circuits is
the bass response, will give a higher dealt with later on, bat reference is
pitched and perhaps more bril¬
liant tone.
COUPLING. — Broadly speak¬
ing, the essence of a set is a
string of valves with some means
of selecting the required station
and some means of connecting
each valve to the one following it.
A few years ago, when valve
efficiency was comparatively low,
almost any reasonable number of
valves could be coupled together
without any special precautions
being taken, but in these days of
super valves and mains elimina¬
tors, almost as much care has to
be taken to avoid coupling where
it is not wanted as to provide
efficient coupling where it is
wanted.
The average modern set that has made below to the question of de¬
been designed to work on batteries coupling these stages. The reader’s
does not function well when driven attention is therefore drawn to the
by an eliminator unless, of course, coupling circuits following the de¬
provision has been made to overcome tector valve.
this trouble either in the set itself Taking the low-frequency side in
or elsewhere. the logical sequence, the anode cir¬
Similarly, far more attention has cuit of the detector valve will first
been paid to coupling in recent years, receive attention. This generally
largely because the efficiency of the consists of a small fixed condenser
latest loudspeakers has been greatly (connected between anode and earth
 COUPLING
to bypass unwanted H.F. energy), mediately after it, when the maxi¬
a H.F. choke, and a transformer mum value should be 50,000 ohms
primary, anode resistance, or L.F. in the interests of safety.
choke. The third component of the resist¬
When using the resistance-capacity ance capacity coupling unit is the
condenser, which should always
be a reliable type, as a serious
leak would result in the high ten¬
sion getting on to the grid of the
following valve. As there is no
simple way of working out the
best value for this condenser, a
table, No. 1, is given (see Decoup¬
ling) to indicate the best value of
grid leak and condenser for various
values of anode resistance.
At the present time transformers
can be divided broadly into two
classes : those containing gener¬
ously proportioned iron cores
and those containing compara¬
tively small cores of a special
FlC. 162.—Transformer primary directly in anode circuit mixture of nickel and iron. There
are, in addition, certain badly
method of coupling, as shown in Fig. designed, cheap transformers, con¬
161, considerable care must be exer¬ taining very little ordinary iron,
cised in choosing the right value. but these will not be considered.
Within certain limits, the higher
the value of anode resistance, the
greater the amplification, but
quality is impaired, as, although
few people realise it, the valve is
actually in parallel with its own
anode resistance.
In general, the anode resistance
should be three times the valve
impedance, but when the most
perfect quality is required at some
expense of volume, this value may
be lowered to twice the impedance
or even less. The grid leak may
have a value of four or five times
that of the anode resistance ; re¬
member that i megohm is
million ohms, so that if the anode Fig. 163.—Parallel-fed Transformer. With this arrange¬
resistance happens to be 20,000 ment direct current does not pass through the primary.
ohms, the grid leak might well be
100,000 ohms, or to quote it in meg¬ These two main classes of trans¬
ohms— 1. This rule holds good ex¬ formers call for entirely different
cept in certain circumstances, unless treatment : the heavy ones, with the
a really big valve is following im¬ big cores, can be connected straight
136
 COUPLING
in the anode circuit as shown in Fig. may be eight to ten times the value
162, but the small nickel-iron trans¬ of the valve impedance and the ap¬
formers should be parallel fed as propriate condenser selected from
shown in Fig. 163. The reason for Table No. 2 (see Decoupling).
this is that the latter tvpe have rela¬ There is the possibility of an addi¬
tively poor efficiency when the high- tional low-frequency stage in addi¬
tension current is passing through the tion to the output valve, but this is
primary winding, as the inductance rapidly dying out with modern high-
of the latter gets smaller and smaller efficiency valves, although still re¬
as larger and larger currents are put tained when the detector is not pre¬
through it, and a decrease of im¬ ceded by a high-frequency valve. The
pedance means a decrease of bass. great mistake when using two valves
Some care
has to be
taken when
selecting re¬
sistance i n
the anode
circuit, but
three times
the valve
impedance is
g e n e r -
ally suitable,
provided
that there is
a reasonable
high - t e n -
sion voltage,
say 120
Fig. 164.—Two forms of Choke Coupling.
volts, avail¬
able. Care
should be taken, however, not to use following the detector is to arrange
the value of condensers shown in for too much amplification, with the
Table No. 1 (see Decoupling), as a result that the output valve is over¬
very much larger value is desirable, loaded.
depending upon the transformer used. Suppose, for example, that the de¬
However, 1 mfd. is a good general tector valve gives a 2-volt swing in
value, but if with the transformer its anode, which is not unreasonable
used this results in one or two of the on a high-powered station, and that
bass notes being reproduced out of a 3Í : i transformer is used, we
proportion, condensers having a shall get almost 7 volts on the grid
value of 5 or 2 mfds. may be tried. of the next valve. Assuming that this
An L.F. choke is sometimes used in¬ is an L.F. type, it might well have
stead of a resistance. a working amplification factor of 12,
Fig. 164 indicates the method of which will give 84 volts in the anode.
using low-frequency choke coupling. Assume a 3 : 1 transformer : this
Here, again, a certain amount of would give almost 252 volts to the
difficulty presents itself regarding the power valve, which, with an ampli¬
choice of grid leak and condenser, fication factor of 7, would give 1,700
but as a rough guide the grid leak volts odd. This indicates what would
Id?
 CRYSTAL DETECTOR — DANIELL CELL
happen if either the second or third for silicon a gold or steel whisker,
valve overloaded. and for an iron pyrites a gold point
CRYSTAL DETECTOR.— A de¬ should be used. The carborundum-and-
tector based upon the fact that some steel crystal detector is undoubtedly
of the metallic crystals allow a cur¬ the best, but this necessitates the use
rent to flow in one direction only, or of an applied potential in the form of
more readily in one direction only. a 4|-volt dry cell connected across the
It thus acts as a rectifier, converting crystal and contact. This, of course,
oscillations as received by the aerial must be used in conjunction with
into intermittent D.C. a potentiometer. With a crystal
set, the best results are usually se¬
TABLE OF CRYSTALS cured by wiring ’phones on the earth
Bornite Haematite side; the crystal detector itself should
Carborundum Hertzite be kept near the aerial terminal.
Cassiterite (Tin-stone) Iron Pyrites
Copper Pyrites Malachite CURRENT.—The flow of electricity
Galena Molybdenite in a circuit. Unit is the ampere
Ghane Silicon
Graphite Tellurium
(which see).
Hessite Zincite CURRENT DENSITY —The rela¬
tionship or ratio between the cross-
CRYSTALS.— Minerals and mineral sectional area of the conductor and
ores used for the purpose of detecting, the current flowing through it.
or rectifying, wireless signals. A C.W.—Continuous Waves.
small piece of the mineral is joined to CYCLE.— Any sequence of events
one side of a tuned circuit, and the occurring in a regular time order. An
remaining side of the circuit is pro¬ A.C. cycle is the two alternations in
vided with a contact for the mineral. opposite directions.
In some cases this contact consists CYMOMETER.— Another name for
of another piece of similar, or dif¬ the Fleming wavemeter, in which
ferent, crystal and in other cases a the capacity and inductance are
metallic contact is used. A very varied by one control.
common ore of lead goes by the
name of galena, and this requires
a contact of copper or brass, although D
sometimes silver gives better results. DAMPING.—The gradual reduc¬
The best form of crystal cup is tion in amplitude of a train of waves
that in which three screws are used. or oscillations.
Wherever it is thought better to fix DANIELL CELL.—A Daniell cell
the crystal by means of solder, a par¬ consists simply of an outer glass jar
ticular grade known as Wood’s metal containing a porous pot. Surround¬
(which see) should be used. In using ing the porous pot there is a cylinder
crystals it is desirable that they be of sheet copper in a solution of cop¬
handled with a pair of tweezers, for per sulphate. The porous pot con¬
the slightest trace of greasiness upsets tains a diluted solution of sulphuric
their sensitivity. acid in which stands a rod of zinc.
For crystal contacts (the cat’s T he details will be quite clear from
whisker) it is desirable to use the the diagram (Fig. 165). The copper
correct wire according to the crystal may be sheet stuff about ’ in.
in use. The crystal whisker to be thick, bent round into the form of
used in connection with galena has a cylinder, with a lug soldered on
already been described, but for for connection purposes. The outer
molybdenite a flat silver strip is used, vessel is charged with a saturated
138
 DANIELL CELL — DECIBEL
solution of copper sulphate in water, DECAY, RATE OF.—Time taken
and the porous pot with a solution to absorb sound energy.
of 15 parts of distilled water, or rain¬
water, and i part of sulphuric acid. DECIBEL.— The comparative unit
In mixing the latter the acid should of sound strength. The value chosen
always be added to the water and for i decibel is the sound which can
not vice versa, otherwise violent ac¬ just be discerned by the trained ear.
tion will take place, with risk of Due to the fact that the human
serious damage to the skin of the ear does not perceive simple increases
face, hands, etc., as well as spoiling of sound intensity as such, but tends
the clothes. to follow approximately a logarithmic
The copper plate provides the posi¬ law, the decibel is logarithmic in
tive terminal and the zine rod the character and is independent of fre¬
negative. There are thus two free fer¬ quency.
minais, copper and z ine. If P 1 is the input power to an
Such a bat¬ amplifier or attenuator, and P 2 the
tery can be output power, then the simple power
connected . . P,
to an accumu¬ ratio is The logarithmic unit,
Pi
lator and al¬ the bel, is the logarithm of the
lowed to re¬ simple power ratio, so that power
main charging
ratio (bels) • T P2 (common
continu- is Log la
ously, day and
logarithms to the base 10 being
night, without
used). Since the bel, as a unit, is
attention be-
too large for practical purposes, the
y o n d seeing
decibel is used, this being a tenth
that a surplus
part of a bel; thus power ratio (deci-
of the copper¬
sulphate crys¬ P
bels) is 10 Log l0 2 .
tal remains in * 1

the outer jar in Since the power output is propor¬

FlC. 165.—Construc¬ order that the tional to the square of the voltage
tional details cl Daniell or current, when dealing with these
Cell. solution may be
fully saturated. units the power ratio becomes 10
D.C.— Direct Current (which see). Log,,
I?
2 , which is 20 Log 10

D.C. MAINS UNIT.—A unit for 1? h

In the case of loudspeakers it is
supplying H.T. (and sometimes also becoming common practice to give a
L.T.) from the mains. (See also graph of the power output over the
Eliminators.) entire audio-frequency range in deci¬
DEAD BEAT.—A term applied to bels above and below the output at
meters where the pointer travels up some standard frequency, such as
to the reading and remains perfectly Middle C (256 cycles per sec.). If
stationary. In cheap meters the the output is greater than the stan¬
needle usually passes beyond the dard frequency, then the ratio in
maximum reading required and then decibels is positive, whilst if less it
oscillates backwards and forwards is negative.
for some seconds before coming to It is interesting to note that a
rest. The dead-beat instrument change oi power output of three
avoids this. decibels is the smallest change in
139
 DECIBEL — DECOUPLING
intensity that can be detected by the ¿4 . . -265625 11 . . '640625
average ear. A • . -28125 i 5! . -65625
A4 . . -296875 13 • -671875
The decibel is also used to express A • -3125 tt . • -6875
power level transmitted in a circuit.
fj - - -328X25 S3 . . -703125
It is necessary to refer it to an arbi¬ H • • -34375 8? ■ -71875
trary standard called zero level or o « • • -359375 .1 • '734375
1 • • -375 1 • -7500
decibels, it being recognised that this
shall represent -oo6 watt of audio¬ si • • -390625 IS • • -765625
A? • • -40625 Si ■ -78125
frequency power. Thus io decibels -i • • -421875 if . • -796875
is -o6 watt and 20 decibels -6 watt, etc. Ä . . -4375 13 . . -8125
To express values below the zero level ?4 . . -453125 S3 . . -828125
a negative sign is put in front of the A- . • -46875 Sj • • -84375
«J • • -484375 S3 • • -859375
sign for the decibel, so that —10 i . -5000 i • . -8750
decibels is 0006 watt and — 20 decibels
25 . . -515625 Si . . -890625
•00006 watt. (See also Bel, Decibel, Ai • • -53125 Si . . -90625
Neper, Acoustic Watt, and Phon.) u . • -546875 Si • -921875
A • • -5625 IS • • -9375
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 2i . . -578125 1 Si - -953125
DECIBELS AND POWER RATIO A" • •
• •
-59375 ! S' ■ ■ -96875
-609375 , S3 • • -984375
A . . -6250 1 I . . 1-0000
Decibels. Power
Decibels. Power Ratio.
Ratio.

DE-COHERER. — A device for

i

i
M

1-25
Kt à
«

breaking down the circuit formed by

1 III 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

II

2 1-6 the contents of the coherer. It is

à
ri n -t m »O tNQO 05 0 0 0 1

O' Ln K»»i 4 tn Ln
Il II II II II II II II II II II

3 2'0 usually mechanical in action and con¬

4 2-5 sists of a small hammer arrangement
" J,

which taps the tube (or coherer) and

5 3-2
causes the contents of the coherer to
Ln
MMwwwul

6 40
7 5-0 fall apart when current has ceased.
8 60
Ln O'

9 80
10 100 DECOUPLING.— In the ordinary
Ò K>
«

straightforward three-valve set, the

§ c ~

20 100 0 H.T. sides of each of the components

óO Hi
w cn

10000 in the anode circuit are joined to¬

M

30
gether either directly or through the
few intervening cells oí the H.T.
DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS.— The battery, with the result that the
following table gives the decimal major portion of the battery is be¬
equivalents of all fractions of an inch, tween the anode leads and earth.
progressing in sixty-fourths of an This portion of the high tension bat¬
inch. tery may have a considerable high-
frequency resistance which, being
Table of Decimal Equivalents
common to all three valves, redis¬
tributes such stray currents as are
A • • *015625 73 . , -140625
A • • -03125 i A . -15625
flowing in each anode circuit to the
A • • -046875 I ‘i , -171875 other anode circuit, thus causing in¬
A . . -0625 || . , -1875
stability, motor-boating, or violent
A • * -078125 1} , . -203125 oscillation. This effect is consider¬
A • . -09375 Ä . . -21875 ably more marked if an eliminator is
Ó • • -109375 H • . -234375
à • , -1250 H £ . -2500 used.
140
 DECOUPLING
In order to stop this trouble, it
is necessary to give other than
battery current a direct path to
H.T. -, and to separate the
anodes from each other by a re¬
sistance, or choke, and a con¬
denser. In general practice the
choke is very seldom used, as it
only becomes useful when a very
heavy high-tension current is pass¬
ing. It is, however, generally
used in the output stage to choke¬
feed the loudspeaker and direct
the speech current through the
loudspeaker winding to earth.
Fig. 166 shows the anode and
screen circuits of a screen-grid
valve with decoupling added. The
screen resistance may be 600 to
1,000 ohms, while a reasonable
value for the anode circuit is 5,000
ohms. As the screen is provided
with a condenser in any case, an
additional one is not necessary.
but in the anode circuit the con- Fic. 167.—With the usual arrangement o? a mains set the
potentiometer acts as a decoupler.

denser marked A has to be in¬

serted. This might be a i-mfd.,
non-inductive type. When using
a mains screen-grid valve the
screen is usually fed by a fixed
or variable potentiometer as shown
in Fig. 167. The top part of this,
marked B, acts automatically as
a decoupling resistance, so no
further precautions are neces¬
sary.
The decoupling of the detector
is probably the most important.
Here it is necessary to make cer¬
tain that the values are adequate.
Unfortunately, however, if too
high a resistance is used, the H.T.
value will be lowered, which is
undesirable below a certain point.
In order to ensure that decoupling
is efficient, the resistance in ohms
when multiplied by the capacity
of the condenser in micro-farads
should not be less than 40,000.
F1C. 166.—5.G. stage decoupled.
It would appear that the cheapest

Mi
 DECOUPLING
passing and knock off three
noughts. For example, if the
anode resistance were only 30,000
ohms, and the current 3 milli¬
amps., multiply these two together
and the result is 90,000 ; knock
off three noughts and it will be
seen that the loss of voltage would
be 90. Thus the matter has to be
approached in the following man¬
ner. Decide first of all what volt¬
age it is desired to apply to the
detector stage and subtract this
from the H.T.-battery voltage,
which will leave the amount that
may be sacrificed in the interests
of decoupling. Say 80 volts is
required on the detector, and the
battery voltage is 120, then 40
volts can be spared. Now, refer¬
ence to the valve curve or the
use of a milliammeter will show
what current the valve is taking.
FlC. 168.—R.C.C. stage with double decoupling by resist¬ Suppose it is taking 3 milliamps.;
ance R and R>, C and C’. it is now desired to find what re¬
sistance will drop 40 volts when 3
way would be to use 40,000 ohms milliamps, is flowing. This is arrived
with i mid., but unfortunately such a at by dividing the milliamps, into
value of resistance will often throw the voltage, when the answer will be
away too much of the high-tension the number of thousands of ohms re¬
voltage. The amount of voltage lost quired. Continuing with our exam¬
over the resistance is extremely ple, if we divide the 3 milliamps, into
simple to arrive at, it merely being the 40 volts, this goes approximately
necessary to multiply the resist¬ 13 times, and as the answer is in
ance by the number of milliamps. thousands of ohms, the resistance

FlC. 169.—A typical four-valve circuit showing the method of inserting the decoupling resistances.
I42
 DECOUPLING — DIELECTRIC
Table No. i in small receivers. (See also Quiet
Automatic Volume Control and Auto¬
A node Resistance. Grid Leak. Condenser. matic Volume Control.)
DEPOLARISER.—The substance
Ohms. Mfd. used to prevent local action (polaris¬
250,000 i •006
200,000 i •006 ing) in a primary cell.
100,000 •01
75,000
•5
•5 •01 DETECTOR.— See Valve.
•02
50,000
30,000
•25
•2 03
D.F.— The abbreviation for Direc¬
25,000 •i •05 tion Finding or Direction Finder.
20,000 •i •05
15,000 05 DIAMAGNETIC. —Having the
10,000 •05 •i
property of taking up, when freely
suspended and acted on by magnetism,
Values correct to nearest values listed by makers.

Table No. 2
Anode Volts Drop.
Current,
60 00 200
ml A. 2( 4<
Cond. Res. Cond. Res. Cond Res. Cond. Res. Cond.
Res.

4C.000 i 60,000 I 100,000 i ¡00,000 X

20,000 2
20,000 2 30,000 2 50,000 X 100,000 i
2 10,000 4
15,000 20,000 2 30,000 2 70,000 i
3 3
10,000 15.000 25,000 2 50,000 X
4 4
12,000 20,000 2 40,000 X
5 3
10,000 15,000 3 35,000 X
6 25,000 2
4 12,000 3
8 20,000 2
10,000 4
io

Correct to nearest values obtainable. The resistance used must lie capable of carrying the current
flowing. Condenser must be capable of carrying the voltage.

will be 13,000 ohms. The nearest a position transverse io that of the

value obtainable will be 15,000 ohms, magnetic axis. Opposed to Para¬
which will have to be associated with magnetic (which see).
a 4-mfd. condenser in order to reach DIAKATHODE RAYS. — Ions,
the 40,000 indicated. positively charged, which travel at
Table No. 2 indicates a number of a reduced velocity as compared with
values from which it will be simple to kathode (cathode) rays. Sometimes
arrive at any intermediate figure. referred to as Canal Kays or, more
In a first L.F. stage tire result can generally. Positive Kays.
usually be lowered to 30,000. DIELECTRIC. — The insulating
DELAYED A.V.C.— A system of material in a condenser. A condenser
automatic volume control in which consists of two or more plates separ¬
the A.V.C. bias is not applied to the, ated by some insulating material.
variable-mu stages until the signal The nature, of this insulator will vary
currents applied to the detector valve the capacity, although the distance
reach some minimum intensity. With separating the plates of the con¬
this form of A.V.C. the effect does denser be kept constant. All insu¬
not manifest itself except on fairly lators have a value g ven to them
powerful signals, and thus tire signal according to their efficiency, com¬
strength of comparatively weak trans¬ pared with air, as a dielectric, and
missions is not reduced in the slightest this is known as the dielectric con¬
degree. Because of this, delayed stant (another term for this is speci¬
A.V.C. is particularly suitable for use fic inductive capacity). Air is rated

143
 DIELECTRIC CAPACITY — DIELECTRIC STRENGTH
as i, and therefore the dielectric DIELECTRIC COEFFICIENT.—
constant is rated as a comparative Dielectric constant.
figure to the air dielectric. For in¬ DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS.—The
stance, the dielectric constant (or following table gives the specific in¬
S.I.C.) of ebonite is zj, which means ductive capacities of various mater¬
that for a given size of plate, and a ials. These figures represent the di¬
given separation between them, a electric constants.

Material.

Air .
Paper . 1-5
Paraffin Wax 2'5
Ebonite 2-75
Shellac 3
Presspahn 3
Flint Glass . 4 to 6
Plate Glass 4'5
Mica . 5 to 8

DIELECTRIC HYSTERESIS.—
The dielectric of a condenser does not
rid itself from ‘ ' strain “ after first
FlG. 170.—A Differential Condenser ot
the solid Dielectric type. discharge. A second and smaller dis¬
charge may be obtained after a short
condenser with ebonite as a dielectric lapse of time. Residual charge. Elec¬
would have a capacity z| times as tric absorption.

Fig. 171.—The method of connecting a differential condenser when the reaction coil is joined to the earth line.
The connections to the reaction coil govern the differential condenser connections.
great as one with air as the dielec¬ DIELECTRIC STRENGTH.—The
tric. (See also Dielectric Constants.) degree of strain, without breaking
DIELECTRIC CAPACITY.—The down, of a dielectric. Refer to the
inductive capacity. following table :
144
 DIFFERENTIAL CONDENSER — DIRECTIONAL RECEPTION
them. The transmitter is joined to
Material
Dielnictric Strength the centre. A similar arrangement
per Mm.
may be used for reception. The over¬
all length of the aerial must be
Glass 8,000
Shellac 10,000 equivalent to one-half of the wave¬
Presspahn . 6,000 to 15,000 length of the transmission. Also
Porcelain . 16,300
Rubber . . 18,000 known as half-wave aerial.
Mica 17,000 to 28,000 DIRECT CURRENT— Continuous
Ebonite 30,000
Micanite 40,000 current flowing in one direction.
DIRECTION FINDER—A special
DIFFERENTIAL CONDENSER. type of frame aerial arranged so that it
—A condenser having one rotor but is possible to ascertain exactly in what
two stators. In the most common direction a transmitting station is situ¬
form the stators are disposed at op¬ ated. It consists of two frame aerials
posite sides of a plate, and the rotor arranged one inside the other at right
arranged so that as the plates are angles. The signals in one aerial
rotated they mesh with one stator as cancel out those in the other when in
they unmesh with the other stator. a certain position relative to the
The result of this arrangement is transmitting station, and it is there¬
that the total capacity always re- fore possible to correctly ascertain
’mains the same, no matter what the direction. (See also Bellini Tosi.)
position the rotor is in, but the DIRECTIONAL RECEPTION— It
capacity is distributed between the would be as well first of all to ex¬
two stators. The principal use for plain one or two of the peculiarities
this component is in reaction circuits. of the elec tro- magnetic wave. If it
The actual connections will depend is borne in mind how a violin or
upon the coil
used; in some
cases it may be
desirable t o
earth the mov¬
ing vanes and
vice versa.
Therefore the
capacity from i
anode to earth
remains con- -
stant, provid¬ Fig. 172.—How the Lines oí Stress radiate.

stability and smoother reaction con¬ piano string when struck sets up me¬
trol. The condenser may also be used chanical oscillation, putting the sur¬
as an aerial volume control by joining rounding medium in a state of alternate
the rotor to the aerial, and the stators bands of compression and rarefaction
to each end of the aerial coil. in all directions, which are termed
DIODE.—The rwo-electrode valve. sound waves, it should help consider¬
DIPLEX— Duplex. ably in grasping how an electrical
■ DIPOLE AERIAL— A form of wave motion of a much higher fre¬
aerial used for ultra-short wave work. quency—called wireless waves—can be
It consists of two short lengths of transmitted under suitable conditions.
metal rod, vertically disposed on the The Electro-magnetic Wave. As¬
same axis, with a space separating sume that a station is broadcasting

MS
 DIRECTIONAL RECEPTION
a speech, its transmitting aerial being tration (Fig. 172) will perhaps serve
charged alternately positive and to make more clear how these lines
negative, emitting a high-frequency¬ of electric stress combine to travel
carrier wave, modulated at audible outwards with extending height, but
frequency. To simplify what takes of constant width, at the tremendous

F1C. 173.—A diagram oí the Lines which accompany the Radiation illustrated in Fig. 172.

place, imagine, by way of example, the velocity of 186,000 miles per second.
first complete cycle of electro-motive¬ This alternating moving system of
force (E.M.F.) which charges the electric force, varying in intensity,
aerial. When the latter has reached has associated with it a magnetic
its maximum voltage, and the cur¬ property, which always attends elec¬
rent is at zero value, we can imagine trons in motion, and is at right angles
lines of electric strain existing be- to these lines of electric strain in the
tween form of horizontal bands as in Fig.
£ aerial 173-
and earth. The strength of the magnetic flux
Directly density will, of course, vary as the
the volt¬ strength of the electric field after the
age falls first quarter cycle has passed, when
and cur- they come into step and rise and fall
D rent flows in phase, gradually dissipating energy
down the as various conductors are encoun¬
aerial, tered. Maybe it is realised that
this elec¬ one needs an unlimited stretch of
tric field, imagination, since this wave happens
with its to be invisible, intangible, and in¬
i m parted audible! However, let us perceive
fenergy, what effect these two forces will have
_ .... „ . . separates upon a frame aerial when they are
FlC. 174.—The Frame Aerial . . . ,
with its small coil coupled to the 1 t S e I t flashed into space. Perhaps we had
main tuning circuit. from the better deal with these two compon¬
aerial ents separately, although their effect
charge and radiates outwards in the on the aerial is somewhat similar.
form of annular loops. The current Action of Electric Component. By
then flowing in the reverse direction glancing at the accompanying sketch
produces a reverse effect. The illus- (Fig. 174) it will be seen that the
146
 DIRECTIONAL RECEPTION
frame aerial is inductively coupled lines of force with the aerial. From
to the high frequency or detecting whichever part of the compass we
stage of the receiver by the mutual desire to receive signals, one has to
coupling coil, while Fig. 175 is a plan rotate the set, thereby placing either
form of the aerial, with rings in¬ side of its aerial in the direction of
dicating the approaching wave from the incoming wave in order to receive
broadcasting stations at different maximum current through the aerial
points. First, we will consider the circuit, assuming, of course, that this
electric component of waves F and circuit is already in resonance with
J as either pass the aerial, which is the desired wave frequency.
at right angles to the direction of the It is, therefore, obvious that if two
waves as shown in Fig. 175. We find high-powered stations are situated in
that this force has induced simul¬ the same direction, it will not be
taneously an electro-motive force possible to obtain any advantage
(potential difference, or difference in from the aerial's directional property
electrical pressure as it may be called) as a selectivity aid. In this case,
in the order of milli- or microvolts in all that can be done is to rotate the
our vertical conductors—so that A is frame to a position slightly out of
at a higher voltage with respect to the correct line, and use the reaction
B—as is also C to D—but the in¬ control to make up for the loss of
duced E.M.F.s, which are exactly signal strength caused by this “off¬
the same in value, are acting in op¬ setting.” By a judicious use of the
position to each other; and as the
resultant current round the aerial cir¬
cuit depends upon the difference be¬
tween these two opposing forces
(which in this case is zero) by neu¬
tralising each other, no current re¬
sults, consequently the coupling coil
is not influenced. Reasoning in the
same way, the waves from L or H
do not strike both sides of the aerial
simultaneously as before—one con¬
ductor being reached in advance of
the other—so that the total effective
E.M.F. driving the current round the
circuit will be the differrnce between
F1C. 175.—The Wave-forms ef «afferent stations
the induced E.M.F. in both conduc¬ approaching the frame aerial A—C.
tors.
The Magnetic Effect. A similar reaction and this method of using
state of affairs takes place by mag¬ the frame it is possible to eliminate
netic induction. According to Lenz’ an interfering station. In construct¬
Law, an alternating magnetic field ing a frame aerial to cover both
will induce an E.M.F. in any vertical short and long waves, it is prefer¬
conductor when it is cut across by able to arrange the two sections at
the flux. Referring to the oncoming right angles to one another. This
waves in the same sequence as before, avoids losses due to the unused
we have a potential difference set up section.
in both sides of the frame aerial, The presence of any metallic body
the magnitude of which will depend will affect the directional property of
upon the linkage of the magnetic the frame.
147
 DIRECTORY OF RADIO CLUBS AND SOCIETIES

DIRECTORY OF RADIO CLUBS AND SOCIETIES

Aidershot and District Radio Society: Hon. Sec., Clackmannanshire Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec.,
H. AtthiM, Ardvarnay, Heath End, Farnham, D. McIntosh, 10 Cobblecrook Gardens, Alloa,
Surrey. Scotland.
Ashton and District Amateur Radio Society: Sec., Clayesmore Radio Club: Sec., I. H. Gordon,
K. Gooding (G3PM), 7 Broadbent Avenue, Clayesmore School, Iwerne Minster, Dorset.
Ashton-under-Lyne, Lancs. Coventry Amateur Radio Society: c/o H. J. Chater,
Battersea and District Radio Society: Hon. Sec., 179 Alderman’s Green, Coventry.
S. F. Harris, 93 Salcott Road, Battersea, S.W.11.
Coxhoe and District Amateur Radio Society: Joint
Bec Radio Society: 9 West Way, Grand Drive, Secs., D. F. Chatt, 23 North View, Sherburn Hill,
Raynes Park. Co. Durham ; R. Bowes, 10 Blackgate, Coxhoe,
Bethnal Green Radio Club: The Institute, 224 Co. Durham.
Bethnal Green Road, E.2. Cranwell Amateur Radio Transmitting Society:
Bideford and District Short-wave Society: Hon. Radio Block, E. & W. School, R.A.F., Cranwell,
Sec., W. G. Couch, “ Hillside,” Glen Gardens, Lincs.
Bideford.
Crewe Amateur Radio Society: W. Worthington,
Birstall Short-wave Radio Club: Sec., Miss B. 10 Beech Street, Crewe, Cheshire.
Jevon, 29 Wert Road, Birstall, Nr. Leeds.
Croydon Radio Society: Hon. Sec., E. L. Cumbers,
Blackpool and Fylde Radio Society: Hon. Sec., Maycourt, 14 Campden Road, South Croydon.
H. Fenton, 25 Abbey Road, Blackpool.
Croydon Wireless and Physical Society: Hon. Sec.,
Blackpool Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec., E. Sutcliffe, H. J. P. Gee, c/o Messrs. Gee & Co., Staple
The Welbeck Hotel, North Promenade, Black¬ House, Chancery Lane, London, W.C.i.
pool.
Darenth Valley Radio Club: Hon. Sec., K. N.
“ Bon Accord ” Short-wave and Television Society: Hollands, 14 Highfield Cottages, Wilmington,
Sec., J. Horn, 4 Broomhill Avenue, Aberdeen. Dartford.
Bootle and District Amateur Transmitting Society : Deptford Men’s Institute Short-wave Radio Club:
Hon. Sec., C. E. Cunliffe, 368 Stanley Road, Hon. Sec., A. S. Wilson, 11 Bennett Street,
Bootle, Liverpool, 20. London, S.E.13.
Bournville Radio Society: Hon. Sec., C. L. Bastock, Derby Short-wave Radio and Experimental Society:
c/o Messrs. Cadbury Bros., Bournville. Sec., H. Turner, Nunsfield House, Boulton Lane,
Bradford Experimental Radio Society: Hon. Sec., Alvaston, Derby.
E. P. Burgess, 23 Baslow Grove, Heaton, Dollis Hill Radio Communication Society: Hon.
Bradford. Sec., J. R. Hodgkyns, 102 Crest Road, Crickle-
Bradford Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec., G. Walker wood, London, N.W.2.
(2AWR), i3 Napier Road, Thornbury, Bradford. Dulwich Radio Club: Hon. Sec., Eric Webb, 55
Brentwood Amateur Radio Society: Hon. Sec., N. Upland Road, London, S.E.22.
K. Read, “ Netherton,” Herington Grove, Ealing and District Short-wave DX’ers Club: Hon.
Hutton Mount, Brentwood, Essex. Sec., W. J. Colcough, 31 Lancaster Gardens,
Brighouse and District Short-wave Society : Royal West Ealing, London, W.13.
Hotel Buildings, Huddersfield Road, Brighouse. Eastbank Research Society : Sec., J. P. Blackwood,
Bristol Amateur Radio Society: Hon. Sec., G. E. 77 Lennox Avenue, Scotstoun, Glasgow, W.4.
Williams, Hartham Cottage, Ahnondsbury.
Eastbourne and District Radio Society: Hon. Sec.,
Bristol Experimental Radio Club: 21 Old Market T. G. R. Dowsett, 48 Grove Road, Eastbourne,
Street, Bristol, 1. Sussex.
British Long-Distance Listeners' Club :Tower House, East Sheen Radio Club: N. G. Anslow, 35 Gilpin
Southampton Street, Strand, London, W.C.2. Avenue, East Sheen, S.W.14.
British Short-wave League : Hon. Sec., F. A. Beane, Edgware Short-wave Society: Sec., F. Bell, 118
RidgewelL Halstead, Essex. Colin Crescent, Hendon, N.W.9.
British Sound Recording Association: Hon. Sec., Empire Amateur Radio League: Hon. Sec., E. N.
F. J. Chinn, 14 Tirlemont Road, South Croydon. Adcock (G2DV), 206 Atlantic Road, Erdington,
Cambridge Short-wave Club: c/o Mr. F. A. E. Birmingham.
Porter, ig Trafalgar Street, Cambridge. Exeter and District Wireless Society: Hon. Sec.,
Cannock and District Amateur Radio Society: Hon. W. J. Ching, 9 Sivell Place, Heavitree, Exeter.
Sec., D. M. Whitehouse, Trumwyn House, Folkestone Radio Amateurs: Hon. Sec., S. W.
Cannock, Staffs. Thompson, 70 Sandgate Road, Folkestone.
Cardiff and District Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec., Gateshead Wireless and Television Society: c/o G.
H. H. Phillips, 132 Clare Road, Cardiff. Wilkin, 4 Ravensdale Crescent, Low Fell,
Chadwell Heath and District Radio Society : Ralph’s Gateshead.
Café, Tram Terminus, Chadwell Heath, Essex. Glasgow and District Radio Society: Hon. Sec.,
City of Belfast Y.M.C.A. Radio Club: c o F. A. J. Hair, 42 Maryland Drive, Glasgow, S.W.2.
Robb, 46 Victoria Avenue, Sydenham, Belfast. Glasgow Short-wave Radio Society: Sec., J.
City and Guilds Eng. College Radio Society: Hon. Neilson, 14 Bolivar Terrace, Glasgow, S.2.
Sec., R. H. Tanner, Exhibition Road, South Gloucester Radio Club: Hon. Sec., G. G. E. Lewis,
Kensington, London, W. 30 Kitchener Avenue, Gloucester.
148
 DIRECTORY OF RADIO CLUBS AND SOCIETIES
Golders Green and Hendon Radio and Scientific Leeds and District Radio Society: Hon. Sec.
Society: Hon. Sec., Col. H. Ashby Scarlett, J. Kavanagh, 63 Dawlish Avenue, Leeds.
60 Pattison Road, Hampstead. Leeds Radio Society: Hon. Src., G. F. Webster,
Hackney and District Wireless Club: Dist. Rep., 14 Birfed Crescent, Leeds, 4
E. Penrose, 2 Coopersdale Road, Homerton, E.9. Leicester Amateur Radio Society: T. Cribb, 55
Halifax Experimental Radio Society: Hon. Sec., Knighton Drive, Leicester.
J. B. Bedford, Oak House, Triangle, Halifax. Liverpool Amateur Radio Society: Hon. Sec., J.
Harco Radio Club: Hon. Sec., C. W. Kemp, 124 McLelland (2CIP), 38 Andrew Street, County
River Way, Greenwich, S.E.10. Road, Walton, Liverpool.
Hastings and St. Leonards Radio Society: R. M. Liverpool Short-wave Radio and Transmitting Club :
Sutherland, 59 Old Harrow Road, St. Leonards. Hon. Sec., C. E. Cunliffe, 368 Stanley Road,
Bootle, Liverpool, 20.
Heathfleld Radio and Television Society : Hon. Sec.,
R. J. Lee, 9 Theobalds Green, Heathfield, Sussex. Maidstone Amateur Radio Society: Hon. Sec., M.
Hedgeland, 8 Hayle Road, Maidstone.
Hoddesdon and District Radio Society: F. Knight,
Jnr., Caxton House, High Street, Hoddesdon, Medway Amateur Transmitting Society: S. Howell,
Herts. 124 Trafalgar Road, Gillingham, Kent.
Hollywood and Whythall Radio Society: Hon. Sec., Midland Amateur Radio Society: A. T. Marton,
J. Quilton, “ Desmond-dene,” Shawhurst Lane, 3 Gladys Road, Yardley, Birmingham.
Hollywood, Nr. Birmingham. Milnes Radio and Television Society: Hon. Sec.,
Hornchurch and Upmlnster Radio and Television F. Ridler, 7 Royd Avenue, Gilstead, Bingley,
Club: Hon. Sec., F. A. Newton, 67 Minster Way, Yorks.
Hornchurch, Essex. Morpeth Amateur Radio Society: Hon. Sec., C. L.
Ilford and District Radio Society: Hon. Sec., C. E. Towers, 2 Edward Street, Morpeth.
Largen, 44 Trelawney Road, Barkingside, Essex. Newark News Radio Club: 215 Market Street,
International DX’ers Alliance: 9 Stanton Road, Newark, New Jersey.
West Wimbledon, London, S.W.20. Newbury and District Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec.,
International Short-wave Club (Brighton): Sec., L. Harden, 11 Highfield Avenue, Newbury, Berks.
J. C. Bennett, 205 Braeside Avenue, Brighton, 6. Newcastle and District Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec.,
International Short-wave Club (Guernsey): Hon. K. Scott, i Farquhar Street, Newcastle-on-
Sec., F. S. Le Pavoux (2BTP), “ Newlands,” Tyne, 2.
Rue Maze, St. Martin's, Guernsey, C.I. New Eltham Ratepayers’ Association 'Radio Sec¬
International Short-wave Club (London): Head¬ tion): Hon. Sec., E. A. Gilbom, 87 Mont be lie
quarters, R.A.C.S. Hall, Cavendish Grove, Road, New Eltham, S.E.9.
Wandsworth Road, S.W.8. Hon. Sec., A. E. Newtownards Amateur Radio Club (N. Ireland):
Bear, 100 Adams Garden Estate, London, S.E.16. Hon. Sec., T. L. Kirk, Chapel View, Newtown¬
International Short-wave Club (Manchester): H. ards, Ulster.
Wild, i Elm Street, Middleton, Manchester. New Zealand DX Radio Association: Hon. Sec.,
Ipswich and District Amateur Radio Society: Hon. E. Watson, 37 Chancellor Street, Christchurch,
Sec., D. H. Barbrook (G8AN), Radio House, N.Z.
St. Peter's Street, Ipswich. New Zealand Short-wave Radio Club: Sec., A. B.
Irish Short-wave Club: 3 Clare I.ane, Dublin. McDonagh, 4 Queen Street, Wellington, E.i,
N.Z.
Jersey Short-wave Club: Sec., Martin G. Bonoke,
Crediton, Samares, Jersey. North Ireland Radio Society: Hon. Sec., F. A. Robb,
46 Victoria Avenue, Sydenham, Belfast.
Kentish Town and District Radio Society: 46 Lady
North Manchester Radio Society: Hon. Sec., R.
Margaret Road, Kentish Town, N.W.5.
Lawton, 10 Dalton Avenue, Thatch Leach Lane,
Kettering Radio and Physical Society: I. L. Holmes, Whitefield.
” Miami,” The Close, Headlands, Kettering.
North Middlesex Radio Society : Sec., H. A. Crouch,
Kew Ministry of Labour Radio Society: Ministry of 27 Middleton Park, Whetstone, Ñ.20.
Labour, Ruskin Avenue, Kew. North Shields Radio Society: Hon. Sec.. G. A. Lee,
Kidderminster and District Radio Club: Hon. Sec., 9A Saville Street West, North Shields.
H. A. Brown, 12 Stourport Road, Kidderminster. Northampton Radio Society: Hon. Sec., D. W.
Kilmarnock and District Short-wave Society: Hon. Harries, 99 Ardington Road, Northampton.
Sec., R. Mitchell, 151, Brompton Road, Kil¬ Northwest Ireland Amateur Radio Society: Hon.
marnock, Ayrshire. Sec., S. Foster, 2 Florence Street, Park Street,
Kingston and District Amateur Radio Society: Hon. Derry.
Sec., R. K. Shergold, ” Reculver,” Manor Lane, Oxford Short-wave Radio Club: Hon. Sec., E. G.
Sunbury-on-Thames. Arthurs (2BHP), 13 Walton Well Road, Oxford.
King’s Lynn Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec., G. Peckham District Short-wave Club: L. J. Orange,
Rodgers, 112A High Street, King’s Lynn. it Grenard Road, Peckham, S.E.15.
Knutsford Amateur Radio Club: Hon. Sec., J. Mc¬ Perth Radio Society: R. Adams, 120 Canal Street,
Dermott, Shaw Heath Cottages, Mobberley Perth.
Road, Knutsford, Cheshire. Peterborough and District Short-wave Club: Hon.
Lambda Radio Society: C. F. Lamb, 4 Howley Sec., W. Cornwell (2ACP), So Elmfield Road,
Street, York Road, S.E.i. Peterborough.
Leamington and Warwick Amateur Radio Society: Portsmouth and District Wireless and Television
c/o M. C. Bunting, Rhuaine, Clarendon Square, Society: Hon. Sec., F. L. Moore, 78 Laburnum
Leamington Spa. Grove, Portsmouth.

I49
 DIRECTORY OF RADIO CLUBS AND SOCIETIES
Port Talbot Radio Club: W. Ryan, 47 Margam Stourbridge and District Radio Society: Hon. Sec.,
Terrace, Port Talbot. Donald Rock, 4 Linton Road, Old Hill, Staffs.
Prestatyn Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec., R. J.Steilig, Surrey Radio Contact Club: Hon. Sec., E. C.
Romir, Victoria Road, Prestatyn. Taylor, 35 Grant Road, Addiscombe, Croydon.
Radio Physical and Television Society: Hon. Sec., Sutton-in-Ashffeld Society: Hon. Sec., A. W.
V. R. Walker, 49 Fitzjames Avenue, London, Fowler, 78 Kirkby Road, Sutton-in-Ashfield.
W.14. Swansea Radio Club: Hon. Sec., R. J. Davies,
Radio Society of Great Britain : Sec., J. Clarricoates, Messrs. Watson & Davies, Mansel Lane, Swansea.
53 Victoria Street, London, S.W.i. Swindon and District Short-wave Society: Hon.
Radio Society of Great Britain 'Bristol Area) : Sec., Sec., W. C. Barnes, 7 Surrey Road, Swindon.
A. J. Webb (2ÁJW), 12 Mervyn Road, Bishop- Tamworth Radio Experimental Society: Hon. Sec.,
ston, Bristol, 7. P. H. Lawrence, 38 Market Street, Tamworth,
Radio Society of Northern Ireland : Hon. Sec., H. F. Staffs.
Ruberry, 19 Little Victoria Street, off Great Television Society : Sec., G. Parr, 68 Crompton
Victoria Street, Belfast. Road, London, N.21.
Radio Transmitters Union: c/o W. H. Martin, Thames Estuary Radio Society: F. S. A. Jenkins,
Knockinagh, Cloughfern, Whiteabbey, Northern R.N.W.A.R., “ Cranieigh,” Spencer Close, Roch¬
Ireland. ford, Essex.
Redhill and District Radio Society: Hon. Sec., H. Thames Valley Amateur Radio and Television
Cartwright, Radio House, Victoria Road, Horley, Society: Sec., J. N. Roe. 19A The Barons, St.
Surrey. Margarets-on-Thames, Middlesex.
Redhill and District Short-wave Club: Sec., S. Thorne Amateur Radio Society: Hon. Sec., G.
Hassenauer, 139 Frenches Road, Redhill, Beaumont, 15 Marshland Road, Moor-Ends, Nr.
Surrey. Doncaster.
Robert Blair Radio Society: Hon. Sec., A. R. Tonyrefail Short-wave Club: E. Powell, 44 Prit¬
Richardson, 24 Mercers Road, London, N.19. chard Street, Tonyrefail, Glam.
Romford and District Amateur Radio Society : Sec., Torrington and District Short-wave Club: Hon.
R. Beardow, 3 Geneva Gardens, Chadwell Heath. Sec., A. E. Cornish, 1 Halsdon Road, Torrington,
N. Devon.
Rousdon Short-wave Club: Sec., E. A. D. Ruther¬
ford, Whitlands, Nr. Lyme Regis, Dorset. Tottenham Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec., Edwin
Jones, 60 Walmer Terrace, Firs Lane, Palmers
Sale and District Radio Society: Sec., C. Allen, Green, N.13.
31 Ennerdale Drive, Ashton-on-Mersey, Sale. Tottenham Wireless Society: Hon. Sec., F. E. R.
Sale and District Short-wave Radio Club : Pub. Sec., Neale, 17 Whitley Road, Tottenham, N.17.
N. Postles (2CXH), “Norward,” 56 Firs Road, Tuffnell Park Radio Club: Hon. Sec., J. G. Wright,
Sale, Cheshire. 78 Glasmuir Road, Highgate, N.io.
Salisbury and District Short-wave Club: Hon. Sec., Tunbridge Wells and District Amateur Transmitting
C. A. Harley, 85 Fisherton Street, Salisbury, Society: Sec., W. H. Allen, 32 Earl’s Road,
Wilts. Tunbridge Wells.
Sheffield Short-wave Club: Sec., D. H. Tomlin, Waldron Radio Society : Hon. Sec., W. E. Simmons,
32 Moorsyde Avenue, Sheffield, 10. 35 Tranmere Road, Earlsfield, S.W. 18.
Sheppey Amateur Radio Club: Hon. Sec., F. G. Wallasey Junior Radio Club: A. M. Wilding, 2
Maynard, 161 Invicta Road, Sheppey. Wallacre Road, Wallasey, Cheshire.
Short-wave Radio and Television Society (Thornton Warwick School Radio Society: Sec., P. N. G.
Heath) : Hon. Sec., J. T. Webber, 368 Brigstock Whitlam, Warwick School, Warwick.
Road, Thornton Heath. West Herts Radio Club: Hon. Sec., D. Steward,
Slade Radio Society: Hon. Sec., L. A. Griffiths, 9 Weymouth Street, Apsley, Herts.
47 Welwyndale Road, Erdington, Birmingham, West London Radio Society: Hon. Sec., D. Reid,
24. 15 Tring Avenue, Ealing Common, W.5.
Slough and District Short-wave Club: K. A. Sly, West Sussex Short-wave and Television Club: Hon.
16, Buckland Avenue, Slough. Sec., C. J. Rockall (G2ZV), “ Aubretia,” Seafield
Smethwick Wireless Society: Hon. Sec., E. Fisher, Road, Rustington, Sussex.
33 Freeth Street, Oldbury, Nr. Birmingham. Weymouth Short-wave Club: W. E. G. Bartlett,
Southall Radio Society: Hon. Sec., H. F. Reeve, 59A Franchise Street, Weymouth, Dorset.
26 Green Drive, Southall. Willesden Radio Club: S. A. Reeve, 115 Willesden
Southend and District Radio and Scientific Society: Lane, Kilburn, N.W.6.
Hon. Sec., J. M. S. Watson, 23 Eastwood Wirral Amateur Transmitting and Short-wave
Boulevard, Westcliff-on-Sea, Essex. Club: Hon. Sec., J. R. Williamson, 49 Neville
South Hants Radio and Transmitting Society : Sec., Road, Bromborough, Birkenhead.
E. J. Williams, “ Rochdale,” London Road, Pur¬ Wolverhampton Short-wave Radio Society: Hon.
brook, Portsmouth. Sec., W. A. Hill, 76 Darlington Street, Wolver¬
South London and District Transmitters Society: hampton.
Sec., H. Cullen, 164 West Hill, Wandsworth, Woodford and District Radio Society: Sec., R. A.
S.W. Ledgerton, 64 High Road, Woodford Bridge,
Southport Amateur Radio Society: Birch Villa, Essex.
Lulworth Road, Southport. World Friendship Society of Radio Amateurs: Hon.
S.T.C.: The Chief Instructor, Training Battalion, Sec., A. H. Bird (G6AQ), 35 Bellwood Road,
R. Signals, Catterick Camp, Yorks. Wavcrley Park, Nunhead, S.E.15.
Stoke-on-Trent Radio Society: H. Churton, 26 Worthing and District Short-wave Club : Hon. Sec.,
Victoria Street, Smallthome, Stoke-on-Trent. G. A. Lambourne, 16 Angola Road, Worthing.

150
 DISSOLVER — DISTORTION

DISSOLVER.—See Fader. clined will realise that the higher

frequencies bring about the brilliance
DISTILLED WATER.—See Ac¬ or timbre, and if they are not present
cumulator. then quality must to a certain extent
be reduced.
DISTORTION.— For perfect repro¬ Band-pass Tuning. If the con¬
duction, the sound issuing from the structor of a wireless receiver finds
loudspeaker should be an aural replica himself in a cleft stick, owing to his
of what is taking place at the broad- desire for adequate selectivity with¬
out cutting sidebands, he can adopt
what has come to be known as band¬
pass tuning (which see).
In the modern arrangement we
have three main types, and these are
shown simply in Figs. 175A to 175c.
In every case it will be noticed that
F1G. 175a.—Inductively coupled coils. there are two tuned circuits, and
energy is transferred from one cir¬
casting studio of the station tuned cuit to the other by a mutual mag¬
in. When this fails to happen, as netic interaction (Fig. 175A), a coil
judged by a critical ear or by the common to both tuned circuits (Fig.
movements of tell-tale meter needles 175B), or a carefully controlled
inserted at correct positions in the capacity-coupling (Fig. 175c).
power feeds, distortion is said to be The frequency response of each cir¬
taking place. (Later sections deal cuit is thus combined, and it is pos¬
with the use of meters.) sible to make the complete circuit
The H .F. Side. First of al! it may accept frequencies over quite a wide
come as a surprise to many to know range and almost wholly reject the
that, contrary to popular belief, the others. In other words, brilliance
high-frequency section of a wireless and reproduction are maintained to¬
receiver is often the cause of more gether with selectivity.
distortion than the low-frequency Faulty Components. Another very
side. The introduction of so many marked cause of distortion is the use
high-powered broadcasting stations of “shoddy** components of doubt¬
has made the question of selectivity ful origin. Too often is a set blamed
rather an acute one. When a station
is sending out speech or music it
broadcasts, in addition to the carrier
wave, other frequencies which are
known as sidebands. These are
spaced equally on either side of the
carrier frequency, and may extend as
far as 7,000 to 8,000 cycles either side. FlC. 125b.—Ceil common to both
tuned circuits.
A receiver of the ordinarj’ type
boasting of razor-edge selectivity cuts for distortion when the fault is located
off a large section of these sidebands, in the fact that it is being starved of
or at least reduces their amplification its H.T.
to such an extent that they compare Valve Couplings. Returning now
very unfavourably with the amount to Ihe question of frequency distor¬
of amidification accorded to the lower tion, the items chiefly responsible
frequencies. Anyone musically in¬ for this are the methods of coupling
151
 DISTORTION
between the valves and the loud¬ I megohm, the lowest frequency 50,
speaker itself. Taking the first named, and the fraction just mentioned T!'„,
it must be remembered that if L.F. then the capacity is calculated to be
transformers are employed, the pri¬ about -015 mfd.; so be careful not to
mary or input winding must have make your condenser of low value if
an adequate primary inductance. you want to pass through the low
This does not necessarily mean that frequencies.
the transformer with the largest size Passing now from frequency dis¬
is going to give the best results. tortion which, as has been pointed
Modern development has produced out, arises from the exaggeration or,
transformer cores which are quite alternatively, the suppression of par¬
small compared to the early types. ticular notes, frequencies, or bands of
It is also necessary to maintain the frequencies, we come to what is
inductance high even when quite known as amplitude distortion. This
large anode currents from the valve produces a mutilation of the wave
pass through the primary winding, form of the original sound, and the
so in this case it is necessary to learn incorrect use of valves is one of the
whether a manufacturer guarantees principal causes.
the inductance in henries to be a A Question of Bias. It may be
certain value up to a given current that the valve is over biased or over
and then take steps not to exceed loaded, or even under biased. To
that current.
With inadequate primary induct¬
ance in transformers, there will be
a loss of the bass frequencies, so that
even if you have the most perfect
sound reproducer coupled to the set,
if the bass frequencies are lost in the
set, they will not be heard from the
loudspeaker.
Resistance Capacity. Next con¬ secure a faithful replica of the sig¬
sider the resistance-capacity coupling nals handed on to the grid of the
method. The secret of success here lies valve, the incoming grid swing must
primarily in the selection of suitable take place over the straight portion
valves and components. For most pur¬ of the valve's characteristic.
poses the value of the anode resistance If by chance the valve is over
should not exceed about four to five biased, the incoming signals will oper¬
times the valve impedance. The grid ate over the lower curved part of the
leak, on the other hand, may be characteristic, and distortion will
about five times the value of the occur. If a valve is overloaded, that
anode resistance, while the capacity is to say, has a grid swing applied
value of the coupling condenser de¬ to it greater than it can handle on
pends primarily on the value of the the linear portion of its character¬
lowest frequency to be amplified, the istic, then distortion is most marked
ohmic value of the grid leak, and —one gets frequently what is known
the fraction of maximum amplifica¬ as blasting.
tion desired at the lowest frequency. As the signal is amplified stage by
The greater this last-named fraction stage, the grid swing increases in
the greater will be the capacity of magnitude, and each valve following
the condenser. a particular stage must be capable of
For example, if the grid leak is accepting what is passed on. A good
152
 DISTORTION —DRILLS AND DRILLING

indication of the strength of signal tively for negative and positive high-
which a valve can handle without tension supplies (D.C. ). (See also
distortion is afforded by the value of Eliminator.)
grid bias recommended by the maker.
DOUBLE DIODE PENTODE —
For example, a valve of the H.L.
The combination of a double diode
class requiring a grid bias of about
valve and the electrodes of a pentode
3 volts might be used for the first
valve (which see). The two diodes
stage, while a valve requiring 7 or 8
are generally employed for detection
volts grid bias might follow it.
and automatic volume control, whilst
Now, although these published
the pentode acts by the variable-bias
figures are a good guide of accept¬
method as a controlled L.F. valve.
ance or handling powers, in order to
be on the safe side and avoid dis¬ DOUBLE DIODE TETRODE —
tortion it is preferable to apply a The combination of a double diode
smaller signal voltage than that valve and the electrodes of a tetrode.
which the valve is apparently cap¬ Its use is exactly the same as the
able of handling. double diode pentode, excepting the
Reaction. Mention must be made difference in amplification between
of reaction. Keep this control ad¬ the tetrode and the pentode section
justed so that it is as far off oscilla¬ of the valve.
tion point as possible. DOUBLE DIODE TRIODE.—A
Then, again, carefully consider multi-electrode valve which really con¬
the detector valve. If working as a tains all the elements of two separate
“leaky grid,” care must be taken valves. There are the usual heater, a
that the impressed signal does not cathode, two “auxiliary" anodes, a
overlap the bottom bend of the valve grid, and a main anode. The first four
characteristic. There is a risk of this electrodes operate together as a full¬
when strong signals are handled at wave detector, whilst the first two
this stage, and if this does occur a and last two act as a normal triode
secondary, or what is known as L.F. amplifier. This valve is used
anode bend, rectification will occur principally for providing A.V.C.
and introduce serious distortion. For DOUBLET.— Another name for a
strong signals one should resort to dipole, divided, or half-wave aerial.
normal anode-bend rectification or, (See Dipole.)
alternatively, use what has recently
come to be known as “power-grid” DOWN-LEAD.—The wire leading
detection (which see). from an aerial down to the receiver.
DOUBLE ANODE VALVE.—The Also termed the lead-in.
valve employed for full-wave recti¬ D.P.— Double Pole. Difference of
fication in a mains battery eliminator. Potential.
This type of valve has a filament and DRILLS.— For general purposes
two anodes, and the two ends of the twist drill is the best, as it permits
the secondary winding of the mains being reground until worn out, has
transformer are joined to the two a constant cutting rake during its
anodes. The two ends of a filament life, maintains its size, and is self¬
winding on the transformer are joined clearing. Straight flute drills are
to the filament of the valve, and the handy for brass and aluminium.
result of this combination is to rectify Standard twist drills are commer¬
the A.C. currents induced in the cially obtainable in fractional sizes
secondary windings. The centre taps ranging from in. diameter to 1 in.
of the two windings are used respec¬ diameter by increments of in. In
P.W.E.—F I53
 DRILLS AND DRILLING

wire sizes from No. 80 ("0135 in. Twist Drill Gauge Sizes
diameter) to No. 1 ( 2280 in. dia¬
meter)—80 different sizes in all, and No. Drill.
Decimal j
No. Drill.
Decimal
Sizes. Sizes.
in letter sizes from Letter A (’2340 in.
diameter) to Letter Z (’4130 in.
diameter). i •2280 •1200
•2210 g •1160
For wireless work, however, most 3 •2130 33 •1130
requirements are covered in the tables 4 •2090 34 •mo
•2055 35 •1100
given on a later page. •2040 3<> •1065
These drills, and a J^-in. and J-in. ; •2010 37 •1040
8 •1990 38 •1015
diameter and possibly a few extra 9 •i960 39 •0995
fractional sizes below J in., should IO •1935 40 •0980
il •1910 41 •0960
complete the range required. To keep 12 •1890 42 •0935
them together a drill stand might be H •1850 43 •0890
14 •1820 44 •0860
made as shown in Fig. 176, A. 15 •1800 45 •0820
When resharpening becomes neces¬ 16 •1770 46 •0810
17 •1730 47 •0785
sary this should be done by grinding. 18 1695 48 .0760
Drills that do not get a lot of use 19 •1660 49 •0730
20 ■1610 SO .0700
may be sharpened with an oilstone 21 •1590 SI .0670
to restore a keen edge. When re¬ 22 •1570 52 • 0635
23 1540 53 ■ •0595
grinding, follow the original ground 24 •1520 54 0550
faces as closely as possible, grinding 25 •1495 55 •0520
26 •1470 56 •0465
from the back and finishing at the 27 •1440 57 •0430
cutting edge of each face. After 28 •1405 58 •0420
29 •1360 59 •0410
grinding examine the drill for the •1285 6o •0400
30
following points:
(1) That the point is central. Letter Sizes of Drills
(2) That the angles are equal.
(3) That the backing off is equal A -234 H -266 O -316 U -368
(see Fig. 176 B and C). B -238 I -272 P 323 V -377
C *242 J -277 Q -132 W -386
D *246 K -281 R -339 X -397
Where any appreciable thickness of E -250 L *290 S -348 Y -404
metal has to be drilled it is a good F -257 M -295 T -358 Z -413
G *261 N 302
practice to thin the point of the drill,
that is, where the same is unduly
thick. This will make the drill cut that the drill is almost rubbing. This
faster, and also less pressure will be will produce a clean-cut countersink.
required on the drill. Fig. 176 D and To produce flat-bottomed holes,
E shows how to do this. such as are required to accommodate
It is very noticeable, when drilling the heads of cheese-headed screws,
brass, aluminium, or ebonite, how the hole or holes are first drilled to
the drill is inclined to "bite” into take the shanks of the screws and
the material. A remedy for this is opened out with another drill to take
to grind the face at the cutting edges the head. This drill is then ground
slightly to reduce the cutting rake off flat and backed off, as seen in
(Fig. 176 F). Fig. 176 G, and the drilling continued
When using an ordinary twist drill with it to the correct depth.
for countersinking, to prevent chat¬ When a drill is incorrectly ground
tering occurring during cutting, the it will cut a hole largei than the dia¬
cutting clearance on the drill lips meter intended. As soon as the point
should be reduced to a minimum, so of the drill has entered the material

154
 DRILLS AND DRILLING
Whitworth Threads

Diameter . . . . I in. Ain- Ain. 1 in. Ain¬

Tapping size .... A in. No. 31 A in. A n. Letter D
Clearing size . . . . A in. Ji in. in. 11 in- il in.

B.S.F. Threads

Diameter ....... Jin. Ü in. •fir in. iin.

Tapping size. No. 5 Letter B Letter G Letter 0
Clearing size. H in. «J in. H i*. H in.

B.A. Threads

Diameter o I 3 4 5 « 8
Tapping size No. no No. 17 No. 24 No. 29 No. 32 No. 37 No. 43 V 7 46
No. r No. 50
Clearing size Letter B No. 3 à in. No. 19 No. 27 No. 30 No. 33 No. 39 No. 43

Wood Screws

Size No. 00 0 . 3 4 5 6 7 8
Clearing size No. 52 No. 51 No. 50 N 2 44
No. No. 40 A in. 1 in. A >n- Ä m. II in.

and the lips have started cutting, and afterwards using as an ordinary
both lands (the narrow spiral por¬ drill until the desired depth is ob¬
tions against each flute) should be tained. Large holes may be drilled
in contact with the edge of the hole out in this manner, but when dealing
(Fig. 176 H); if as shown in Fig. 176 H with ebonite, to prevent any ragged¬
(right), it indicates that either the ness when breaking through, the
point is out of centre or that the material is best drilled from either
angles are unequal. side.
Holes requiring to be drilled at an Large holes in sheet metal or circles
angle with a square face or through from ebonite for formers can be cut
the edge of a piece of round material out with the fly cutter shown in Fig.
as shown in Fig. 176 I should be started 176 L. A centre hole is also necessary
by commencing tn drill square with in this case to accommodate the
the work until a hole about A in. pilot, and the cutter is adjustable to
deep (full diameter) has been drilled, suit different diameters.
and then gradually bring the drill To deal with a hole of a special
over to the desired angle, keeping size, when the right-sized drill is not
the drill cutting slightly whilst so available, a flat drill may be made to
doing. Holes that have started overcome the difficulty. A piece of
slightly out of position may be pulled silver steel smaller in diameter than
over in this manner. the hole required (if the hole is |-in.
Rose cutters, such as that illus¬ diameter ^-in. dia. silver steel will
trated in Fig. 176 J, are used for coun¬ be about right) is heated at the end
tersinking; resharpening when neces¬ in the gas to a dull red and flattened
sary is done with a small oilstone. out with a hammer. After allowing
Two types of counterbores for it to cool slowly the steel is carefully
larger holes are shown in Fig. 176 K. filed up to the shape shown in Fig.
These are used by first drilling a 176 M, the width of the point being
small hole for the pilot to work in. made equal to the diameter of the

155
 PUB ®Hi ja inoR® S»
U!H sno ’J BA—‘9ZI 91J

owmraa snraa
 DRILLS, SHARPENING

Fie. 177.—The correct angle at which to hold the Drill—and a Drill Rest

required hole. The end of the drill in the top of the wood, this groove
is reheated to a dull red and sloping down slightly (at about io°),
cooled quickly in water. After polish¬ to form a facet on the cutting edge of
ing with emery cloth it is tempered
in the gas until the polished portion
assumes a yellowish brown tint; very
little heating is required to accom¬
plish this.
DRILLS, SHARPENING.— The
only tool recommended is a rotating
emery wheel, and while the hand
machine is all t hat is necessary and
often the only appliance possible in
an amateur’s workshop, it is some¬
what awkward to use single-handed drill equivalent
when it comes to sharpening twist to the back
and straight-fluted drills rake of the
It is essential that the angle of cutting tool.
point shall be approximately 45° to The flat or
the axis of the drill and both sides " diamond-
exactly alike. A simple guide, like point ’ ’ drill is
that shown in Fig. 177, will ensure this. the simplest
It consists of a piece of hardwood form of drill,
of L-shape bolted to the metal rests Ground- off Flaf and until the
Flc. 179.—Grinding groove advent of the
at 45 o to the side of the wheel edge of twist to prevent the
twist drill
viewed in plan. A groove is filed drill digging in on brass work.

157
 DRILLS — DRY CELL

was the only one used in all phases L.F. intervalve transformer used to
of engineering. It is made by ham¬ supply signals to a Class B output
mering down the softened tool steel stage. It differs from an ordinary L.F.
to a flat point to about one-fifth the transformer in that it is of step-down
thickness of the rod material em¬ ratio and the secondary is wound to
ployed. On it two facets are formed a low resistance of heavy gauge wire
at the usual point angle (90 o in¬ to avoid voltage drop due to the grid
cluded angle approximately) as shown current flow.
in the illustration (Fig. 178). DRIVER VALVE.—The valve
The twist drill (Fig. 180) has two which feeds a Class B output stage.

Fig. 180.—Three types of Drill—the Diamond, Straight Flute, and Twist.

merits as a cutting tool. In the first It is simply a small power valve, but
place, the groove clears the chips out gets its name from the fact that it
of deep holes, and secondly, it forms supplies a fairly large power to a step¬
an angle equal to the front rake de¬ down transformer feeding a Class B
sirable for a tool cutting iron or dual valve.
steel. This front rake is not really DRY CELL.—A combination of
necessary for brass, and some me¬ chemicals giving forth electrical
chanics, to prevent twist drills energy. Active elements consist of a
"grabbing’’ and “tearing” brass piece of carbon and a piece of zinc.
work, often grind off the points of They are known as the electrodes.
their twist drills in the flute, as indi¬ Separating these is a chemical com¬
cated in the sketch (Fig. 179). position known as a depolariser. It
DRIVER TRANSFORMER.— The is in this composition that the vari-

158
 DRY CELL — D. X. UNIT

ous types of dry cell differ. The to valves whose filaments could
voltage of a dry cell (one cell consists scarcely be seen to glow and which
of one carbon electrode-—the positive, thus emitted electrons when heated to
and one zinc—the negative electrode only a dull red. The term was used
with the appropriate depolariser) is in opposition to “bright emitter,"
r-5 volts. The capacity, or the amount the name given to valves whose fila¬
of current which it will deliver, de¬ ments were heated to incandescence
pends upon the size of the cell. These like the filament of an ordinary elec¬
cells are used principally for H.T. tric lamp bulb.
batteries, as the current required from DUMB AERIAL. — An artificial
themissmall. (See also Leclanché Cell.) aerial (which see).
D.S.C.— Double Silk Covered (wire).
DUPLEX.— Diplex. Two-way tele¬
DUAL COIL.— A tuning coil which
graphy and telephony.
covers the medium- and the long¬
wave bands. (See also Coil.) D.X.—An abbreviation for the
DUAL LOUDSPEAKER. — See word “distance.”
Loudspeaker. “ D.X. UNIT.”— Those listeners
DULL EMITTER.—This is the who do not employ an H.F. stage
name which some years ago was given will no doubt have found that the
strength
of the for¬
eign trans¬
n missions falls
off during
0 0
the summer
season. Of
course. a t -
m o s p herics
will render
2 the long-
distance sig¬
nals rather
uncomfort-
able, but
there in

5 be occasions
it is
d e s i r ed to
2 hear a dis¬
tant station,
6 and without
a good stage
CHOKE
of high fre-
06"
£ quency the
signal will
be too weak
to work the
loudspeaker.
The unit de¬
AS. H.T+2 1 LT+ LT— tz»RTH HERIAL- scribed under
F1C. 181.—The wiring diagram of the D.X. Unit.
this heading

159
 D.X. UNIT
is a stage of screen grid H.F., employ¬ spindle is concentric with its hole.
ing screened coils and a screened and Next attach the coil assembly at
ganged condenser. The coils are of the side of the condenser, first of
the band-pass type, and therefore this all pulling out the rod which operates
unit can be added to an ordinary de¬ the switches. This rod is a sliding
tector circuit and will give all that can fit, and is not held by any screws,
be desired in the way of selectivity. so that it will slide out from the
Screening. In order to avoid diffi¬ front quite easily. To make quite
cult metal work, and yet at the same certain that it is in the correct posi¬
time obtain the advantages of screen¬ tion, the panel (already drilled) may
ing, an ordinary wooden baseboard be held in the front of the baseboard
covered with metal foil has been used. in the position it is eventually to
The metal foil can be obtained from occupy, and the switch rod pushed
any good-class ironmongers, or al¬ home from the panel front.
ternatively a very thin sheet of When this has been done, attach
copper or aluminium may be used. the remaining baseboard components,
There is also on the market a making quite certain that you do
material consisting of paper coated not get the fixed condensers in the
on one side with aluminium foil. wrong places. The 05 condenser
This can be obtained quite cheaply (which must be of the special type
and could be used for the set. What¬ specified—and must not be an induc¬
ever material is eventually decided tive condenser) goes at the back of
upon, it must be cut to the size of the tuning coils. You will notice a
the baseboard (9x8 in.), and fixed soldering tag has been attached to
at the four corners by small round- the baseboard near the earth ter¬
headed screws. The ganged con¬ minal, and a wire joined to this. If
denser should then be placed in its copper foil is used to cover the base¬
position, and the three screws passed board, there will be no need for this
through the requisite holes to hold screw and tag, as the necessary lead
this firmly down.
A little care will
have to be taken
when attaching
this condenser, as
it must be on a
perfectly straight
plane in order to
allow the ivorine
dial to rotate
evenly behind the
escutcheon win¬
dow. Follow the
details given
by the manufac-
t u r e r s of the
condenser,
and take extreme
care to see that the
panel is vertical,
and also that the
condenser

160
 D.X. UNIT
may be soldered direct to the copper. the receiver, there is one important
As, however, it is difficult to solder point to observe. Examine the cir¬
to aluminium, this screw and tag cuit of your present set, and see if
device has been employed to make L.T. — and H.T. — are joined to¬
the screen at earth potential, and, in¬ gether, and to the earth terminal of
cidentally, to earth the moving plates the set. If they are, then everything
and framework of the tuning con¬ is straightforward. If not, then you
denser. will have to make a slight alteration
Remove the cans from the coils, to your circuit, to bring it into line
and join terminal 3 on one coil to with this arrangement. The grid
terminal 4 on the other one. Do leak of the detector valve should be
this with both coils, crossing the joined between the grid terminal of
wire between the coils, and only the detector valve holder and the
baring just sufficient of the insulated positive filament leg of the same
wire to enable a loop to be formed to valve holder. Now disconnect the
go under the screw head. If too aerial and earth leads from the set,
much wire is bared there will be a and place the unit at the aerial side
danger of a short circuit through the of the set. Attach the aerial and
shielding can. If desired, the thin earth leads to the respective ter¬
insulated sleeving sold for the pur¬ minals on the unit, and join the ter¬
pose may be slipped over the leads minal marked AS to the aerial
going to the toils to avoid this risk terminal on the set.
of short circuiting. Join the ter¬ Next join up the L.T. terminals
minals marked 2 on the two coils to¬ on the unit to the same terminals
gether, and take the junction of the on the set, and connect a lead from
two wires to one side of the 05 con¬ H.T.2 to a tapping on the H.T.
denser. Terminal 1 on the coil battery between 100 and 120 volts.
farthest from the panel is then joined H.T.l should be about 60 to 80
to the grid terminal of the valve volts. On switching on both the
holder, and to the fixed plates of the unit and the set one should soon
section of the tuning condenser fitted find the local station by adjusting
with the trimmer. Terminal 1 on the tuning dial of the two sets. (Of
the remaining coil is then joined to course, make certain that the wave¬
the fixed section of the condenser range switch of the unit agrees with
nearest the panel. A wire from the the wave range covered by the pre¬
■0003 fixed condenser to the H.F. sent set.) When you have tuned to
choke will complete the wiring of the the loudest point, carefully adjust
baseboard so far, and the panel and the trimmer at the side of the con¬
terminal strips may then be fitted. denser section farthest from the
Complete the wiring as shown in the panel, adjusting the tuning knob at the
wiring diagram, making quite certain same time. It will be found that there
of the connections of the leads to the is a position for this, where a turn
filament terminals of the valve holder. either forwards or backwards results
As a metallised valve is to be used, in reduced signal strength. The con¬
it is essential that the L.T. — leg is denser will then be balanced or
the one shown, as the metallic cover¬ trimmed for this particular station.
ing of the valve is joined to this leg When tuning to any other part of
by the valve makers, and the screen¬ the scale it will only be necessary to
ing will not be complete if this cover¬ make use of the trimming knob at
ing is not “earthed.” the front of the panel to compensate
Before the unit can be joined to for any slight difference in gangings.
P.W.E.—F*
 D.X. UNIT — ELECTROLYTIC CONDENSER
If the receiver at present in use wire system of wiring, the "earth”
makes use of a tuning arrangement (metallic) being used as the common
which only covers the lower wave lead for the other (usually the nega¬
band, or if it is desired to replace the tive.) (See also Aerials and Earths.)
tuning arrangement with a coil of EBONITE.—An insulating ma¬
the same type as is used in the unit, terial produced by vulcanising rubber
a canned coil to match up with the with approximately 25 per cent, sul¬
aerial coils will be required, and this phur. Vulcanite.
may be placed in the set. The char¬
acteristics of the coils are identical. Weights and Areas of Sheet Ebonite
Weight of
List of Components Thickness Area of ios. Area oft lb. I sq.ft.
One pair band-pass coils.
in.

1i
in. sq. in. oz.
One variable condenser. 2Î 44 52
One panel, 9 x 7 in. 3i 56 39
5i 88 26
One valve holder.
JL 7i 117'5 20
One H.F. choke. II 1 176 13
One 05 fixed condenser (non-induc¬
EDDY CURRENTS.— The small
tive) .
currents which are generated in a
One -0003 fixed condenser.
piece of metal when it is placed in a
One on-and-off switch.
magnetic field. The higher the fre¬
Seven terminals.
quency of the field the larger will be
One terminal strip, 2 x 9 in.
the eddy currents. If the eddy cur¬
One baseboard, 9 x 8 in.
rents reach sufficient magnitude the
One sheet copper or aluminium foil.
metal will become hot. The energy
One metallised screen-grid valve.
dissipated in this manner is known
DYNATRON. — A vacuum - tube as " Eddy Current Loss.”
device having two electrodes, a EDISON ACCUMULATOR.—See
cathode, and an anode. The elec¬ Accumulator.
trons from the cathode strike the ELASTANCE.— Unity divided by
anode with great force and set up a capacity. The reciprocal of capacity.
secondary emission, and the current ELECTRODE.— Either of the two
received in the anode circuit is the poles of a battery, dynamo, etc. An
difference between the re-emitted elec¬ anode or cathode.
trons and the original electron stream. ELECTROLYSIS. — See Accumu¬
DYNE.— The C.G.S. unit of force. lator.
The force which gives a velocity of 1 ELECTROLYTE. — See Accumu¬
centimetre per second per second lator.
when acting on a mass of 1 gramme : ELECTROLYTIC CELL.—A cell
13,835 dynes = 1 poundal. in which electrolysis takes place in
its own electrolyte.
E ELECTROLYTIC CONDENSER.
EARTH PLATE.—The metal used —A condenser consisting of two plates
for completing the earth connection. of different metals in a chemical
It may consist of a sheet of copper liquid solution or paste. It is not a
gauze, copper plate, etc. On aero¬ condenser until a potential is applied,
planes the earth plate consists usually whereupon a film forms over one of
of the metal engine bearers, and on the plates, and this film is an insu¬
board ship the metal hull of the ship lator. The positive electrode takes
is generally employed. this film, and the result of this in¬
EARTH RETURN.—The single¬ sulation is to stop the flow of òur-
162
 ELECTROLYTIC CONDENSER — ELECTRON MULTIPLIER
These condensers are
principally used in large
capacities (up to 4,000
mfds.) for mains smooth¬
ing purposes.
ELECTROLYTIC
RECTIFIER —See
Accumulator.
ELECTROMALUX. —
The electric eye, or photo¬
electric mosaic pick-up
tube used in the tele¬
vision camera. The Icono¬
scope or the Emitron
Camera (which see).
ELECTRON. — The
final particle of negative
electricity. A negative ion
isan atom plus an electron.
A positive ion is an atom
minus an electron. Mass =
9 00 X 10— 28 gramme.
ELECTRONIC MUSIC.
—Music produced en¬
tirely by electrical means.
The principle of elec¬
tronic music is the same
as that of an oscillating
valve, which produces a
“whistle” or high-
pitched note. Music of
this kind is produced by
varying the capacity to
earth of the grid circuit
of an oscillating valve,
and the ‘ ' earth ” con¬
sists of the hands of the
performer since he moves
them about a metallic
rod connected to the grid
of the valve. (See also
Theremin Principle.)
ELECTRON MULTI¬
PLIER.— Sometimes re¬
ferred to as a " cold
valve.” It consists of an
tube in which are placed
anodes, which are coated
with cæsium or similar light-sensitive
rent, and so the two plates become material and a central anode. The
the two electrodes of a condenser, anode takes the form of a ring so
163
 ELECTROPHORUS — ELIMINATOR

that an electron emission from one therefore to arrange the terminal strip
cathode passes through the anode to and choke so that they are not too
the other cathode. By so doing a far apart for the resistance in use.
secondary emission is liberated by the Carry out the wiring with thick-
second cathode. covered wire, of, say, 18 gauge. If
In use a positive potential is ap¬ condensers are obtained having only
plied to the anode which is surrounded soldering tags, care must be taken
by a coil through which is passed a in making the connections to them.
low current. The effect of the coil is The iron must be really hot, and
to focus the electron stream through must not be left too long in contact
the anode from cathode to cathode. with the lug, or the condenser may
ELECTROPHORUS.—An instru¬ be damaged or come adrift from the
ment for producing very small charges inside of the case. Note carefully
of electricity. that the correct connection is made

F1C. 184.—Ths Batterr Connections of a s'mp'e t'iree-valver.

ELECTROSCOPE.—An arrange¬ to the transformer. The flex lead

ment of metal foils in a container for for connection to the mains socket
detecting c harges of static electricity. must be of sufficient length to reach
ELIMINATOR.— An abbreviation the socket you intend to use, and
of " Battery Eliminator ” (which see). this may, of course, be a power
Making Eliminators. This A.C. or lighting one. Running off the
mains unit is intended for receivers of lighting socket will in most cases
not more than three valves (Fig. 183). be more expensive, but, even with
Mounting the Components. Mount lighting at 6d. per unit, the cost will
the various components on the board not be nearly so high as the dry
in a position as near that shown in H.T. battery. When the correct
the wiring diagram as possible. In length of flex has been obtained,
arranging these parts, take care to tie a knot a few inches from the end
fix the fuse holder in such a position which is to be connected to the
that it is easy to replace the fuse transformer, and with a piece of
in the event of this blowing. The wood or ebonite, fix the flex to the
spaghetti resistance is the link be¬ baseboard. This will ensure that the
tween the terminal H.T.i and one ends are not inadvertently pulled
terminal on the choke. Take care off the transformer terminals with
164
 ELIMINATOR

the possibility of blowing the mains from the battery lead being connected
fuse. One lead of this flex is con¬ to one terminal of a fixed condenser
nected to the lower terminal on the of 2 mfds., the other terminal of
transformer, and the other lead is which is connected to H.T. —.
taken to the terminal marked with Fig. 184 shows, by way of an ex¬
the voltage of the particular mains. ample, the battery connections of a
An Iron Case for Safety. —For the simple three-valver consisting of a
sake of safetv, and to satisfy the detector and two transformer-coupled
insurance company, it is preferable L.F. stages.
to enclose the complete unit in an
iron case to which a terminal is fixed, List of Components for the A.C. Unit
without insulation. This terminal One mains transformer.
should be connected direct to earth. One power choke.
Of course, if a box is made to fit One Westinghouse metal rectifier.
over the baseboard, make quite sure Three 4-mfd. fixed condensers (500-
that no bare wires or terminals are volt test type).
likely to come into contact with the One i-mfd. fixed condenser.
box. One fuse holder and fuse.
Connect the unit to the receiver in One spaghetti resistance, 50,000 ohms.
exactly the same way as the H.T. Three insulated terminals.
battery, ping into the mains, and Small ebonite strip.
switch the set on. Probably signals Wire, screws, mains plug, and flex.
will be much more powerful than
when the battery' was in use, as the A D.C. Mains Unit Quite a num¬
unit delivers about 150 volts, and ber of houses are still connected to
therefore the grid bias will need ad¬ mains using direct current, and al¬
justing to avoid distortion. Exam¬ though this type of mains is gradually
ine the curves of your valves, and being superseded by the alternating-
set the correct value of bias for the current mains, there is a demand for
above amount of H.T. In the event an eliminator to drive the wireless set
of the unit being connected to a re¬ from this type of mains. To meet
ceiver having one H.T positive ter¬ the needs of readers so situated in¬
minal serving two or more valves, structions are now given for the build¬
it is quite possible that trouble will ing of a simple D.C. battery elimina¬
be experienced from what is known tor, suitable for the simpler types of
as ‘‘motor boating.” This, as its broadcast receiver employing up to
name implies, is a “popping” noise three valves, and not taking more
similar to the- exhaust of a motor current than about 20 to 30 milli¬
bike or motor boat, and very often amps. The total cost should not ex¬
makes it impossible to listen in. ceed 30s., so that it is cheaper in the
A Simple Remedy. —Each H.T. lead end than dry batteries.
must be decoupled, as has previously The only components needed are
been explained (see Decoupling). The shown in the list of parts, and here
detector valve should be connected a word of warning is necessary. The
to the H.T.+ 1 on the unit, and the condensers must be of the type
last valve of the set to the other tested at 250 volts or more. The
H.T. + terminal. Any other valves remaining components may be of any
in the receiver must then have their desired make, and it is only neces¬
H.T. leads joined to this latter ter¬ sary to ensure that the choke carries
minal via a resistance of 10,000 ohms, 30 milliamps. with an inductance of
the end of the resistance farthest 20 henries, and that the mains voltage
165
 ELIMINATOR
dropping resistance is robust enough the mains. Do not use a brass clip
to stand up to its job. to fix this flex down, as it may cut
Marking Out the Baseboard. —Hav¬ through the covering of the wire and
ing obtained the complete list of so produce a short circuit.
parts, commence by marking out the Wire up, using glazite or similar
baseboard in accordance with the covered wire, and take care with the
wiring plan (Fig. 185). This is quite connections of the spaghetti resist¬
simple, and no trouble should be ex¬ ance, as these are of different values
perienced in getting the various parts and must be connected in the correct
screwed down without touching, places.
so that wiring can be easily carried Voltage Dropping Resistance.— So
out. Drill the ebonite terminal strip far no value has been given for the
and affix the terminals, which should voltage dropping resistance given
be of the insulated variety, to avoid in the list of components, and to
shocks and short circuits. The flex ascertain this a little sum has to be

166
 ELIMINATOR

structions what is the maximum into the nearest socket, and switch
voltage your last (or output) valve on. If no signals are heard, reverse
will take. Subtract this latter value the plug, and when the correct way
from the former For instance, sup¬ round has been found, mark the plug
pose your mains are of 20a volts, and to avoid it being plugged in the
your last valve will take 150 volts: wrong way round.
200 minus 150 will give 50 volts. Below is given an example of the
This latter figure must then be multi¬ working for the value of the resist¬
plied by 1,000 and divided by the ance R 3 in case the above particu¬
total current taken by the set. This, lars are not understood.
of course, is simply the total of the
Example
current of each valve, to which must
be added a further 5 milliamps, Mains voltage, 250 volts.
which is dropped
through the smoothing
and voltage dropping
resistances R 1 and R 2.
In the case of a simple
three - valver using
2-volt valves, this
figure should be in the
neighbourhood of 20
tnilliamps. The answer
to this little sum will /S000 OHMS
give the value of the
resistance in ohms, R.t

and, if no resistance is OUT-

made of the exact Fig. 18b.—The Circuit Diagram.
value, you should ob¬
tain the next nearest value. Last valve rated at 150 volts 8 milli-
Mounting the Unit. —The completed amps.
unit should be mounted where it Detector valve takes 2 milliamps.
cannot be tampered with, or prefer¬ First L.F. valve takes t> milliamps.
ably enclosed in a metal box, and Theretore, total current = 16 + 5 =
before it can be attached to the re¬ 21 milliamps.
ceiver the following points must be Volts to be dropped = 250 — 150 =
watched. First of all, disconnect the 100 volts.
aerial and earth from the set. Next, 100 X 1,000 , ,
= 4.762 ohms.
mount a small fixed condenser (of 21
•001 mfd. or more' on the cabinet near The nearest value to this is 5,000
the aerial terminal, and join one side ohms.
of this condenser to the aerial ter¬
List of Parts
minal. The aerial lead-in is then
taken to the free side of this fixed One L.F. smoothing choke.
condenser instead of to the aerial One spaghetti resistance 10,000 ohms.
terminal. The earth lead must be One spaghetti resistance 15,000 ohms.
taken to the terminal on the D.C. unit One power resistance (for values see
marked “ E,” and not connected notes).
to the earth terminal on the wireless One 4-mfd. fixed condenser.
set. Two 2-mfd. fixed condensers.
Testing Out. —Plug the mains plug Four insulated terminals.
167
 E.M.F. — EUROPEAN BROADCASTING STATIONS
Wire, mains plug, flex, baseboard, ENDODYNE.—A method of re¬
and screws. ception differing from heterodyne re¬
E.M.F.— Electromotive Force (unit ception, in that no particular valve
is the volt). is specially set aside for generating
EMISSION.—The flow of electrons heterodyne frequency.
from a heated filament in a valve. ENERGISED SPEAKER. —S e e
The emission consists of negative Loudspeaker.
electrons, and is secured by manu¬ ERG.—The unit of work (C.G.S.
facturing the filament from a metal system); is equal to the work done
or combination of metals which have by i dyne moving, by i centimetre,
a good electronic emission, or by its point of application. One foot-
coating the filament with a chemical poundal = 421,390 ergs.
substance for the same purpose. ETHER.—The supposai medium
EMITRON. — Registered trade- filling all space through which the
name of the Marconi-E.M.I. television vibrations of light, heat, and elec¬
camera, incorporating the principle of tricity are propagated. Speed of
Dr. Zworykin's Iconoscope. ether waves is 186,000 miles per
EMPIRE CALL SIGNS. — See second, the same as the speed of
B.B.C. Empire Call Signs. light.

EUROPEAN BROADCASTING STATIONS

(See also Short-wave Stations. International Call Signs, and British
Broadcasting Stations)
(Subject to alteration during hostilities and as from March 1940)
ThÇ following is a list of those European and some extra-European broadcasting stations which are
normally heard in this country. The wavelengths of most stations will be changed in .March 1940, and a
list of the mam alterations is given on page 11.

Kc/s ah' Station

Band. No. i 150-300 kc/s

152 1973-5 5 Istanbul (Turkey).
153 1961 7 Kaunas (Lithuania).
160 Í 120 Hilversum (No. 1) (Holland). (Transmits A.V.R.O.. V.A.R.A., and
1875 (120 V.P.R.O. Programmes.) (Power lokW only until 2.40 p.m. G.M.T.)
130 Radio-Romanian (Romania).
166 1S07 220 Lahti (Finland).
172 1744 500 Moscow (No. i) (U.S.S.R.).
182 1648 80 Radio-Pars (France).
183 1639 120 Ankara (Turkey).
1875 1600 20 Irkoutsk (W.S.S.R.).
191 >571 150 Deutschlandsender (Germany).
200 1500 150 Droitwich.
208 M42 / 35 Minsk (U.S.S.R.).
1 100 Reykjavik (Iceland).
216 1389 150 Mótala (Sweden).
2175 1379 100 Novosibirsk (U.S.S.R.).
224 1339 120 Warsaw (No. 1) (Poland).
p5o Luxembourg.
232 1293 ( 100 Moscow (No. 2) (U.S.S.R.).
240 1250 60 Kalundborg (Denmark).
248 1209-6 100 Kiev (No. 1) (U.S.S.R.).
256-4 XI70 25 Tashkent (U.S.S.R.).
f 20 Bergen (Norway).
260 1153-8 -< 60 Oslo (Norway).
I 10 Vigra (Aalesund) (Norway).
271 1107 100 Leningrad (No. 1) (U.S.S.R.).
282 1064 10 Tromso (Norway).
283 1060 35 Tiflis (U.S.S.R.).

168
 EUROPEAN BROADCASTING STATIONS

Kc/s 1 M kW Station

300 1000 i Hand No. 2 300-500 kc]s

340 882-3 IOO Moscow (No. 3) (U.S.S.R.).
20 I Saratov (U.S.S.R.).
IO ■ Finmark (Norway).
347 864-6 I 10 ' Bodo (Norway).
350 8571 IO I Archangel (U.S.S.R.).
359 5 834 5 18 Budapest (No. 2) (Hungary).
375 800 40 I Svcrdiovdsk (U.S.S.R.).
10 I Lulea (Sweden).
392 765 30 Banska-Bystrica (Czecho.) (Power 15 kW after 6 pjn. G.M.T.).
395 759 20 i Rostov-on-Don (U.S.S.R.).
401 748 I- Geneva (Switzerland).
10 I Ostersund (Sweden).
4135 726 10 i Voronezh (U.S.S.R.).
696 10 1Oulu (Uleaborg) (Finland).
431
Band No. 3 500-1,500 kc/s
I Innsbruck (Austria).
519 578 Hamar (Norway).
520 576 Baranowicze (Poland).
1 Ljubljana (Yugoslavia).
527 569-3 Viipuri (Finland).
Bolzano (Italy).
536 559’7 I Wilno (Poland).
546 549-5 120 Budapest (No. 1) (Hungary).
556 539-6 IOO ' Beromünster (Switzerland).
f IOO i Radio Eireann (Eire).
Klaipeda (Lithuania).
565 531 ' Palermo (Italy).
il , Catania (Italy).
574 522-6 IOO Stuttgart (Germany).
I 50 Madona (Latvia).
583 5146 ( 20 Alpes-Grenobles (PTT) (France).
592 5068 IOO Vienna (Austria).
J 20 Rabat (Morocco).
601 499-2 Sunds vail (Sweden).
1 1°
610 49Ï-8 Florence (Italy).
Brussels (No. 1) (Belgium).
620 483-9 Cairo (No. 1) (Egypt).
625 480 1 Kouibyshev (U.S.S.R.).
IOO Vigra (Aalesund) (Norway).
20 Trondelag (Norway).
629 476'9 20 Lisbon (Emissora Nacional) (Portugal).
20 Christiansand (Norway).
638 470-2 120 i Prague (No. 1) (Czechoslovakia).
IOO Lyons (PTT) (France).
648 463 IO I Petrozavodsk (U.S.S.R.).
658 455'9 IOO Cologne (Germany).
20 1Jerusalem (Palestine).
668 449'> North Regional.
70
577 443 > IOO Sottens (Switzerland).
686 437'3 Belgrade (Yugoslavia).
695 431'7 120 Paris (PTT) (France).
704 426-1 55 Stockholm (Sweden).
713 420-8 1 120 Rome (No. 1) (Italy).
Hilversum (Jaarsveld) (Holland) [Relays Hilversum No. 1).
722 415-5 Kharkov (No. 1) (U.S.S.R.).
3 Madrid (EAJ2) (Spain).
5 Seville (Spain) (E A J 5).
731 410-4 1 20 Tallinn (Estonia).
38 Turi (Estonia).
740 405-4 100 Munich (Germany).
749 400-5 IOO Marseilles (PTT) (France).
758 395-8 10 Katowice (Poland).
J 60 Burghead.
767 391'1 1 70 Scottish Regional.
/ 10 Stalion (U.S.S.R.).
776 386-6 1 120 Toulouse (PTT) (France).
785 382-2 120 Leipzig (Germany).
7-5 Barcelona (EAJi) (Spain).
795 377-4 50 Lwów (Poland).
5 Renmon (Anglesey).
804 373-1 1 West Regional.
70
P.W.E.—M 169
 EUROPEAN BROADCASTING STATIONS

Kc/s M i Station

814 | 368-6 50 , Milan (No. 1) (Italy).

1
823 / 12 Bucharest (Romania).
I 304-5 10 Bodö (Norway).
35 , Kiev (U.S.S.R.).
832 j 300-6 10 i Stavanger (Norway).
20 ; Christiansand (Norway).
20 ¡ Trondelag (Norway).
841 356-7 100 I Berlin (Germany).
poo I Sofia (Bulgaria).
850 1 352'9 j j i Portsgrund (Norway).
I 3 Valencia (Spain).
I — Saragossa (Spain).
859 349'2 J / 10 Simferopol (U.S.S.R.).
(100 I Strasbourg (France).
868 345'6 16 1 Poznañ (Poland).
877 342'1 70 London Regional.
886 338'6 1 / 15 ' Linz (Austria).
I 15 Graz (Austria).
895 335'2 1 10 Helsinki (Finland).
904 331'9 1 100 J Hamburg (Germany).
913 J28-6 J 10 Dnepropetrovsk (U.S.S.R.).
I 60 j Toulouse (Radio-Toulouse) (France).
922 325 4 32 Brno (Czechoslovakia).
932 321-9 i 15 I Brussels (No. 2) (Belgium).
3.8-8 j / 12 Algiers (North Africa).
941
1 10 I Göteborg (Sweden).
950 3.5'8 100 ; Breslau (Germany).
959 3.2-8 j 60 j Poste Parisien (France).
968 Í 5 Madrid (EAJ7) (Spain).
309-9 j I 10 1Odessa (U.S.S.R.).
971 309 2 Montpelier (France).
977 3O7-I 1 100 Northern Ireland Regional.
986 Í 50 Bologna (Radio-Marconi) (Italy).
304'3 1 X 24 Torun (Poland).
995 301'5 60 Hilversum (No. 2) (Holland) (lokW only until 8.40 p.m. B.S.T.).
1004 298-8 , 13-5 Bratislava (Czechoslovakia).
1013 296-2 I 70 Midland Regional.
I 4 Chernigov (U.S.S.R.).
1022 =93-5 i 3 Barcelona (EAJ15) (Spain).
1031 Í100 Königsberg (No. 1) (Germany).
-'9.
( 5 Parede (Portugal).
1040 288-5 1 J 10 Leningrad (No. 2) (U.S.S.R.).
1 120 Rennes-Bretagne (France).
1050 285-7 50 West ol England Regional.
1050 285-7 100 j Start Point.
1059 283-3 20 Bari (No. 1) (Italy).
1068 480-9 f 2 Radio-Cité (Paris) (France).
X 10 Tiraspol (U.S.S.R.).
1077 278 6 I 60 Bordeaux-Lafayette (France).
1086 276 2 j 2 ; Falun (Sweden).

Í
2O Radio Normandie (France).
1095 274 : 10 I Vinnitsa (U.S.S.R.).
25 Kuldiga (Latvia).
10 i Naples (Italy).
1104 2717 50 Kuldiga (Latvia).
50 Tripoli (N. Africa).
269-5 J 100 Melnik (Czechoslovakia).
1H3 1
I 60 Prague (No. 2) (Czechoslovakia).
1122 J 60 Stagshaw (Newcastle).
267-4 1
I 6-25 Nyreghyhaza (Hungary).
1131 265-3 j 100 Horby (Sweden).

Í
10 ' Genoa (No. 1) (Italy).
1140 263-2 1 30 Turin (No. 1) (Italy).
10 Trieste (Italy).
40 London National.
1149 361-1 40 North National.
50 Scottish National.
-.58 I / 10 Kassa (Hungary).
259-1 j
I 15 Moravska-Ostra va (Czechoslovakia).
I.«7 257-1 15 Monte Ceneri (Switzerland).
1176 255*1 10 Copenhagen (Denmark).
1185 1 253'2 1 60 I Nice-Côte-d’Azur (France).

170
 EUROPEAN BROADCASTING STATIONS — FADING

M1
Kc/s I kW Station

Collenz (Germany).
1195 Frankfurt (Germany).
251 Freiburg-im-Breisgau (Germany).
1204 2492 5 Troppau (Germany).
1213 247'3 60 i Lille (Radio PTT Nord) (France).
Nurnberg (Germany).
1222 245-5 Rome (No. 2) (Italy).
u
Gleiwitz (Germany).
1231 2437 Gorlitz (Germany).
1235 242-9 * : Cork (Eire).
1249 2402 Saarbrücken (Germany).
Florence (No. 2) (Italy).
1258 238-5 U Riga (Latvia).
1 20 Burgos (Spain).
1267 236-8 2 Nurnberg (Germany).
Frederikstad (Norway).
1276 2351 Varna (Bulgaria).
í :
1285 233 5 5 Aberdeen.
/ 5 Klagenfurt (Germany).
1294 231-8 Vorarlberg (Germany).
I 5
1303 230-2 10 Naples (No. 1) (Italy).
1312 228-7 2-5 Malmo (Sweden).
Í 1-25 Magyarovar (Hungary).
1321 227-1 Radio Méditerranée (France).
r Bremen (Germany).
Hanover (Germany).
1330 225-6 Flemsburg (Germany).
i -
Stettin (Germany).
I 2
Montpelier (PTT) (France).
1339 224 » 1
Lodz (Poland).
I 2
Dublin (Eire).
Salzburg (Germany).
n Tampere (Finland).
1348 222-6 L’Ile de France (France).
Naples (No. 2) (Italy).
L Konigsberg (No. 2) (Germany).
Rome (No. 3) (Italy).
Milan (No. 2) (Italy).
Ï357 221*1 4 \ Turin (No. 2) (Italy).
l] Genoa (No. 2) (Italy).
220 Thessaloniki (Greece).
13635
J 25 Bordeaux-Sud-Ouest (France).
1366 2I9-6 1 I Tallinn (Estonia).
2l8-2 Berne (Switzerland).
1375
216-8 r Warsaw (No. 2) (Poland).
1384
215-4 25 Radio-Lyons (France).
1393
1402 2 Stara-Zagora (Bulgaria).
214
1420 10 Vaasa-Vasa (Finland).
2II-3
Kaiserslautern (Germany).
1429 209-9 Naples (No. 2) (Italy).
{” Turin (No. 3) (Italy).
1438 208-6 1-25 Miskole (Hungary).
1456 206 5 Eiffel Tower (Paris) (France).
1465 204-8 1-25 Pecs (Hungary).
203-5 20 Clevedon.
*474 Chatelineau (Belgium).
-492 201*1 Santiago (Spain). .
Liège Experimental, Radio-Comte (Belgium).
200 J wi Wallonia, Seraing, Verviers (Belgium).
1500 Santander (Spain).
I 0-6
1530 I96 0-2 Karlskrona (Sweden).

EXTENSION SPEAKERS.—See are sent out from a transmitter they

divide into two portions. One
Loudspeaker.
part, called the " ground wave,” fol¬
F lows the curvature of the earth and
FADING.—When wireless waves in time is all absorbed by metallic
171
 FADING — FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDY
objects. The other part travels up¬ with a flash-lamp battery and bulb
wards at ari angle to the ground until (Fig. 187). Failure of the bulb to
it encounters the Heaviside Layer. light, or an intermittent light, indi¬
This layer, which is estimated to be cates a broken wire. Should the
about forty miles above the earth, aerial and earth wires prove to be in
consists of ionised atmosphere and order, test, in a similar manner, the
acts as a reflector to the waves. The loudspeaker and battery leads. Test
upward waves are therefore reflected the batteries. A voltmeter or flash¬
back again just as light waves are re¬ lamp bulb is most useful for this
flected by a mirror. But as the Heavi¬ purpose, but the tests must be
side Layer presents an uneven surface applied whilst the set is switched on.
and is in constant motion, the reflec¬ Connect the voltmeter or bulb across
tion is uneven. Thus the reflection is the accumulator terminals first; there
at one time "favourable” to any should be a steady reading of 2 volts
particular aerial, and at another per cell or a constant light in the
“ unfavourable hence the fading. bulb. The most satisfactory way to
FADER.— A device for switching test a high-tension battery is to mea¬
out radio reproduction and switching sure the voltage between each tap¬
in gramophone reproduction without ping. If the voltmeter is a low-
a sudden break. It consists of a resistance one, do not keep it in
potentiometer with a fixed centre¬ contact for more than a second or
tapping as well as a moving contact. so; the same thing applies when test
The pick-up is joined across one half ing the cells with a 6-volt bulb
of the potentiometer and the remain¬ To make sure that high-tension cur¬
ing half is joined across an ordinary rent is passing through the output
L.F. transformer. When the arm is valve take out the H.T. wander plug
at one end the radio reproduction is and replace it; two distinct clicks
at a maximum and, as the arm moves should be heard in the speaker. To
across, the radio reproduction gradu¬ decide whether or not the valve is
ally diminishes in volume until in¬ wrong connect a high-resistance volt¬
audible. (See also Dissolver.) meter between the negative filament
FARAD.—The unit of capacity. A
conductor is said to have a capacity
of i farad when its potential differ¬
ence is raised by i volt by a charge
of I coulomb. Name is derived from
Michael Faraday.
i farad = 1,000,000 micro-farads.
FASCICULATION.—The term ap¬
plied to the manner in which the elec¬
trons emitted from the cathode of
the cathode-ray tube bunch together.
FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDY.
The more likely faults are (i) a com¬
plete cessation of signals, (2) a falling
off in signal strength, (3) intermittent
reception, and (4) reception accom¬
panied by crackling sounds.
When Reception fails entirely.—
First, suspect the aerial and earth.
Test the down-lead for continuity F1C. 187.—The simplest form of Tester.
 FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDY

Fig. 188.—The way to test a Transformer Winding.

is functioning correctly, pass on to

terminal and the anode terminal of
the preceding one and apply similar
the valve holder. If the voltage
tests. If decoupling resistances are
is normal the valve must be wrong,
connected in the anode circuit they
or else it is not receiving the
will, of course, reduce the anode
proper L.T. current. Test for the
voltage, so a lower reading must be
latter possibility by connecting a
voltmeter or Eash-lamp bulb across expected. Low-frequency trans¬
formers, chokes, and resistances can
the filament terminals. If the cur¬
be tested in exactly the same manner
rent is not reaching these points there
must be a break in the wiring or the as the output transformer, but in the
filament switch is not making proper case of resistances the sound from the
contact. speaker will be less in proportion to
If no reading, or even a low one, the resistance value. Proceed with
is obtained between the anode and these tests until the detector valve
H.T. — the fault is more likely to be is arrived at. The high-frequency
elsewhere. In sets employing a choke amplifying valves can be tested in a
or transformer in the anode circuit similar manner, but it will be found
one of these components is probably quicker first of all to put them out
"burnt out.” To test, connect a of circuit by removing the aerial lead
loudspeaker (or phones) and a bat¬ from its normal terminal and con¬
tery across each winding in turn as necting it to the anode terminal of
shown in Fig. 188. When connection the valve immediately preceding the
X is made and broken a distinct plop detector.
should be heard in the speaker. Do Where screened-grid valves are em¬
not mistake a feeble single "click" ployed the lead normally going to the
for the double " plop,” because the anode terminal on the glass bulb
former will probably be heard even must be left in place The detector
if there is a break in the windings. and L.F. stages should then work by
Having made sure that the last valve themselves, giving good reception of

173
 FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDY
the nearer stations. Once it is es¬ terminals for a few seconds, discon¬
tablished that the fault is in the H.F. nect battery, and allow the condenser
amplifying portion move the aerial to stand for some time. Then touch
lead to the anode terminal of the first its terminals with a pair of loud¬
valve (when two H.F. stages are in¬ speaker leads; a distinct click should
cluded) . This will show whether the be heard in the speaker, showing that
first or second valve is not function¬ the condenser has held its charge. In
ing, so after deciding this point the carrying out such tests the condenser
anode circuit tests can be carried out terminals must not be touched with
on the valve not working as explained the hands, or the charge will leak
for the L.F. valves. A further test away. The battery voltage should
is necessary in the case of S.G. vary from about roo volts for capaci-

Fic. 189.—A decoupling resistance in the anode lead, and a resistance in the grid lead to cure instability.

valves; the voltage on the screening ties of -OOOI mfd., to 4 volts for
grid (connected to the “ anode ” pin) 4 mfds.
must be checked. This can only be Should it be found that the anode
measured with a high-resistance volt¬ circuits are right, the tuning coils
meter. 11 there is no voltage reading and condensers should receive atten¬
disconnect the by-pass condenser tion. Coils can be tested in the same
wired between the screening grid and way as transformers, resistances, etc.
earth, and repeat the voltage test. (Fig. 188). The same apparatus is
If the voltage is normal in the latter required for testing variable con¬
case the condenser must be short cir¬ densers, but in this case there should
cuiting the H.T. supply. The cor¬ not be a click; rotate the vanes to
rect way to test any condenser is as make sure that they do not short
follows : connect a battery to its two circuit at any point. Before leaving

174
 FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDY
the tuning system see that the con¬ this purpose, and one showing a full
tacts of the wave-change switches scale deflection on io milliamps, is
are properly opening and closing. most convenient. Measure the anode
This is especially important when current to each valve by breaking the
rising ganged coils with self-contained connection between H.T. + and the
switches, because it is often found anode component (resistance, trans-
that a switch blade in one of the former primary, choke, etc.), as
coils has become jammed or strained, shown in Fig. 271. The current pass¬
with a result that it does not move ing can then be compared with that
with the others. When testing any given on the maker’s instruction sheet
component it should be disconnected for the particular H.T. voltage in
entirely from all others and prefer¬ use. Remember that it is the voltage
ably be removed from the set. All between the anode of the valve and
H.T. — which
have referred only counts and
to battery receivers, not the total
but most of them battery volt¬
age. Too low
a current in¬
o dicates (1) too
9-
© w much grid
■Cl MFD bias, (2) run¬
©' a© Fig. 190.— do w n accu¬
A method oí mulator, (3)
curing “ modu¬
lation " hum in
mains operated valve. In the
■O/MFD sets.
case of all-
E mains re -
0
U might also in-
d i c a t e that
the rectifier
Afa/HS 7&FMSFORMER
valve is losing

I
its emission,
To HT— OR but the H.T.
voltage would
apply equally well to mains sets. In then be low. An unduly high anode
testing the filament or heater supply current indicates (1) insufficient grid
in sets of the latter type a flash-lamp bias (probably a burnt-out resistance,
bulb is most convenient, but if a if an all-mains set), (2) a break in
voltmeter is preferred it must be of the grid circuit, (3) valve oscillating,
a pattern suitable for alternating cur¬ or (4) if a S.G. or pentode, screen
rent. voltage too high. To check for (3)
Weak Reception. Generally speak¬ touch anode terminal with damp
ing, the cause of weak reception can finger; the current will change if
be traced in the manner just outlined, valve is oscillating. If the anode
but there are a few additional tests current fluctuates when signals are
which are sometimes necessary. The not being received there must be a
most important of these is to measure bad contact in either anode or grid
the anode current of each valve in circuit. To check, first short circuit
turn. A milliammeter is required for the anode components in turn to find
175
 FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDY
which, if any, is wrong. Then do Other Common Faults. Anothel
the same with grid circuit com¬ cause of much exasperation is low-
ponents. When the anode current to frequency reaction. This sometimes
every valve is normal and yet recep¬ manifests itself as a constant whistle
tion is impossible it is fairly safe to which accompanies all reception, and
assume that a component in either the sometimes as a peculiar spluttering
grid or anode circuit is short-circuited. noise commonly referred to as
Intermittent Reception and Crack¬ "motor-boating.” It is more com¬
ling. These two forms of trouble are mon in older sets, and becomes par¬
often confused one with the other, so ticularly troublesome when the high-
it might be well to explain the dif¬ tension battery begins to run down.
ference. Intermittent reception, that The fault can often be cured by the
is when signals come and go without well-known method of fitting a de¬
there being any noises, are generally coupling resistance in the detector
caused by a fault in the aerial or anode lead and by-passing this with
tuning circuits, whilst crackling is a 2-mfd. condenser. Fig. 166 illus¬
more often due to a bad contact in trates this point.
an anode circuit. The method of When two transformer-coupled L.F.
testing anode circuit components has valves are employed, the trouble can
been dealt with previously and the often be remedied by reversing the
tests described apply in this case. If leads to the secondary terminals of
the crackling can be provoked by the second transformer. Sometimes
lightly tapping the panel it is quite the howling is caused when the
clear that a connection must be loose, speaker is near to the set, by inter¬
but if it is unaffected by this treat¬ coupling between the loudspeaker
ment a transformer or similar com¬ leads and the first valve. In that
ponent is probably defective. In the case the remedy is to connect a -002-
former case make sure that all the mfd. fixed condenser across the loud¬
valves fit tightly in their holders and speaker terminals or to employ metal-
that the pins are clean. Also take shielded wire for the speaker leads.
the same precautions in respect to In the latter case the metal screening
the high-tension wander plugs. should be connected to earth or high-
Crackling noises are very frequently tension negative. Yet another way
caused by a run-down high-tension of preventing the howling is to con¬
battery or by a faulty cell. A new nect the first L.F. transformer to the
battery would, of course, put things grid of the L.F. valve through a non-
right, but a temporary remedy might inductive resistance of any value
be effected by connecting a 2-nifd. about 100,000 ohms. A similar kind
or 4-mfd. condenser between H.T. of trouble to that just dealt with is
negative and one of the positive tap¬ frequently caused by a “micro-
pings. Intermittent reception is phonic” detector valve. The de¬
often caused in a very sharply-tuned tector valve is sensitive to vibration,
set by the aerial lead-in blowing to and when it receives a slight jar, a
and fro and so changing its capacity "ring” or "hum" is heard in the
to earth. The same effect would be speaker. If the speaker is near the
noticed if some wires or components valve the vibration set up by the
were free to move inside the set. diaphragm causes the valve to vibrate
Although this particular form of still more. This process goes on in¬
trouble is most common in short¬ definitely, the sound increasing mean¬
wave receivers, it does sometimes while. The cure in this case is to
occur in broadcast instruments. use an anti-microphonic valve holder
176
 FAULTS AND THEIR REMEDY — FLUX
and to wrap the valve in thick felt. above. Just one word of warning.
Instead of felt, a good result is often Unless you are thoroughly conversant
obtained by sticking a lump of plas¬ with electrical engineering, do not
ticine on top of the glass bulb. tamper with any all-mains set with¬
Mains Hum. The most frequent out first disconnecting it from the
power supply. (See also Noises,
Testing, and Break Through.)
FAURE PLATES.—See Accumu¬
lator.
FILAMENT.— The fine wire (of a
valve) which, when heated (by the
low-tension current), emits electrons.
FILAMENT RESISTANCE.—A
variable resistance used to control
the flow of current to the filament.
Fig. 191.—The Fiber Circuit. (See also Fig 354.) FILTER CIRCUIT.—A circuit ar¬
ranged to permit of the passage of
source of trouble with the older types low frequencies only. By "low” is
of mains receivers is hum. There are meant all the audible frequencies, as
numerous other causes, but most of distinct from high-frequency oscilla¬
them can be cured by fairly simple tions. The output filter circuit is
means. Fig. 190 shows a method which perhaps the best-known form of filter.
is generally beneficial. Two *oi-mfd. This consists of a large inductance
fixed condensers are put in series iron-core choke arranged in the anode
across the primary of the mains circuit of the output valve. Con¬
transformer and the junction is con¬ nected to the anode is a large-value
nected to H.T. - or earth. Hum fixed condenser. The free side of
caused by an electric gramophone this condenser is joined to one side
motor housed in the same cabinet as of the loudspeaker, the other side
the set can often be cured by a simi- of which is joined to earth. In this
manner the speech frequencies pass
through the easy path provided by
the condenser and speaker, instead of
going through the choke (see Fig. 191).
FLEWELLYN CIRCUIT.—A cir¬
cuit in which modifications were
made to the filament circuit to pro¬
duce large reaction effects. Like the
Armstrong, and many similar un¬
orthodox circuit arrangements, it is
F1C. 192.—The Flewellyn Circuit. now chiefly used for short-wave work
lar connection of condensers across (see F'ig. 192).
its terminals. An insufficient earth FLUX.—A substance employed in
lead can be the cause of the most soldering to prevent oxidation of the
troublesome mains hum, so this point metal being soldered The applica¬
should receive special attention when tion of heat to a metal usually pro¬
using an all-mains set. Instability of duces an oxide, and this prevents the
the kind dealt with as low-frequency solder adhering to the metal. The
reaction often appears as a trouble¬ most simple flux is resin. This is
some hum in mains sets, and the always used on soft alloys and tin¬
tests are the same as those explained ware. It is non-corrosive.
177
 FLUX — FRAME AERIAL
the magnet, the number of ampere
turns wound round the magnet,
and the potential applied to the
magnet.
FOOT-CANDLE—UNIT OF LIGHT
INTENSITY.—Degree of light pro¬
duced by a source of light equal to
one candle-power on the surface of
an object placed i ft. away, with its
surface at right angles to the source
of light. (See also Lumen, Angström
Unit, Lux, and Micron.)
FOREIGN BROADCASTING
STATIONS.—See European Broad¬
casting Stations and Short-wave
Stations.
FOUR - ELECTRODE
VALVE.— A valve having
two grids between plate
Fie. 193.—Framework for a Square Frame and filament.
Aerial.
F.P.S. — Foot - Pound-
Second. The British
system of units.
Ammonium chloride is used for FRAME AERIAL.— The
soldering copper and iron. frame
Ammonium phosphate is used for aerial is
tin, zinc, copper, usually
and brass. It is associated
non-corrosive and with port¬
non-poisonous. able sets. It may be used
Hydro- with the ordinary type
chloric acid for of broadcast receiver. The
zinc and zinc-coated articles. actual amount of energy
Lactic acid for copper and copper picked up is small, but for
alloys. This acid tarnishes the metal the flat dweller, or those
round the soldered part. who for any reason are
Venice turpentine for pewter or unable to erect a good out¬
Britannia metal. door aerial, it will be found
Russian tallow for heavy lead useful. Perhaps the sim¬
work. plest forms, both from the
Palm oil for light lead work. point of view of actual
For wireless purposes the best flux construction and winding,
is resin, and it is essential that non¬ are the square, diamond,
acid fluxes are employed for this and circle. These are illus¬
work. (See also Soldering.) trated in Figs. 193, 194,
FLUX DENSITY.— The strength and 195. The wire which
of magnetic field around a magnet, is wound around these
permanent or electro. It depends A ^Diamond frames is in one piece,
upon the type of iron employed for Aerial. and it will be observed
178
 FRAME AERIAL

that actually this É a very large when the frame is at right angles, no
tuning coil. signals will be heard. This valuable
Directional Property. The prin- property has made possible the
cipal feature of this type <>f aerial is direction finder employed on ships
at sea, and by the post office
officials for tracking out un¬
licensed transmitting stations
and those listeners who spoil
the reception of the pro-
grammes by oscillating, Lis-
teners who live near a high-
powered station will often be
able to carry out satisfactory
reception of .listant stations
by means of the frame, pro¬
vided, of course, that the de¬
sired station is situated in a
direction at right angles, or
nearly so, to the nearby station.
The Frame.. In Fig. 193
will be seen ithe simplest of
frames. Here, four pieces of
I - in. wood,
4 in. wide by
2 ft. long, are
nailed or
Fig. 195.—A C-.rculur Aerial.
screwed to¬
its directional property, and it is gether at the
this which makes it so valuable. In ends to form
use, the frame acts as two vertical
aerials, the top and bottom being
ignored for the sake of this non-tech-
nical explanation. If, now, you
imagine a signal from a station pass¬
ing through Hie air, and the frame
aerial being turned in the plane of
the oncoming waves, it is obvious
that the waves will strike one side
of the aerial before they arrive at
the other side. Forces are therefore
generated which are “out of phase,”
and a current flows. If, however, the
waves hit the aerial broadside on,
both vertical aerials receive the im¬ Fie. 196.—The Connections for a Frame Aerial:
pulses at the same moment, and, the dotted lines show the additional connections for
capacity-controlled reaction.
therefore, no signal current will flow.
It therefore follows from this that
maximum signals are heard when the a square. At one side something must
frame is in the plane of the received be attached to enable the frame to be
signals, and the signal strength will rotated to make use of the property
diminish as the aerial is rotated until. above-mentioned. This may be a

179
SHORT-WAVE AERIAL SYSTEMS
 FRAME AERIAL
Fig. 198.—The Lecher-wire
circuit used for calibration
purposes. The upper loop
is o.nm-cted to the oscil¬
lator. whilst the lower one
is ir circuit with a lamp
which plows to indicate
resonance. (See Lecher
Wires.)

oooe

Wave Meter

section of round dowelling, broom

handle, etc., fitting into a socket
mounted on a base of sufficient size
and weight to prevent the frame from
falling over. Holes bored near the
pivot serve as anchorages for the ends
of the wire.
In Fig. 194 a more ambitious ar¬
rangement is shown. Two lengths
of quartering rj in. square are halved
together, and at the ends strips of
ebonite are fixed. Slots cut in the
TO LONG WAVE TO SHORT WAVE
ebonite hold the wires securely, and SECEIVER. RECEIVER.
the lower end is rounded off for a
Fic. 198a. —A duplex aerial arrangement for
bearing. Fig. 195 shows an arrange- long and short waves.
ment which may be made to look
very effective if varnished. Two- or¬ meter, are held about 4 in. apart by
dinary hoops of the kind used by strips of ebonite fixed round the
children, and about 24 in in dia- periphery. Shallow grooves or saw-

FRAME AERIAL DATA

Length o f Side No. of Space between Inductance. Self-capacity. Natural Wave-

of Square Frame. T urns. Wires. (Micro-hen ries.} (Micro-farads.) length in Metres.

8 ft. i in. 96 75 160

6 „ 124 66 170
4 » I 154 55 175
3 » 8 h 193 49 185

i8r
 FRAME AERIAL — FUSE
cuts should be made in these ebonite which may be two separate valves or
spacers to hold the wire. one valve doing the combined work,
The Wire for the Aerial. The wire and which yields a beat note having
for these aerials consists of thin flex, the frequency of the difference be¬
usually 14/36, that is, fourteen tween the received signal and the
strands of No. 36-gauge wire, cov¬ frequency of the oscillator.
ered with art. silk in various colours. FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION.
For the normal broadcast band 75 ft. —See Accumulator and Eliminator.
should be sufficient, although the FULTOGRAPH. — Apparatus for
exact length will depend upon the transmitting and receiving photo¬
shape of the aerial, the size of the
condenser used for tuning, and the
spacing between the turns. As a
rule, the wire should be wound on
with a space of about t', in. between
each turn. A “collector” should be
made from two strips of brass
mounted on a piece of ebonite, and
connected to the aerial and earth ter¬
minals of the receiver, the ends of
the frame aerial being connected to
two plungers taken from a standard
lamp holder, mounted on a strip of
ebonite so that they bear on the brass
strips. Of course, no tuning coil is
necessary with this type of aerial,
and if the set is fitted with one it graphs by wireless. The picture is re¬
should be removed. In the case of corded by a stylus on a rotating drum.
a simple detector circuit employing a FUNDAMENTAL.—The true fre¬
reaction coil, four or five extra turns quency. This term may be applied
should be wound on the frame, the to musical frequencies or the frequen¬
junction of these extra turns and the cies of wireless signals. In music the
end of the frame proper being con¬ fundamental note is the true number
nected to the earth terminal. The of vibrations per second, and in
free end of the extra turns should wireless it is the actual wavelength.
then be connected to the reaction The fundamental is always accom¬
condenser. panied by components having a fre¬
FREQUENCY. — The periodicity quency which is an integral multiple
or number of cycles per second; the of the fundamental. For instance, a
frequency of waves or oscillations. wavelength of 300 metres is accom¬
Formula for frequency is: f= —IO _ panied by frequencies which are
1 i^VLC double, quadruple, and so on. The
where L = inductance in microhenrys harmonic which is double the fre¬
and C = capacity in microfarads. quency of the fundamental is known
FREQUENCY CHANGER. — The as the “ second harmonic.”
part of a superheterodyne circuit FUNDAMENTAL WAVE¬
which changes the frequency of a re¬ LENGTH.— The natural wavelength
ceived signal in order that it may be of a 100-ft. aerial is approximately
amplified by the intermediate-fre¬ 120 metres. (See Aerial, Natural
quency amplifiers. It consists of an Wavelength of.)
oscillating valve and a detector, FUSE.—A piece of wire of low
182
 FUSE—GALVANOMETER
melting-point inserted in a. circuit so direction of current in a circuit.
that only a predetermined amount of Making a Galvanometer. With a
current can flow. Small fuses for little care one can be made to give
wireless sets should be inserted in the very good results. Fig. 201 shows a
H.T. — lead. It is generally inserted sectional view of the completed in¬
between H.T. — and L.T.— strument, fixed to a heavy base in
FUSE VALUES.— The value of a little cabinet, 2x2jxij in., com-
Luses for various posed of two sides, a top, and a back,
types of receiver with a small drawer, which can be
must be chosen pushed in and out, at the front. On
with care. On the drawer is wound a coil. On top
the input side to of the cabinet a glass lamp chimney
mains receivers is fixed, covered at the top with a
(either D.C. or cardboard lid. From the centre of
A.C.) at least this lid hangs a hair, supporting a
I amp. should little system of two magnetic needles.
be employed, The lower needle hangs in the centre
and prefer¬ of the coil, while the upper one hangs
ably a I- above it. When a current passes
amp. fuse through the coil, the needles are
should be deflected. Just above the needles a
i n eluded tiny mirror of polished tin is fixed,
in each which reflects a spot of light on to a
mains wall.
lead. A The Base. This should be at least
•5 - amp. i in. thick, and as heavy as possible.
F1C. 200.—The finished >»<«• fuse A sheet of lead on the bottom is
should be included in the H.T. nega¬ useful. The sides of the cabinet
tive lead of the mains section of an should b e
A.C. receiver, and in all filament or about J in.
heater circuits the value of fuse chosen thick, but
should be such that it will break the top and
down before any of the valves. It back can be
will vary, of course, according to the of fretwood.
method of wiring the filaments or Use glue and
heaters. In battery receivers, where brass screws
the filaments are in parallel, the fuse or pins to
should be of the type which will blow fix together.
before the current rises sufficiently No iron must
high to damage the valve of the on any ac-
lowest rating. count be
used. The
G front should
GAIN.—See Amplification. be made of
GALENA.— A crystal consisting of two pieces
sulphide of lead. of fret wood, Fig. 201.—A sectional view of
the completed instrument.
GALVANIC CELL.—A cell of the one large
voltaic type (which see), named after enough to cover the entire front of
Galvani. the cabinet ; the other a little smaller,
GALVANOMETER.— An instru¬ so that it just fits between the two
ment for detecting the existence and sides, the top, and the base. Glue
183
 GALVANOMETER
these together. To the back of this row beam of light from a shaded lamp
glue four pieces of wood, as shown should be thrown upon the mirror,
in Fig. 203, to make the former for and the galvanometer placed about
winding the coil. The lower needle 3 ft. from the wall. For less delicate
swings inside the former. The former readings a graduated circle can be
is wound with a dozen yards of No. fixed to the top of the cabinet, inside
26 double silk-covered wire. Wind the chimney,
this on closely and evenly, being readings being
careful to leave the slot in the top indicated
clear. Through this slot the needle by the upper
is passed when assembling the instru¬ needle.
ment. A galvano¬
Assembling the Parts. When wound meter, of course,
it is advisable to give it a coat of is an instrument
shellac varnish. Push this little for delecting
drawer into place and fasten by two small currents— Fie. 203.—The Former
brass screws. Bring out the ends of it does not for winding the Coil.
the coil to the two terminals fixed measure them.
on the base. These devices can be made also from
Fig. 202 a small i|-in. diameter compass.
is a plan of This should be mounted upon a
the cabinet board, and beneath should be at¬
with the top tached an electromagnet. This latter
removed. may be made from two or three
Obtain two punchings or stampings, from an old
magnetic wireless transformer. Cut them } in.
needles wide and of a length equal to the
about i in. diameter of the compass, that is, i| in.
long, or Put them together, and wind 2 turns
make them of paper round them. Then wind
Flc. 202.—A plan view of the
Cabinet with the top removed. from pieces this core with about 80 turns of fairly
o f sewing fine wire, say 30 MAJ# M/PPO#
needle. Fasten them firmly with sec- D.C.C., and wind it \Seteot/peû
cotine to a vertical wire, so that the in an anti-clockwise
L To Wire
north pole of one is over the south direction. Mount the
pole of the other (see Fig. 204). Sec- magnet so that the
cotine the upper end of the vertical magnetic needle of
wire to a hair, the other end of which the compass when
is fastened to the cover of the lamp pointing to north is
chimney at right angles to it, Needles
Seccvtwîû
Seccotine the chimney firmly to the and bring the two
top of the cabinet. Lower the leads from the elec¬ N
needles into place, the bottom one tromagnet to two
passing through slits in the cabinet terminals. F& 204T De .
top and former. To test an instru- tails of the Hair,
The mirror is a tiny disc of pol¬ ment made in this Mynetic Need!».,
and Mirror.
ished tinplate about A"in. diameter, way, connect the
seccotined to the top of the vertical left-hand terminal of the galvano¬
wire just above the upper needle. It meter to the shorter strip of an or¬
should be made slightly concave to dinary pocket-lamp battery, and
give a sharper spot of light. A nar¬ adjust it so that the needle of the
184
 GALVANOMETER — GRAMOPHONE AMPLIFIER
compass points due north to the GAUSS.—The C.G.S. electro-mag¬
earth's magnetism. Then connect netic unit of flux density of field
the longer strip of the battery to strength, named after Carl F. Gauss
the other terminal, and the nœdle (1777-1855). In a unit magnetic field
should immediately take up another a unit pole experiences a force of one
position between north and east, and dyne. In a field of strength H a unit
the new position will depend on the pole experiences a force of H dynes. A
current flowing through the instru¬ pole of strength m webers in a field of
ment. To use for polarity testing, H gauss will experience a force of mH
the needle will move towards the dynes. The strength of the earth’s
field in a horizontal
direction at Greenwich
is about 0-17 gauss at
present. One gauss
equals one max¬
well per square centi¬
metre. (See Maxwell
and Weber.)
GETTER .—See
Valve.
GIL B E R T.—One
thousand Unit Mag¬
netic Poles (which
see). See also Max¬
well and Weber.
GONIOMETER.— A
special instrument for
measuring angles.
FIC. 205.—Circuit Diagram kr a Two-Valve Gramophone Amplifier (See also K a (I I O
Goniometer.)
positive terminal. GRAMOPHONE AMPLIFIER.—
GAMMA RAYS.—The term applied A device consisting of one or
to those frequencies above those of
more valves suitably coupled, to
the so-called X rays. The exact band
amplify the "signals’' picked up
of frequencies covered by the gamma
rays has not yet been defined. from a gramophone record.
GANG.— Any series of similar com¬ The Pick-up. In a pick-up the
ponents joined together and operated needle is attached to a small arma¬
by a common control. ture which is capable of vibrating
 GRAMOPHONE AMPLIFIER

between the pole pieces of a

permanent magnet. Around
the armature or the magnet
there is a small coil in
which electrical impulses are in¬
duced owing to the vibrating
armature. It will be realised
that the electrical currents gener¬
ated have to be amplified. The
recommended amplifier has two
valves, as will be seen from the
theoretical diagram shown in
Fig. 205. The two wires from
FlC. 208.—Mains version of Circuit
shown in Fig. 207.

its other side is given a grid

bias in the usual way. The
anode of the second valve is
connected to the positive side
of the H.T. battery through
the loudspeaker. It will be
found that a detector valve in
the first stage and a power
F1G. 207.—Theoretical Circuit of Two-
Valve Gramophone Amplifier.

the pick-up terminals (the

latter are connected to the
pick-up coil) are connected
across the grid and the fila¬
ment of the first valve. Notice
that a grid bias is applied to
the grid through the pick-up.
The Connections. The fila¬
ments of the two valves are
connected in parallel across the
L.T. supply, a common fila¬
ment regulator controlling the
voltage across the filaments.
The anode of the first valve is
connected to one side of the
primary of a L.F. trans¬
former, the other side of the
primary going to the positive
side of the H.T. battery. The
secondary of the transformer
is connected to the grid of the
second valve on one side, while
Fig. 209.—Wiring diagram of Gramophone
Amplifier shown in Fig. 207.
186
 GRAMOPHONE AMPLIFIER GRAMOPHONE PICK-UP

valve in the second stage will suit place of the latter on a gramophone
best. Make sure that a good quality record. Two leads from the pick-up
transformer is used. A cheap trans¬ are connected to the wireless set; the
former will cause a good deal of dis¬ valves amplify the impulses, and they
tortion. As will be seen from the are then passed through the speaker.
circuit diagram (Fig. 207), it is ex- The pick-up has to be connected
between the grid of the input valve
F1G. 210.—Dia¬
F and the grid-bias tapping, and a sim¬
grammatic illus¬ ple way of carrying this out is to
tration of Switch¬ purchase one of the pick-up adapters,
ing arrangement
without Volume Q which takes the form of a valve,
Control. holder or valve base, with pins on
one side, sockets on the opposite side,
and two or more terminals ar¬
TO PAOlO
COHPO^tLNT coo a ¿5 ranged at some other part of
it. The valve to which the pick¬
up is to be added is removed
from its holder, the special
adapter plugged in its place, the valve
ceedingly simple, and can be built up replaced in the adapter, and the pick¬
in a couple of hours, including the up leads and grid-bias lead attached
panel drilling and the assembling. to their respective terminals. This,
Fig. 206 shows how to connect the however takes time to carry out, and
gramophone amplifier to the set. The is not so convenient as a switching
following components are required : arrangement. Switches are now ob-
tainable which have small indicators
List of Components fitted showing the words "Radio”
i detector valve. and "Gram.” Any form of switch
L.F. or power valve. may be used, provided it is of the
9-volt dry grid-bias batteries. single-pole change-
4-volt accumulator.
150-volt H.T. battery.
ebonite panel, 9J in. wide, 4 in.
high, and in. thick.
wooden baseboard, 9 X 8| in.
ebonite terminal
strip, 9| X i X TO RADIO
i in. cOfiPOnanT
terminals, -

screws, wood¬ F1C. 211.—Switch¬

screws, and wire, ing arrangement with
2 metal brackets, Volume Control. CRlD BIAS_
I gramophone pick¬
up. (See that it its the tone arm to the grid terminal of the valve
of the gramophone before purchas¬ holder to which you wish to connect
ing it.) the pick-up. Now disconnect the wire
2 valve holdeis. which goes to this grid terminal, and
I L.F. transformer. connect it to one side of the switch.
GRAMOPHONE PICK-UP — A de¬ Connect a wire from the grid terminal
vice similar in form to a gramophone of the valve holder to the arm of
sound box and tone arm, used in the switch, and from the remaining
187
 GRAMOPHONE PICK-UP GRID LEAK
contact of the switch a wire must of the line. If too much bias is ap¬
go to one side of the pick-up. plied, so that the working point is
Connecting the Pick-up. It will brought to the bottom bend of the
generally be found most convenient to curve, the valve will rectify, and this
fit two extra terminals on the terminal method is known as anode-bend de¬
strip so that the pick-up may be con¬ tection (which see).
nected and disconnected as required. Valves which are employed for
The remaining lead from the pick-up H.F. operation sometimes require a
must be plugged into a grid-bias bat¬ positive bias, whilst all L.F. valves
tery at a tapping which will apply the require a negative bias. The bias is
correct voltage to the grid of the valve. applied by inserting a small battery
Of course, in a good many cases the between the grid-return lead and the
detector valve will be used to connect negative L.T. lead. In some forms
the pick-up to, and when used in this of mains receivers the bias is applied
way it is acting as a L.F. valve, so
care must be taken in getting the
correct grid-bias voltage (see Figs.
210 and 2ir).
GREENWICH TIME SIGNAL—
See Time Signal.
THE GREEK ALPHABET—The
Greek alphabet is as follows :
A a(alpha), B ß(bêta), T 7 (gamma),
A J (delta), E e (epsilon), Z f (zeta),
H y] (ëta), 6 e (thêta), I 1(iota),
K K(kappa), A X (lambda), M p (mu),
N p (nu), S £ (xi), O 0 (omicron),
n TT (pi), P p(rho), S as (sigma), T r
(tau), T v (upsilon), <!> <p (phi), X x (chi),
'P (psi), Q w (omega). (See also Sym¬
Fig. 212. —Theoretical and actual diagrams of Grid
bols and Conventional Signs.) Leak and Fixed Resistances.
GRID.—See Valve. automatically by the insertion of re¬
GRID BIAS.—A potential applied sistances in the cathode or grid re¬
to a valve to bring its working char¬ turn leads. (See also Bias and Auto¬
acteristic up to a certain point. For in¬ matic Grid Bias.)
stance, in low-frequency amplification GRID CONDENSER. — A con¬
it is essential that the grid shall be denser (usual values '0003 mfd. and
at a potential of such a value that •0001 mfd.) used to control the grid
the applied signals will vary an equal potential of the detector valve.
amount on the anode curve. If you Usually has a grid leak of from 2 Q
examine Fig. 52 you will see a to 50 connected in parallel with it.
standard grid volts-anode current GRID LEAK.—A fixed resistance
curve, and at 100 volts H.T. the of the non-inductive type (usually
centre point of the sloping line is 2O value) connected in parallel with
directly above the grid-bias volt line. the grid condenser.
Therefore, if a valve with character¬ GRID LEAK AND CONDENSER
istics shown by these curves is em¬ VALUES.— Take the values of con¬
ployed as a L.F. valve, then a cer¬ denser and grid leak employed in a
tain bias must be applied in order to leaky grid or power-grid detector cir¬
bring the working point to the centre cuit, or in a resistance capacity-
188
 GRID LEAK — HARD VALVE

coupled amplifying stage. For the such that the "time constant" of
average leaky grid detector a con¬ the grid circuit is small compared
denser of -0003 mid. capacity and a with the frequency of the incoming
grid leak of about 2 megohms resist¬ signals, so that at al’, times the grid
ance usually are recommended, while is "cleared” ready for the next
for the low-frequency R.C. stage the signal wave.
condenser may be as great as -05 mid. GRID STOPPER.—A device used
or even more, and the grid leak of to prevent the flow of H.F. currents
the order of 250,000 ohms. Y hat are in the grid circuit of an L.F. valve.
the rules governing the choice of these The stopper usually takes the form of
values, and to what extent, if any, a fixed resistance having a value of
can the recommended values be de¬ about 100,000 ohms, but an H.F.
parted from? Without going too choke can frequently be employed in¬
deeply into theory, it can be stated stead. Stoppers are nearly always
that the function of the coupling con¬ desirable in a short-wave receiver,
denser is principally to convey the although of value in any set which
alternating signal to the grid of the is subject to L.F. oscillation or
valve, while the grid leak acts as a serious " hand-capacity.”
discharge resistance. Now the react¬ GROUND WAVE.—See Fading.
ance, or opposition offered by a con¬
denser to the passage of an alternating H
current, is high at low frequencies HALF-WAVE RECTIFICATION.
and lower at high frequencies. At —See Accumulator and Eliminator.
the enormous frequencies used for HALF-WAVE AERIAL. — See
broadcasting, which are of the order Dipole.
of a million cycles per second, a HALYARD.—The rope used to
small condenser, of about -0003 mid., support an aerial.
is quite satisfactory over the whole HAND CAPACITY.—The name
radio frequency range. But in a low- applied to the interference caused by
frequency amplifier the ratio between approaching the body or hand to a
the lowest frequency it is required to receiver and the transference of high
pass (perhaps 12 cycles) and the frequencies through the body to
highest (say 12,000 cycles), is in the earth. This is most noticeable in
neighbourhood of x,ooo to 1. If, short-wave work, when the presence
therefore, the coupling condenser is of the hand near the tuning condenser
very small, its reactance at the lower causes all signals to pass to earth.
audio frequencies will be so high that The cure for this form of interaction
the lower notes will be weakened or is to insert a large metallic plate
"attenuated" and serious amplitude (which is itself joined to earth) be¬
distortion will occur. tween the tuning controls and the
The grid leak is called upon, in operating knob, or in other words,
a detector circuit, to discharge the between the operating knob and the
electrons accumulated on the grid component to which that knob is
during alternate half-cycles, while in fitted. On normal broadcast wave¬
the resistance capacity-coupled stage lengths. the connection of the moving
it has to complete the grid circuit of plates of variable condensers to earth
the valve and discharge it continu¬ helps to avoid the trouble.
ously and rapidly so that the voltage HARD VALVE.—A valve which has
at the grid at any instant accurately been completely exhausted. This re¬
follows the signal voltage fluctua¬ sults in a longer life and better quali¬
tions. Its value, therefore, must be ties, owing to the fact that full use
189
 HARMONIC — HIGH-FREQUENCY CHOKE
H.F.— High Fre¬
quency (which see).
H.F.C. — High-
frequency Current,
or High-frequency
Choke.
HIGH F R E -
QUENCY. — Any
frequency over
20,000 cycles per
second.
HIGH ■ F R E ■
QUENCY AMPLI¬
FIER.— An ampli¬
fier in which
amplification o f
Fig. 213.—The Hartley Circuit
the received im-
may be made of the filament electron pulses takes place before detection.
stream. (See also Soft Valve.) HIGH-FREQUENCY CHOKE.—
HARMONIC.— A component pos¬ A coil of wire having a very low
sessing a frequency which is an integ¬ self-capacity but fairly high induct¬
ral multiple of the fundamental. If, ance, which offers a barrier to high-
for instance, we have a frequency of frequency oscillations. Its principal
loo, the second harmonic would have use is to divert the H.F. oscillations
a frequency of 200, the following of a detector valve for reaction pur¬
harmonics having frequencies of 400, poses, although it is also used for
800, 1,600, 3,200, etc. coupling purposes in H.F. amplifying
HARTLEY CIRCUIT.—A circuit stages. For this latter purpose a very
arrangement in which a centre tap good component is essential, and a
is provided on the grid coil. One higher degree of efficiency is demanded
half of the coil serves for the reaction than for reaction purposes. The ideal
circuit and this is completed by a choke has the winding wound in sec-
condenser between anode and coil.
HEAVISIDE LAYER.— An ionised
layer of the atmosphere about forty
miles above the surface of the earth.
HENRY.— The unit of inductance.
When a pressure of 1 volt is induced
through a coil and changes at the
rate of 1 ampere per second, it is
said to have an inductance of 1
henry. Named after Joseph Henry.
Other units are millihenry (one¬
thousandth of a henry), and micro¬
henry (one-millionth of a henry). F1C. 214. Typical short-wave and broadcast-band
H.F. Chokes with sectional windings.
HEPTODE.— See Pentagrid.
HERTZIAN WAVES. — Ether
waves (discovered by Hertz). tions, a device which reduces the
HEXODE.— Same as Heptode. capacity. (See also Choke, Anti¬
HETERODYNE.—See Beat Re¬ break-through Choke, and Break
ception and Super-heterodyne. Through.)
190
 HIGH-FREQUENCY CHOKE
Making High-frequency Chokes. used, of which 150 turns are placed
Reaction, S.G., and mains H.F. in each slot. The S.G. choke is
chokes can all be made in a similar similar, but will have twice as many
manner. The first requirement will turns. As regards the mains choke,
be some kind of former. Bearing in this will be wound with 1700 turns of
mind the necessity for keeping self¬ 28-gauge wire, putting 170 in each
capacity down to its lowest possible slot.
limit, the best material is a six-ribbed Count the turns carefully to ensure
ebonite coil former. This can be ob¬ that thev are equally divided, because
tained for Cd. per 4-in length of i-in. unevenness might possibly cause the
choke to “peak,” or have a “dead
spot ” at some particular wavelength.
The method of mounting and
making terminal connections will de¬
pend upon whether or not the choke
is to be screened. Assuming that it
is not, 4B.A. terminal can be screw’ed
into the ends of the former (they will
make their own thread if a little force
is used). Soldering tags can be fitted
under the terminal nuts and the ends
of the winding soldered to these (see
Fig. 216). When this method of con¬
nection is used, the choke can be
suspended in the winng of the set.
Should it be required to fit a
screening box (the chokes described
F1C. 215.—Method of cutting ebonite former for the have sufficient inductance to permit
H.F. Choke. of screening), the most convenient
method of mounting will be that
(outside) diameter. Two kinds are shown in Fig. 217. The choke, along
available, one of which is solid, whilst
the other has a |-in. diameter hole
running through it; the latter is most
convenient, as will be seen later.
First, a number of slots must be
made in the six ribs. For the “re¬
action ” and S.G. chokes these should
be in. wide, J in. deep, and ru in.
apart; in the case of the mains chokes,
however, they should be | in. wide,
J in. deep, and in. apart (see Fig. F1C. 216.—The ends of the winding are anchored as
215). The former for the S.G. choke shown h> re.

will require twenty slots, but the

other two will need only ten each. with a i j-in. diameter " lid,” is at¬
The smaller slots can be made quite tached to an ebonite base by means
easily with a widely set hacksaw, but of a length of 6B.A. rod. Two ter¬
the wider ones must be formed with minals are mounted on the base, and
a warding file. In winding the “re¬ leads from the winding are brought
action ” choke, a total of 1500 turns to these through lengths of insulating
of 38-gauge enamelled wire will be sleeving. The screen must, of course,

191
 HIGH-FREQUENCY CHOKE
be earthed, and a small terminal is anti-break-through choke can easily
therefore attached to the top of the be made. The same material will be

FlG. 217. Complete assembling details of a screened H.F. Choke.

“box” for this purpose. It is im¬ used for the former, but only three
portant that the box and lid should be uj- in. slots are required. A winding
a perfect fit. consisting of 210 turns of 38-gauge
An Anti break-through Choke. An enamelled wire is equally divided be-

Fig. 218.—Theoretical circuit showing positions of H.F. chokes, and anti-break-through choke in aerial lead.
I92
 HIGH-FREQUENCY CHOKE
tween the three slots. As can be seen Making L.F. and Smoothing
from Fig. 218, the choke must be Chokes. The essentials of a
short-circuited by means of a switch smoothing choke are: An inductance
when receiving on the lower wave¬ of not less than 50 henries at the
band. normal working current, a resistance
Short-wave Chokes. It is desirable to D.C. current of 2,000 ohms or less,
and a safe current-carrying capacity
of not less than 20 m/A. It is also
an advantage, if the choke is provided
with a tapping point:, to enable al¬
ternative ratios to be obtained when
it is employed to feed a loudspeaker.
In order to cover all the above re¬
quirements with an ample " reserve,”
the choke described has an induct¬
ance of about 50 henries when carry¬
ing 25 rnilliamps. and a D.C. resist¬
ance of 1700 ohms. The winding is
30 TURNS 33 GAUGE WIRE
centre tapped, and consequently the
IN EACH SLOT
components can successfully be em¬
F1C. 219.—An easily madb short-wave
H.F. choke. ployed for a wide variety of pur¬
poses.
to wind the turns side by side as well
as to divide them into sections, and "U"stamping
the simplest way of doing this is illus¬
trated in Fig. 219. Ribbed ebonite
coil former of r-in. diameter is used,
but the " slots” are only in. deep
by j in. wide, and are J in. apart.
To cover wavelengths from 10 to 100
metres, a total of 120 turns of 38
S.W.G. enamelled wire are required,
and these are divided into four equal
parts of thirty turns each. No at¬
tempt should be made to screen an
SAV. choke, since this cannot be done
without introducing serious losses.
It is sometimes required to make a
set to cover both ' ' broadcast ' ’ and
short waves, and in that case it is
better to use two chokes in series, or
to combine both long- and short-wave
windings on one former. One end of
the short-wave winding must be con¬ Fig. 22G.—Standard " U " and " T ” stampings,
with dimensions, for use in L.F. chokes and various
nected to the anode terminal of the transformers.
detector valve. With this arrange¬
ment there is no need to short-circuit The core consists of about 3| dozen
either component, since they will pairs of No. 5 Stalloy stampings of
both come into use quite auto¬ “ T ” and ” U ” shape, whilst rather
matically according to the wave¬ less than J lb. of 38-gauge enamelled
length to which the set is tuned. wire is used for the winding. Stamp-
p.w.E.—G' 193
 HIGH-FREQUENCY CHOKE
ings of the size mentioned can be A circular spool is somewhat easier
obtained from certain firms who to make, but is not quite so efficient.
specialise in the supply of such parts, It is built up on a cardboard tube
but, incidentally, this size was em¬ Í in. inside diameter, and fitted with
ployed for many of the better-quality a pair of 2-in. diameter end cheeks,
L.F. transformers that were made c. after which shellac is applied as be¬
few years ago. The dimensions of fore.
the stampings are shown in Fig. 220, After the winding spool has been
and by referring to these it will be made, two small holes should be
an easy matter to tell if the core made near the inside of one end cheek
of an old burnt-out transformer which and a short length of rubber-covered
happens to be on hand can be made flex threaded through these, leaving
use of. about 4 in. projecting outside and
The first thing is to make a wind¬ 6 in. projecting inside the spool.
ing spool, which may have either a Next carefully solder the bared end
of the 38-gauge enamelled wire to
the end of the flex which is on the
inside of the spool. It then only re¬
mains to wind on the wire.
After winding on one-quarter of the
wire, the turns should be covered
with a layer of insulation, such as
waxed paper, oiled silk, or empire
tape, and this should be so put on
that it will be impossible for later
turns to slip past it. The winding
should then be continued to 4000
turns (it is not necessary to count,
and an approximation based on the
total quantity of wire will suffice),
at which a tapping point should be
made. Fit another layer of insula¬
F1C. 221. How to make the winding bobbin from
paxolin sheet for chokes and transformers. tion, continue to the 8000th turn,
again insulate, and then complete the
square or circular section “tunnel.” winding. Solder a third length of
If it is square, it should be of flex to the last turn, pass this once
the dimensions shown in Fig. 221, and round the spool, and then anchor it
can be made up by bending a strip of in a pair of holes made in a con¬
stout card in the manner indicated. venient position in the end cheek.
When the card has been bent to The winding should finally be covered
shape it should be fitted with two with a protecting layer of empire
end cheeks 2 in. square. The latter tape.
can be fixed in position with Once the coil has been wound, the
“tacky” glue, after which the com¬ stampings can be fitted into the
plete spool should be given a coat of spool. The method of fitting is per¬
thin shellac varnish to make it rigid. fectly simple if it is remembered that
Before winding is commenced it is " T "- and " U ’’-shaped pieces are al¬
a good plan to wrap a layer of in¬ ternated throughout. Another point
sulating tape round the spool to to remember is that each stamping
cover the otherwise sharp corners, is insulated on one side, and, to en¬
which might tend to cut the fine wire. sure that this shall be effective, the
194
 HIGH-FREQUENCY CHOKE
insulated (white or grey) side of excess of some 50 milliamps., it is
every stamping should face in the advisable to employ a smoothing
same direction. The method of choke of greater dimensions and hav¬
assembly is shown in Fig. 222. ing a lower resistance to D.C. It is
It has been stated that the choke also an advantage to make the com¬
should be added that it is also en¬ ponent of the so-called constant-in¬
tirely suitable for H.T. smoothing in ductance type, so that its inductance
mains equipment, where the total varies by only the very slightest
current does not exceed about 50 amount when the current passing
milliamps. When passing the maxi¬ through the winding is varied. In
mum current, the choke will have an order that a choke should show such
inductance of rather more than 30 characteristics, there must be an air¬
gap in the core; that is, the “ T "-
and " U "-shaped stampings should
not touch each other, but should be
arranged with a small gap between
u Sta/npinq them. Particulars will be given of a
component of this type which has an
Cone ^Stamping inductance of 50 henries, a D.C. re¬
Ctamps sistance of about 1300 ohms, and a
maximum current-carrying capacity
of nearly 100 milliamps.
Six dozen pairs of No. 4 Stalloy
stampings are required for the core,
and the winding should consist of
approximately 12,000 turns, or i|
lb. of 36-gauge enamelled wire. The
winding arm of the core will measure
JfxiJrX 2 ¿in. long, so a spool of
these dimensions, and fitted with end
U "Stamping cheeks measuring 2$ x 2 J in., should
first be made. This will be wound
T Stamping ¡ n exa8 tly the same manner as was
described for the smaller component,
taking tappings if desired.
The only real difference occurs when
FlC. 222.—Method of constructing supports and the core stampings are to be fitted,
assembling the core of an L.F. choke and L.F. or since arrangements have to be made
mains transformer.
to provide the necessary air gap.
henrys and will produce a voltage This is easily done by fitting all the
drop of 85. The choke is really most "T” stampings into the spool from
suitable for use in an eliminator sup- one end, and then arranging all the
described above can be used for vari¬ "U” stampings opposite to them.
ous L.F. coupling purposes, but it The necessary gap is fixed by slipping
plying about 30 milliamps., and strips of card TV in. thick between
under such conditions its inductance the ends of the “ U ” stampings and
is sufficiently high to give adequate the sides of the “ T’s.” Addition¬
smoothing, whilst the voltage-drop ally, to prevent the gap being short-
produced will be 51 (a reasonably circuited, slips of paper must be
low figure). placed between the core clamps and
When dealing with currents in the core itself.
195
 HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANSFORMER — HIGH TENSION
HIGH-FREQUENCY TRANS¬ volts each. These cells are connected
FORMER.—A component used for in series; that is to say, the positive
coupling H.F. valves. It consists of of the first is the positive or + of
two coils coupled together. These the battery, the negative of this cell
two coils are designed so that a step- being joined to the positive of the
up in ratio is obtained, and the coup¬ second cell, the negative of which
ling between the coils is arranged so goes to positive of the third, and
that tuning one of the windings has so on until the requisite number
the effect of tuning the other. The of cells are connected up, the sum
secondary winding, which is always of which makes up the voltage re¬
included in the grid circuit of the quired, ending, of course, with the
following valve, is the one most com¬ negative or —. It can be seen now
monly tuned. If the two windings how simple it is for the manufac¬
are arranged so that the coupling turers to make provision at different
between them may be varied, the points on the top surface of the bat¬
selectivity of the amplifier may be tery, enabling it to be tapped for
adjusted. intermediate voltages. The larger the
elements in the cell the lower is its
resistance, which enables the current
of the cell to have a greater output.
It must stand to reason, then, that
the larger these cells are made—and
this must consequently increase the
overall dimensions of the battery in
its cardboard or tin case—the better
will the aggregate number of cells
stand up to the consumption of
the valves. That is the reason
why a "triple" capacity bat¬
tery of the same voltage is
HT bigger than one of the " stand¬
Qattek-t
ard ” capacity.
F1C. 223.—Theoretical and actual diagrams of a High-tension
Battery. There are three different rat¬
ings made, "standard,” "dou¬
HIGH TENSION AND LOW ble," and "triple" capacities. The
TENSION.— High tension usually following is a list of capacities most
refers to voltages above 6 volts, and economical for the number of valves
low tension to 6 volts and under*. in a set :
HIGH-TENSION BATTERY.—A ' ' Standard ’ ’ capacity for 3-valve
number of dry (sometimes wet) cells sets taking up to 6-7 milliamperes.
connected in series, used for supplying " Double ” capacity for 4 tog-valve
plate current. sets taking up to 10-16 milliamperes.
There are several grades and prices “Triple” capacity for multi-valve
of H.T. batteries on the market, and sets taking anything up to 30 milli¬
it behoves 1 he listener to consider well amperes.
before buying any but those manu¬ The battery having a “double”
factured by firms of repute. It should capacity does not cost twice as much
be understood that the useful life of as the "standard,” although if used
the battery is governed by several on the same set will give twice its
important points. A battery of 120 life. Another good feature of the
volts is made up of 80 cells of larger capacity is that its voltage
196
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 HIGH-TENSION BATTERY — INDUCTANCE
drops more slowly; this means a more gravity) of the electrolyte of an ac¬
uniform output and a better perform¬ cumulator. See Accumulator and
ance of the set. Areometer for instructions on using.
The active parts of the cell are HYSTERESIS.— Tendency to resist
made up of a carbon rod, positive change of condition. Lagging.
element, the electrolyte (which is in
paste form), and the zinc container I
or negative element. ICONOSCOPE.— See Television.
The action of the paste—and this IMPEDANCE.— The resistance to
is a mixture of sal-ammoniac and flow of current offered by a circuit.
certain other ingredients—supplies the INDUCED CURRENT.— When a
electrical current. This action in time current is passed through a wire
tends to eat away the zinc and is which is in close proximity to another
one of the things which govern the wire, currents will be induced in that
life of the battery. other wire. The induced current will
HORSE - POWER. — Electrical be in the opposite direction.
equivalent = 746 watts. Mechanical INDUCTANCE.— The electrical unit
unit = 33,000 ft.-pounds per minute, of inertia. The tendency of a circuit
or 550 ft.-pounds per second. to resist current flow and also change
HOT-WIRE AMMETER.—An in¬ of rate of flow. Unit of inductance
strument for measuring, in amperes, is the henry (which see).
the current flowing in a circuit. It The formula for inductance in
consists of a fine wire which heats up microhenrys is: T -
and expands in proportion to the cur¬ i ,000
rent passing through it. where L = inductance, D = diameter of
H.T.—High Tension (which see). coil in centimetres, Z = length of coil
HUM.— See Noises. in centimetres, N = number of turns
HUM-BUCKING COIL.— A coil of per centimetre, and K = a constant.
wire arranged on a moving-coil loud¬ See table.
speaker or a gramophone pick-up to
THIS TABLE SHOWS THE
reduce the interference caused by
mains hum. The coil is wound in VALUE OF K, WHICH MUST BE
opposition to the main windings and CALCULATED FROM P
is of only small dimensions so that it
does not affect the proper working of D D
1 K K
the speaker or pick-up. The hum is 1

balanced out by the passage of the 4'00 •3654 1-25 •6381

3*75 3743 roo •6884
current through the two coils.
3’5 •3944 •90 •7110
HUM-DINGER.— A small potentio¬ 3’25 •4111 •80 •7351
3 00 •4292 •70 •7609
meter which is wired across the heater 2-75 •4545 •60 •7885
supply secondary winding of the mains 2*5 •4719 •50 •8181
2-25 •4972 •40
transformer of an A.C. mains receiver. 2-0
•8499
•52.55 •30 •8838
In place of the usual centre-tap on this 1-75 •5579 •20 •9201
winding, the arm of the potentiometer 1-5 •5950 •10 •9588
is joined tc earth, and it may thus be INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITY.
adjusted to find the electrical centre —The wavelength to which a cir¬
and thus balance the circuit, with the cuit is tuned depends upon the
consequent removal of hum caused by product of the inductance and capac¬
an unbalanced heater circuit. ity of the circuit. Actually, it is
HYDROMETER.— An instrument equal to the number 1,884 multiplied
for measuring the density (the specific by the square root of the product of
198
 INDUCTANCE COIL — INTERACTION
the inductance and the capacity, the INKER.— A device used in tele¬
former being expressed in microhen- graphy for making permanent record
rys and the latter in microfarads. of the Morse signals It consists of
Why is it, then, that a tuning con¬ a sounder, with a device which is
denser of 0005 mfd. is invariably supplied with ink. A roll of paper
specified for a broadcast receiver? tape is fixed on this device, and the
The answer is that considerations of paper tape is drawn through a gap
size and overall efficiency more or less over which is suspended the inking
settle beforehand the inductance of point. As the armature of the
tuning coils, values of approximately sounder is vibrated in sympathy with
200 microhenrys for the medium the received signals, the inked point
waves, and about 2,000 microhenrys makes contact with the tape.
for the long-wave band, having be¬ INPUT ADMITTANCE —The reci¬
come standard. If a condenser of, procal of impedance. See also Miller
say, oooj mfd. were substituted, the Effect.
receiver could not be tuned to the
INTERACTION.—If one compares
higher wavelengths in each band. On
the average home-constructed receiver
the other hand, a larger capacity of
with a commercial product of similar
tuning condenser would not decrease
size, both for appearance and per¬
the wave range of the. set.
formance, one will find many differ¬
INDUCTANCE COIL.—A coil pos¬
ences. On the grounds of appearance,
sessing a high degree of inductance.
the usual contrast between the two
A choke. Inductances in parallel re¬
sets is that while the home pro¬
duce total inductance, and vice versa.
INDUCTION.—The transfer of duct looks scrappy the commer¬
cial receiver is usually a model of
magnetism from one body to another
neatness and compact design. Under
not in contact with it.
INDUCTION COIL.—A coil in these conditions the performance is
very often equal. When the home¬
which voltage is increased by reduc¬
made set is compressed a little, how¬
tion of amperage. (See Interrupter.)
INDUCTION MOTOR.— A motor ever, and made to look neat, it very
consisting of a powerful magnetic seldom works as well. The one word
field with a disc suspended in the “interaction” goes a long way to
explain this phenomenon. While al¬
field. The action of the eddy cur¬
rents in the disc causes rotation of most anyone with a little knowledge
the disc, and by so designing the of radio principles can make an un¬
magnetic poles, the spacing of the tidy set work well, it takes a qualified
poles, the metal of the disc, and the expert to design the same set in
method of suspension, quite a power¬ such a way that it still works when
ful torque is obtainable. This type it is “tidied up.” The fact of the
of motor works from alternating cur¬ matter is that one cannot take liber¬
rent only, and no brushes are re¬ ties with the placing of the separate
quired, consequently there is no components of a set until one under¬
interference with radio. This has re¬ stands first principles.
sulted in the motor being used chiefly Conventional Layouts. From this
for gramophone work. reasoning, to make things easier for
INDUCTIVE CAPACITY.— See the home constructor, have sprung
Dielectric Constants. certain accepted conventional ' ' lay¬
INDUCTIVE REACTANCE.—Cal¬ outs,” with which one cannot go far
culated from the formula 2 r/L, where wrong.
/ = frequency and L = the inductance. A few suggestion about layouts
199
 INTERACTION
and avoiding interaction will prove of metal, moreover, is not sufficient.
helpful to those listeners who are pos¬ A screen of sensible size is well worth
sessed of an inquiring turn of mind. any trouble involved in the construc¬
The main thing to be avoided is in¬ tion of the set.
teraction between two tuned circuits. Since a tuned circuit consists of a
When a set uses a stage of H.F. am¬ coil and a condenser, it is obviously
plification the grid circuit of the H.F. no great gain to screen the coils
valve and the grid circuit of the de- from one another while the conden-

tector (or the anode circuit of the sers lie side by side on the front
H.F. valve—really the same thing) panel. This is one good reason for
will be tuned to the same wavelength. using a screen of the same depth as
Any possibility of interaction be¬ the baseboard, and "partitioning
tween these two circuits must be off” the H.F. stage altogether (Fig.
carefully guarded against. Fig. 225 226). A metal or metal-backed panel,
shows roughly the shape of the elec¬ and a baseboard covered on the un¬
tro-magnetic field of coils of the derside with copper foil, also help
usual plug-in type, and it will be things considerably.
readily seen that the “A” arrange¬ The screened-grid valve was in¬
ment is unsatisfactory while the " B ” vented to do away with the anomaly
is considerably better. that, while it was possible to screen
Screening. Screened coils and the grid and anode circuits of a
screening boxes for complete H.F. valve from each other, the grid and
stages make things fairly satisfactory anode were still fairly closely coupled
nowadays, but if a set is built with together inside the valve. A meshed
plug-in or home-made coils, it is im¬ screen was therefore introduced be¬
portant that the two circuits should tween them, and the anode lead
be arranged at right-angles, as in Fig. brought out at the opposite end of
226, and that a screen should be ar¬ the valve from the others.
ranged between them. A small piece If one is to make the most of the
200
 INTERACTION
possibilities of a screened-grid valve, end of the receiver. Interaction be¬
one must “back up the designers,’’ tween two L.F. transformers can
and see that the grid and anode produce unsatisfactory effects. If
really are still screened from one it does not result in audible oscilla¬
another. The easiest way of doing tion, to the accompaniment of any¬
this is to use a layout similar to that thing between a ‘ fog-horn ’ ’ note
in Fig. 226, mounting the valve hori¬ and a high-pitched whistle, it may
zontally through the vertical screen, easily produce a parasitic oscillation

Coils

HF Tuning Detector Tuning

F1C. 226.—A Screen the same depth as the Baseboard is used tor " partitioning off ’’ the H.F. stage.

so that its anode goes through into above the audible range of frequen¬
the detector compartment, the rest cies, which will only betray its pres¬
of it being left behind where it be¬ ence by spoiling the quality of re¬
longs, with the input side of the H.F. production completely.
stage. One can see the screening Fortunately, most modern L.F.
grid in most modern valves of this transformers are efficiently screened,
type, and the valve should be ar¬ but even then it is folly to mount
ranged through the hole in the screen two of them too closely together.
in such a way that the screen is The cores should be placed at right
level with the “continuation” of the angles, and the distance should be
screening grid (Fig. 226A). As a mat¬ as great as can conveniently be ar¬
ter of fact, it is almost useless to ranged. Incidentally, aluminium or
attempt to use a valve of this type copper screening is nor of very great
nowadays without screening it in this use for L.F. work. Heavy iron is
way, thanks to the high efficiency necessary to do the job at all well.
of modern valves and components, The average home constructor, how¬
which have made interaction a much ever, will not be concerned with am¬
greater problem than it used to be. plifiers of such dimensions that
Interaction between Transformers. screening is necessary. This does not
The same rules apply to the L.F. dispose of interaction defects, by any
201
 INTERACTION
means, by merely dealing with the towards the prevention of mistakes
effects already discussed. Bad wiring of this kind; but in a more compact
alone is often sufficient to cause the receiver it is not alwavs convenient
ruination of a good circuit arrange¬ to adhere to this, and care¬
ment. ful screening is necessary.
Points about Wiring. It may be
taken as a general
rule, for instance,
that any wires lead¬
ing from the grid
and anode of the
same valve should
not be taken nearer
to each other than
necessary. Even
more important is it
that the grid wiring
of an early valve in
should be level with the
the set should not Screening Grid of the Valve. I Yet another point to
go near the anode B watch is the screening of
wiring of a later the H.F. side of a set
valve. It needs only a very small from the L.F. side. If, to make the
capacity to start a " vicious circle,” size of the set convenient, the
resulting in instability and generally "doubling-back” type of layout is
bad performance. used (Fig 226b), it will be seen that
The standard layout already men¬ the input and output ends of the re¬
tioned undoubtedly goes a long way ceiver come close together. Screen-

202
 INTERCALATION — INTERNATIONAL CALL SIGNS
ing, as indicated, is necessary. CT3 Madeira Island
INTERCALATION — Synony¬ CX Uruguay
mous term for interlacing, used in D Germany
reference to television scanning. EA Spain
INTERFERENCE.—Two stations EA6 Balearic Islands
"jamming,” due to wavelengths EA8 Canary Islands
being too close. Also caused by Morse EA9 Spanish Morocco
transmission. A rejector should be EI Irish Free State
incorporated between aerial and set EL Liberia
to reduce this to a minimum. Also EP Iran (Persia)
due to mains hum. (See also Noises.) EQ Iran (Persia)
INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY. ES Estonia
—In a superheterodyne, the fre¬ ET Ethiopia (Abyssinia)
quency produced by the frequency F France
changer before amplification by the FA Algeria
FB Madagascar
following valves.
FD French Togoland
INTERMEDIATE - FREQUENCY
FE French Cameroons
AMPLI FIER .— I n superheterodynes, FF French West Africa
two closed oscillatory circuits. Great
FG Guadeloupe
selectivity of the det. circuit results.
FI French Indo-China
INTERMEDIATE - FREQUENCY FK New Caledonia
TRANSFORMER.—Two coils of wire, FL French Somaliland
coupled together and tuned by pre¬ FM Martinique
set condensers to the intermediate FN French India
frequency and connected between the FO French Oceania
I.F. valves of a superhet. (See also FP St. Pierre and Miquelon
Coils (p. 123) and Superheterodyne.) FQ French Equatorial Africa
INTERNATIONAL AMPERE.— FR Reunion Island
The current which, when passed FT Tunisia
through a solution of nitrate of silver FU French New Hebrides
in water, deposits silver at the rate of FY Guyane (French Guiana)
■00111800 gramme per second. G British Isles
INTERNATIONAL CALL SIGNS.— (G—England; GM—Scotland;
AC4 Tibet GW—Wales)
AR Syria GI North Ireland
CE Chile HA Hungary
CM Cuba HB Switzerland
CNr Tangier Zone HC Ecuador
CNB Morocco HH Haiti
CO Cuba (fone) HI Dominican Republic
CP Bolivia HJ Colombia
CR4 Cape Verde Islands HK Colombia
CR5 Portuguese Guinea HP Republic of Panama
CR6 Angola HR Honduras
CR7 Mozambique HS Siam
CRS Portuguese India HZ Hedjaz
CR9 Macao I Italy
CR10 Timor J Japan
CTi Portugal J8 Chosen (Korea)
CT2 Azores J9 Formosa
203
 INTERNATIONAL CALL SIGNS
K4 Porto Rico U9, o Asiatic Russian S.F.S.R.
K4 Virgin Islands (Note: Prefix letters UX, UE, UK
K5 Canal Zone also used occasionally)
K6 Hawaii VEi Canada
K6 Guam VEz Canada
K6 Samoa V E3 Canada
K6 Midway and Wake Islands VE4 Canada
K7 Alaska VE5 Canada
KA Philippines VE5 North West Territories
LA Norway VK2 Australia
LU Argentina VK3 Australia
LX Luxembourg VK4 Australia
LY Lithuania VK5 Australia
LZ Bulgaria VK6 Australia
MX Manchukuo VK7 Tasmania
NY Canal Zone VK8 Australia
OA Peru VKg New Guinea
OE Austria VO Newfoundland, Labrador
OH Finland VPi British Honduras
OK Czechoslovakia VP2 Windward Islands
OM Guam VP2 Leeward Islands
ON Belgium VP3 British Guiana
OQ5 Belgian Congo VP4 Trinidad, Tobago
OX Greenland VP5 Jamaica, Caicos, Cayman
OY Faroe Islands Islands, Turks Islands
OZ Denmark V P6 Barbados
PA Netherlands VP7 Bahamas
PJ Curaçao VP8 Falkland Is., South Georgia
PKl, 2, 3 Java VP9 Bermuda
PK4 Sumatra VQi Fanning Island •
PK5 Dutch Borneo VQ2 Northern Rhodesia
PKö Celebes-New Guinea VQ3 Tanganyika
PX Andorra VQ4 Kenya
PY Brazil VQ5 Uganda
PZ Surinam (Dutch Guiana) VQ6 British Somaliland
SM Sweden VQ8 Mauritius
SP Poland VQ8 Chagos Archipelago
ST Anglo-Egyptian Sudan VQg Seychelles
SU Egypt VRi Gilbert and Ellice Islands
SV Greece VR2 Fiji Islands
SX Greece VR4 Solomon Islands
TA Turkey VR5 Tonga Islands
TF Iceland VR6 Pitcairn Island
TG Guatemala VSi Straits Settlements
TI Costa Rica VS2 Federated Malay States
Ur, 3, 4, 7 European Russian S.F.S.R. VS3 Non-Federated Malay
U2 White Russian S.S.R. States
U5 Ukranian S.S.R. VS4 North Borneo
U6 Transcaucasian S.F.S.R. VS5 Sarawak
U8 Uzbek S.S.R. and Turko¬ VS6 Hong Kong
man S.S.R. VS7 Ceylon
204
 INTERNATIONAL CALL SIGNS — IRON-CORE TUNING COILS
VS8 Bahrein Islands INTERNATIONAL OHM.—The
VS9 Maldive Islands resistance offered to a current by a
VU India column of mercury at the temperature
Wr U.S.A. of melting ice, 14 4521 grammes in
W2 U.S.A. mass, of a constantcross-sectional area,
W3 U.S.A. and of a length of 106-3 centimetres.
W4 U.S.A. INTERNATIONAL VOLT.— T h e
W5 U.S.A. electrical pressure which causes 1 in¬
W6 U.S.A. ternational amp. of current to flow
W7 U.S.A. when applied to a conductor having
W8 U.S.A. a resistance of 1 international ohm.
Wo U.S.A. INTERNATIONAL WATT.—The
XE Mexico energy used in 1 second by an inter¬
XU China national ampere when flowing at
XZ Burma a pressure of 1 international volt.
YA Afghanistan INTERRUPTER. — Mechanism
YI Iraq used to break up direct current into
Y J New Hebrides a series of impulses, hence producing
YL Latvia intermittent current. It is chiefly used
YM Danzig with an induction coil. (See Pulsator
YN Nicaragua and Buzzer.)
YR Roumania INTERVALVE TRANSFORMER.
YS Salvador —A component placed between the
YT Jugoslavia valve stages which amplifies the signal
YU Jugoslavia voltages before passing them on to
YV Venezuela the next valve. (See also Low-fre¬
ZA Albania quency Couplings.)
ZBr Malta INVERTED INDUCTION COIL.—
ZB2 Gibraltar An induction coil which is used for
ZCi Transjordania stepping-down purposes.
ZC2 British Cocos Islands ION.— Any atom of matter which
ZC3 Christmas Island carries an excess of electrons or which
ZC4 Cyprus is short of its normal number of
ZC5 Palestine electrons is termed an "ion.” Sub¬
Z D i Sierra Leone sidiary terms are: the triad-ion (one
ZDz Nigeria, British Cameroons carrying three unit charges), the
ZD3 Gambia dyad-ion or divalent (carries two unit
ZD4 Gold Coast, BritishTogoland charges), and the monad-ion (carries
ZD6 Nyasaland one unit charge). A negative ion is
ZD7 St. Helena an atom plus an electron, and a posi¬
Z D8 Ascension Island tive ion is an atom minus an electron.
ZE Southern Rhodesia IONIC VALVE.— The thermionic
ZKI Cook Islands valve. (See alo Valve.)
ZK2 Niue IONISATION.— The separation of
ZL New Zealand molecules into ions. When air is
ZM British Samoa ionised it becomes a conductor.
ZP Paraguay IRON-CORE TUNING COILS.—
ZS Union of South Africa The inductance of a solenoid is in¬
ZT Union of South Africa creased when an iron core is included.
ZU Union of South Africa Ordinary iron is not suitable for in¬
ZU9 Tristan da Cunha creasing the inductance of tuning
205
J... J
IRON PYRITES — KNIFE SWITCH
coils owing to H.F. losses introduced verted for six to eight hours to allow
» by the iron. A high any free acid to drain off. It is ad¬
inductance with a visable to give the cell a freshening
HI ¡O low H.F. resistance charge before putting it into service.
||fo is> however, a valu- Pour off any free acid. If the jelly
|||ig able feature of an acid hardens add 3 or 4 spoonfuls of
Ulk' efficient tuning coil, distilled water before every recharge.
o and a method of JIGGER.— Slang for transformer.
Fig. 226c.—Theoretical using iron has now THE JOULE.—This is the unit of
lSoX an LEbeen developed. energy, and is equal to 1 watt per
Finely divided iron second. The watt-hour joule =
is used to impregnate paper, ebonite, 100,000,000 ergs. The Board of Trade
etc., and this is moulded to form a Unit equals 3,600,000 joules, and is
core over which a small coil is wound. known as the kilowatt-hour. Named
The result is a low H.F. resistance after Joule, the English physicist.
with a high inductance value, giving Joule’s Law states that the heat pro¬
a coil of extremely small dimensions duced by a current I passing through
having the efficiency of a large-dia¬ a resistance R for time t is propor¬
meter, low-loss, Litz-wound coil. (See tional to I aRt.
also Permeability Tuning.)
IRON PYRITES.— Iron sulphide. K
IRON SULPHIDE.— A crystal KATHODE.— See Cathode.
used as a rectifier in connection with KEEPER.—Term used to denote
a gold or bronze cat whisker. the bar of iron placed across the poles
ISOCHRONISM.— Equality of time; of a horseshoe magnet to preserve its
the quality of being done in equal magnetism.
times. Two circuits are isochronous KEY.— A transmitting key—a form
when they have the same frequency. of switch for breaking the primary
circuit of a transformer.
KILOCYCLE.—A frequency of
J 1,000 cycles per second. One thou¬
JAMMING.—The simultaneous re¬ sand kilocycles (abbreviated kc/s)
ception of two or more stations. corresponds approximately to a wave¬
JAR.—A unit of capacity, i jar = length in metres of 300. (The exact
x,ooo cm.; 900,000 ± 1 mfd.; there¬ relationship is 299 820 metres = 1,000
fore i jar = mfd. (obsolete term). kilocycles.) Therefore to convert
JELLY ELECTROLYTE.— Prepare kilocycles to metres divide 300,000 by
jelly electrolyte by adding sodium the number of kilocycles; and to con¬
silicate to the acid (never add acid to vert wavelengths in metres to kilo¬
silicate) in the proportion of 1 to 3, cycles, divide 300,000 by the number
and immediately pour the mixture of metres.
into the cell until the usual acid level KILOLINES.— 1,000 lines (flux
is reached. Take care not to overfill density).
the cell, as this is difficult to rectify KILOVOLT-AMPERE. — 1,000
once jellification has taken place. If volt-amperes (which see).
some slight shrinking of the electro¬ KNIFE SWITCH.— A type of
lyte occurs, thus exposing the tops switch having a pivoted arm which
of the plates, it should be made good wedges between parallel phosphor-
by preparing ahd adding a little more bronze spring clips, obtainable in
of the mixture. single- and double-pole types. (See
After filling, the cell should be in¬ also Switches.)
206
 LAG — LAYING OUT COMPONENTS
are not sufficiently powerful to be
L harmful.
LAG.—A term used to denote the
time lapse between the application Range is a matter of paramount
of maximum electromotive force and importance to many listeners, who
maximum current. may be surprised to hear that the
LAMINATED.— Having a number actual arrangement of components is
of thin plates (laminæ) superposed. the most vital factor that determines
LAP WOUND.—That style of the number of stations that will be
winding in which the winding is done received, assuming, of course, that
in loops in such a manner that the the receiver is reasonably sound in
connections "lap” towards the com¬ other directions: this applies equally
mencing back connection. to any receiver, from a single valve
LAYING OUT COMPONENTS.— to a multi-stage radio gramophone.
Many overlook the primary An argument that is often used
rule of set building, i.e. study against the importance of proper
the layout. The first two rules are: spacing is that many commercial re¬
use a tried circuit, and use good com¬ ceivers are packed into a small space.
ponents. The disposition of com¬ This is true, but it is equally true to
ponents can have a tremendous effect say that the performance would be
on the performance of the finished re¬ even better if it were not so cramped;
ceiver, selectivity can be ruined by and in any case, it is not a fair com¬
interaction between two tuned cir¬ parison, because manufacturers have
cuits, which permits signals in the components specially made so that
aerial coil to jump the arrangements they fit in together nicely, and in
for trapping
them, and in
certain circum¬
stances to reach
the actual de¬
tector grid. In
a similar man¬
ner quality can
be ruined by
high - frequency
currents reach¬
ing the low-
frequency sec¬
tion, or by the
field of one
transformer
mixing with
the field of an¬
other ; the for¬
mer only occurs
with sets that
employ one or
more stages of
screen-grid am¬
plification,
otherwise
the currents F1C. 226d. —The placing of a Transformer near a Coil (even if there is a Screen) is bad.
207
 LAYING OUT COMPONENTS
addition months of work are devoted the actual shape of the baseboard is
to arranging and rearranging to a controlling factor of great import¬
prevent one component from militat¬ ance; for example, the square type of
ing against another. Several years layout is to be avoided ; it is very un¬
ago the home constructor was always satisfactory to all but the most experi¬
instructed to follow the ideal (impos- enced, as the proximity of the stages

F1C. 226e.—A Circuit with die various Circuits indicated by different types of lines.

sible in actual practice) when de¬ makes fatal stray couplings very hard
signing his own sets; that is to keep to avoid. Sets of this type use
components wide apart and all wires screened coils, which are often
very short. It is impossible to lay extremely troublesome, as the con¬
down any hard-and-fast rules, as structor is misled by assuming that
every circuit or set of components coils in metal “cans" have no field,
requires different treatment; it is whereas they have diminished and
therefore only possible to indicate somewhat localised fields. Screened
the general lines, but the reader will components are very useful, but they
find them of inestimable value in must be treated with respect. It is
aiming at too per cent, efficiency from a great mistake to use a metal base¬
the receiver. board and earth everything to the
Bad planning causes trouble that nearest piece of exposed metal; all
can be divided into two distinct high-frequency circuits should, when
classes : interaction between two they are connected to earth, go direct
stages of a receiver, such as the two to the earth terminal by means of a
coils of the screen-grid set, and acci¬ wire.
dental coupling between two wires The author recollects building a set
or components in the same stage, of this type which turned out to be
such as the grid and anode leads of extremely unstable until the earth
the detector valve. end of the tuned anode coil was dis¬
Dealing first with interaction be¬ connected from its “can” and taken
tween stages, it is quite obvious that straight to the earth terminal. The
208
 LAYING OUT COMPONENTS
best form of layout is, without doubt, it is a minor point if the anode coil
a long baseboard with each stage and anode lead get tangled up with
following the preceding one in the the grid circuit of the second (de¬
logical manner; for some unknown tector) valve. Fig. 226e shows a cir¬
reason sets of this type are invari¬ cuit with the various circuits sep¬
ably arranged with the aerial stage arated by different types of lines; all
on the left; there is nothing against wires drawn in the same manner can
building the set with the aerial tun¬ be placed close togetner. Earth
ing on the right-hand side if it is wires are shown dotted, and it should
convenient, and sometimes it actually be quite understood that these wires
makes the wiring more direct. When are “ earth " from the point of
a single metal plate is used between high- and low-frequency currents, but
two stages as a screen be careful to may be of any voltage that can be
avoid a component showing round the applied from the batteries, which is
edge; also keep the coils at a reason¬ of no moment from the point of view
able distance from the screen, as un¬ of wiring. For example, the screen
due proximity will lower the wave¬ grid of the first valve has a voltage
length range. In addition, the fields of 60 applied from the high-tension
will not be prevented from reaching battery but as it is connected to
the opposing coil. Before leaving the earth through the i-mfd. condenser,
subject of screening, it should be it is at earth or zero voltage as far
borne in mind that aluminium will as high-frequency is concerned. Re¬
not screen low-frequency currents, ference to Fig. 226c will show that
hence the placing of a transformer there are five circuits to be kept free
near a coil (even if there is a screen from each other and all free from
in between) is bad (see Fig. 2260). earth. In addition, there is the loud¬
The only practical way to keep the speaker circuit, but as the danger
transformer field from the coil is to here is the actual lead, it does not
leave a generous air space between come into the question of the design
them. of the actual receiver ; and it will not
The second type of interaction, i.e. be out of place to mention that coup¬
coupling between two parts of the ling between speaker leads and the
same valve, is not so easy to avoid, aerial end of the set can be prevented
but is most important. The most by using flex and keeping the whole
common mistake is that of keeping apparatus away from the high-fre¬
separate the grid and anode circuits quency side of the receiver.
and components of two valves that Different-coloured Wires. The most
are connected together; in other reliable way of avoiding trouble is by
words, the anode of the first valve the discriminate use of different-col¬
is connected by a fixed condenser oured wires for the connections : if
and wires, making it quite unneces¬ black is used for the earth and dis¬
sary to keep them apart. What tinct colours for the other circuits,
should be separated is the grid and such as red, blue, and yellow, the
anode circuits of valve Number One proximity of two opposed circuits will
and the similar circuits of the follow¬ show up by the obvious clashing oí
ing stages. Taking an example of a the colours. At the beginning of this
typical screen-grid three, the most section it was pointed out that the
important point is to separate the best form of set was one using a long,
aerial and anode coils and associated narrow baseboard, partly because it
components, such as tuning con¬ stops interaction between stages and
densers one stage from the other, and partly because wiring is less compli-
209
 LAYING OUT COMPONENTS — LENZ LAW
cated, as it is impossible to cramp circuit and the grid. From the grid
together wires that are ‘ ‘ several steps a high resistance (the grid leak) has
away.” In Fig. 226E one wire, the to be joined to earth to allow the
detector grid lead, is indicated by an accumulated electrons to leak away.
arrow, as it is the most troublesome Hence the term, leaky grid.
lead in the receiver, and its length LECHER WIRES.— Bare wires
should be reduced to the absolute used in ultra-short wave work, and
minimum. connected to a valve, generally in the
Wiring can be often simplified and grid and anode circuits. A bridge
shortened by the study of the ter¬ connects these wires and may be ad¬
minals on components; this is par¬ justed along them to provide various
ticularly true of low-frequency trans¬ effects, such, for example, as measur¬
formers, as if put at right angles, ing the actual wavelength of oscilla¬
so that each terminal is as near as tions, etc. For circuit arrangement
possible to the point of connection, see page 174.
wiring is as short as practicable. LECLANCHE CELL.— A cell of the
single-fluid type. In this case, how¬
ever, the plates are zinc and carbon
and the exciting liquid sal-ammoniac
(ammonium chloride). By using
several carbon plates instead of one,
it is possible to increase greatly the
strength of the cell. Fig. 227A shows
one simple arrangement.
The necessary carbon plates are best
obtained from old dry cells. These
plates, by the way, are very brittle
and should be handled with care, par¬
ticularly when drilling, etc.
Polarisation is again a great draw¬
back with this type of cell, and many
attempts have been made to over¬
come the difficulty. In the shop-
made cell, the carbon plate is placed
in a porous pot and surrounded by
manganese dioxide. This acts as an
oxidising agent, and unites with the
F1C. 227a. —The Carbon Plates for a Leclanché Cell. free hydrogen to prevent it collecting
on the carbon plate.
In the same manner the correct A simpler method than this is for the
positioning of a valve holder will experimenter to place a depolariser in
often completely separate two wires the actual solution. Common depolar¬
which otherwise would cross each isers are the bichromates of sodium or
other. The importance of good wir¬ potassium, and one of these mixed
ing cannot be over-emphasised. with the acid in a zinc-acid cell will
LEAD.— Any current-carrying wire. give it a far longer and more efficient
LEAD-IN.— The connectfon from life. A good battery solution may be
aerial to receiver. (See also Aerials.) made by mixing 2 oz. of bichromate,
LEAKY GRID DETECTION.—A 2 oz. sulphuric acid, and 10 oz. of
process of rectification in which a water. (See also Accumulator.)
condenser is joined between the tuned LENZ LAW.—Any induced current
210
 LETTER DRILLS — L.F. AMPLIFIER
has a tendency to nullify the current former. The varying plate current
producing it. passes through the primary winding
LETTER DRILLS.— See Drills. of an iron-cored transformer, and
LEYDEN JAR.—A type of con¬ causes similar impulses in the second¬
denser consisting of a glass jar, the ary winding. As the two windings
lower part of which is coated inside are arranged to give a ' ‘ step-up
and out with tinfoil. ratio (by which is meant that the
L.F.— Low Frequency ; audio fre¬ secondary winding comprises many
quency. more turns than the primary), the
L.F. AMPLIFIER.—Beginners in secondary terminals have available a
radio are often surprised to find varying voltage which is—if the
identical valves being used to serve transformer is well designed—a re¬
so many different purposes. It cer¬ plica of the varying current.
tainly is a little puzzling to the novice
to distinguish clearly between a de¬
tector and an L.F. amplifier. Strictly
speaking, the L.F. amplifier has little
or nothing to do with radio, since all
radio frequencies have disappeared
by the time this part of the set is
reached. It is really a matter of
pure "land-line" technique. But
so indispensable a part of a receiver
has it become that it is most con¬
veniently taken in with other radio
matters.
Now consider the working of the
three-electrode radio valve for a mo¬
ment. Put briefly, its action is as
follows : a varying voltage applied to
its grid will cause similar variations
in the current flowing through its
plate circuit.
When the valve is a detector, the
necessary variations in its grid
voltage may be supplied by the in¬
coming signal itself, and the valve is
so treated that the resulting varia¬
tions of plate current are “ unsym-
metrical." That is the principle of It will be understood, nevertheless,
rectification. that the grid of the second valve has
It is this rectified signal that forms a rapidly varying potential which
the input to the L.F. amplifier. It will, again, produce a varying cur¬
has to be converted from the form rent in the plate circuit of that valve,
of a varying current in the plate cir¬ although, this time, the variations
cuit of the detector valve to that of will be of much greater magnitude,
a varying voltage ready to apply to owing to the amplification that has
the grid of the L.F. amplifying valve. been obtained through the valve and
This may be done in various ways. transformer.
Fig. 227c shows the most common— Thus another L.F. amplifier may
illustrating the use of an L.F. trans¬ be added in precisely the same
211
 L.F. AMPLIFIER
manner. Resistance-capacity coup¬ “mag.” of 10 and a 4:1 trans¬
ling is an old favourite that is former will thus give a ‘ ‘ gain ’ ’
still greatly used for L.F. amplifier of 40. On the other hand, when re¬
couplings. It will be seen from Fig. sistance coupling is used, it is the
227D that, instead of passing the plate ‘ ' mag. ’ ’ of the valve only that can
current of the detector valve through be made use of. Luckily, a valve
the primary winding of a transformer, with a much higher impedance—and
it is simply passed through a high re- therefore a higher amplification fac-
tor—can be used
with this form of
coupling, and
the ' ' gain ’ ' in
these cases can
be anything be¬
tween 35 and 60
in ordinary sim¬
ple sets.
It should very
seldom be ne¬
cessary to use
more than two
L.F. stages, and
one is sufficient
for most pur¬
poses, if it is
carefully chosen
Next, decide
is 100,000 ohms, and this is shown whether it is desired to utilise re¬
in the diagram. sistance—or transformer—coupling,
The rapidly varying plate current bearing in mind these two facts : that
will undergo a varying voltage a really good transformer will give
drop, which is applied to the grid of just as good quality as resist¬
the L.F. valve by coupling it to the ance coupling, and that a cheap
bottom end of th« resistance. This transformer should therefore be used
is done by means of a fairly large when there is one stage only.
fixed condenser. The only other Disappointing results almost in¬
point remaining is that the grid of variably come from the wiring up of
the L.F. valve will now accumulate a set with any odd transformer and
a charge until it “chokes,” unless it the plugging in of any odd valve. A
is provided with a path for the D.C. good combination may be found, but
to leak away to earth. Therefore a the chances against it are about 1,000
grid leak of a high value is connected to I.
from the grid to the grid-bias battery. If a L.F. amplifier is added
The fundamental difference between directly to the detector stage, it is
transformer and resistance coupling best to choose transformer coupling.
is that, when the former is used, the In this case the transformer ratio
total amplification of the “stage” may be anything up to 7 ; 1, provided
is expressed by the amplification that after a 7: 1 transformer a bigger
factor of the valve multiplied by the valve is used to take the full input
transformer ratio. The common without distortion. Always use a
combination of a valve with a good power valve for the stage after
212
 L.F. AMPLIFIER
a high ratio transformer, even if aimed at. True, this particular
another valve is to follow. scheme is more likely- to give trouble
For the more common plan of using in the hands of the inexperienced
a : I or 4 : i transformer, a valve than the previous one, but only be¬
cause of one or two
pitfalls that await
the unwary.
Interaction b e -
tween the two trans¬
formers is the most
frequent. They
should be mounted
as far away from
each other as is
practicable, and
their cores should,
if possible, be at
right angles to each
other. Fig. 228
shows a suggested
of the "first L.F.’’ type may be layout for the L.F. end of a three-
chosen from the valve-makers’ list. valver, using two transformers.
If two stages of amplification L.F. instability may take the form
are added, it is usually a good of an audible whistle, or, more com¬
plan to use resistance coupling for monly, of severe distortion of music
the first. A " first L.F." type valve and speech. In the latter case the
should still be used to follow the de¬ whistle is probably there just the
tector. This may then be coupled same, but it so happens that the
by means of a transformer, with a whole arrangement is oscillating at a
ratio up to 4:1, to a really good frequency well above the audible
output valve. A larger output valve range.
will naturally be
needed in this case.
It is necessary to
pick out individual
types of valve.
Choose valves to
suit the set.
As a final prac¬
tical point receivers
using two trans¬
former - coupled
stages are dealt
with. There is no¬
thing what ever
against this a r -
rangement, provid¬
ing that the layout
is well chosen and
that too much am¬ F1C. 228.—The Transformers should be mounted as far away from each other
plification is not as possible to avoid interaction between them.

213
 L.F. AMPLIFIER — LIGHT-RAY CONTROL
Such trouble should be cured, if are employed in the receiver). Most
possible, by changing the layout, manufacturers hold such a licence,
unless it is found that reversing the and the receiver should carry a small
secondary leads on one of the trans¬ licence plate stating that the due
formers puts matters right. royalties have been paid.
If neither of these devices has any The home constructor is not im¬
effect, it may generally be cured (at mune from this levy. If he con¬
the expense of a slight amount of structs a receiver for his own use,
amplification) by connecting a grid and makes use of any of the above
leak of i megohm across the second¬ company’s patents, he should write
ary winding of one or both trans¬ to them for a licence plate, which
formers. will be supplied on payment of the
Finally, it is as well to mention royalty. If in doubt about the em¬
the old pitfall of high-resistance bat¬ ployment of patents, he should send
teries. Nothing is so fatal to a them a wiring diagram of the receiver.
“ high-mag.” L.F. amplifier as in¬ The Post Office Licence is 10s. per
sufficient H.T. voltage and poor bat¬ annum; the home constructor’s Mar¬
teries. If your set is battery-operated, coni Licence is 12s. 6rf. per valve;
see that each valve really is getting and the Manufacturer’s Marconi
the voltage recommended by the Licence is 5s. per valve.
makers. Also do not omit the ‘‘de¬ LIGHT, SPEED OF.— 186,000
coupling ” unit shown in Fig. 227c, miles, or 300,000,000 metres per
particularly in transformer-coupled second.
sets. A resistance of 10,000 ohms LIGHT-RAY CONTROL.— An in¬
and a condenser of 2 mfds., connected genious apparatus, which depends for
as shown, generally make all the dif¬ its action on the fluctuations in re¬
ference between success and failure. sistance of a selenium cell or
L.F.C.—Low-frequency Couplings. ‘‘bridge” due to variations in in¬
LICENCES.—The Post Office tensity of a ray of light projected on
Licence must be obtained by every to it. The ray may be used to switch
listener who is in a position to re¬ a wireless set on or off, set alarms,
ceive the broadcast programmes. If shut and open doors; in fact, any¬
an aerial is erected a licence is neces¬ thing that can be operated by means
sary, even although no set is con¬ of a switch.
nected to it. The authorities take To-day control by light is used
the view that the intention is to to a very great extent in television,
receive the programmes, hence the which is practically wholly a question
aerial. of light control. This apparatus is
The licence also covers the use of based on what is known as a selen¬
a portable receiver, but another ium cell. Selenium is an element with
licence is required for a receiver a peculiar property, which was dis¬
which is taken to a further dwelling. covered by accident. It was being
If you have two receivers, one per¬ used as a high resistance in an elec¬
manently connected to the aerial and trical experiment, when it was found
a portable in addition, only one to vary its resistance to an electric
licence is required. current as the light which shone upon
In addition to the Post Office it varied in intensity. Thus, this
Licence, it is also necessary to have phenomenon led to experiments with
a licence from Marconi’s Wireless selenium cells, ultimately resulting in
Telegraph Company, Ltd., for the the production of the modern light¬
use of their patents (if such patents ray apparatus.
214
 LIGHT-RAY CONTROL
What the Apparatus Comprises. It cessfully. Now shine a light on the
is, in fact, a selenium cell, a compact apparatus, having first turned the
and easily handled apparatus, having variable resistance to approximately
all the principles of the big selenium the centre of its track, and break
cell, but far less cumbersome, and the beam of light by passing the
of extremely low cost. In its com¬ hand through it. The relay will then
mercial form it is housed in a bakelite give an instant click, showing that
case, is easily handled, and has all the light acting on the bridge has
the properties and sensitivity to light caused the relay to operate. It is
that modern light-controlled apparatus necessary to shade from the sensitive
requires. cell as much stray light as possible,
The theoretical circuit of this de¬ focusing on to it only the ray which
vice is shown in Fig. 229, and no diffi¬ operates it.
culty should be experienced in the There are a number of different
wiring of the components. There is ways in which it will function. They
no soldering necessary, as all wires are controlled by the relay on which
are connected direct to terminals. will be found six terminals numbered
Now, in order to feed current to the I to 6. When terminals 1 and 2 are
light-sensitive apparatus, and to sup¬ connected to a lamp, the connection
ply power to the amplifying valve, between terminals 4 and 5 being re¬
two supplies of current are necessary, moved, the lamp circuit is normally
these being a 2-volt L.T. battery for open. When the light ray focused on
the valve filament, and a 100-150- the bridge is intercepted, the lamp
volt H.T. battery (see Fig. 230). The will light (Fig. 231), and will continue
valve used is of the detector type, and to burn until the lamp is switched
is recommended because of its ex¬ off, as the apparatus is reset by tem¬
treme sensitivity. Having completed porarily shorting terminals 4 and 5
the power supply, and inserted the with a piece of wire. It will be seen
valve, the apparatus may now be how useful this connection is for
tested. burglar alarms (Fig. 235), where it
Testing the Ray. Remove the is essential that the resulting alarm
H.T. + and tap it on its socket, as can only be switched off by the
this occasional! contact releases the owner. Another simple experiment is
relay, and a click should be heard. to retain the connections to terminals
This shows that it is operating suc¬ i and 2, and replace the wire con-

Fic. 229.—The circuit diagram for Light-Ray Control.

215
 LIGHT-RAY CONTROL — LITMUS PAPER
necting terminals 4 and 5 (Fig. 232). and 3 on the relay (Fig. 233) and re¬
It will now be found that interrupt¬ move the connecting link between ter¬
ing the ray will light the lamp, but minals 4 and 5. The apparatus will
now function in exactly the opposite
Z. 77 ¿ccíMWtArca way to the first experiment. This
connection can be used to switch off
a wireless set the electric light acting
as the ray. When the electric light
is switched off, the bridge will auto¬
matically switch off the set. A dia¬
gram of the switch in the relay is
shown in Fig. 234.

LIGHT, SPEED OF.— Light waves

travel at 186,000 miles per second.
This speed is also that of wireless
waves.
LINE.— It is usual to express field
strength as a flux of magnetic lines
of force, the flux density being the
number of lines per square centi¬
metre. The maxwell (which see) is
the unit of magnetic flux density.
(See also Kiloline.)
F1C. 230.—The Battery Connections. LITMUS PAPER.— A paper which
is used for testing the presence of
that the restoration of the ray will acids and alkalis. It is turned red by
result in the lamp going out. acids, and blue by alkalis. Litmus
Connect your lamp to terminals 2 paper is obtainable in red and blue—

216
 LITZENDRAHT WIRE—LOUDSPEAKERS
the red remains unchanged in
colour when immersed in acid, but
turns blue when immersed in an
alkali, changing back to red when
re-immersed in acid. The blue Fie. 233—The
remains unchanged when im¬ connections to the
mersed in an alkali, but changes relay lor switching
off a wireless set.
to red when immersed in an acid,
changing back to blue when im¬ changing the relative position of the
mersed in an alkali. coils they are said to be loose coupled.
LITZENDRAHT WIRE.— This is LOUDSPEAKERS.— A glance
a special wire for winding coils and through a catalogue when trying to
other components which require decide on the loudspeaker to buy for
minimum high-frequency resistance. a given set will leave the listener
It consists of strands of insulated rather pazzled at the different types
copper wire plaited together in multi* of speaker. There is the simple cone
pies of three with silk covering. type ; the balanced armature ; the
LOAD.—The amount of energy inductor dynamic, and the moving
taken from a battery, motor, etc. coil, which induces the novice or new¬
The total work to be done. comer to wireless to wonder which is
the best type of speaker to get
for a set. In this section we shall
touch briefly upon the four above-
mentioned types of loudspeaker,
describing how they work, and
their respective merits, so that
one can decide just whether one
has got the wrong type of speaker
for the set, or what type is best
Fie. 232.—The connections to the relay foraburglaralarm. for the new set it is proposed to
LOADED AERIAL.—An aerial make up.
whose frequency or electrical length The simplest type of movement
is varied by the addition of capacity is the one illustrated in Fig. 237.
or inductance in series. It consists of a strip of iron, fixed at
LOADING COIL.— A coil used to one end, the free end being above
increase the range of an existing coil. and close to the pole of a small
LOEWE VALVES.—Valves which magnet. To the strip of iron, or
contain in one glass envelope the armature as it is properly called, is
electrodes of two or more valves, to¬
gether with the requisite intervalve
couplings. These are resistance-
coupled stages, either H.F. or L.F.,
and the resistances employed for the
purpose are enclosed in small sealed
glass tubes which are evacuated. Fig. 234—Diagram of the Switch in the relay.
LOOP.— An antinode. The point
of greatest amplitude in a wave train. fixed a thin rod on to which a cone
LOOP AERIAL.—American term diaphragm may be fixed. The wind¬
for frame aerial. A single-turn aerial. ings of the magnet are connected in
LOOSE COUPLING.—When in¬ the output circuit of the last valve of
ductive couplings can be varied by the set. As the current changes, due

P.W.E.—H 217
 LOUDSPEAKERS
to either therefore, that this type of speaker
speech or is only suitable for receivers with a
music pass¬ fairly weak output, and one which is
ing through not designed to reproduce the very
this m a g - lowest notes in the musical scale.
net w i n d - The Balanced Armature. —This
ing, so the idea was brought out to try to avoid
till- principal fault
Of the first type
of speaker, namely,
o n a n c e . As
will be seen from
Fig. 238, the arma-
ture is now less
rigidly arranged in

F IC. 235.—The connections for the invisible-ray burglar alarm.

pull on the armature is varied, with between two magnets. There is

the result that the vibrations are therefore an equal pull in each direc¬
transferred to the cone, and so the tion, and this tends to make the
sounds are made audible. It will be armature move about a central posi¬
obvious that the armature will al¬ tion, avoiding the natural restoring
ways tend to return to its normal
position, and this natural restoring
force gives rise to its first fault,
namely, resonance. Again, the
current fluctuations due to a very
low note, such, for instance, as
the beat of a drum, are very
great, and should result in a large
movement of the armature. As
the armature is rather rigidly held,
it must be arranged close to the
pole piece in order that the
weak impulses may affect it. Fic. 236.—Theoretical and Pictorial Diagrams of a
Therefore, on a low note it Loudspeaker.
tends to come into contact with
the pole piece, giving rise to force which was noticed in the simple
" chatter," a fault which is also type of movement. The gap be¬
noticed when very loud signals are tween the magnets may be fairly
received. It will be seen from this, large, and so greater signal strength
218
 LOUDSPEAKERS

can be handled without the risk of Dual Loudspeakers. Two speakers,

"chatter." This type of speaker is mounted on a single mounting, each
therefore most suitable for receivers of which has different characteristics.
employing two or more valves and In this way a more even response
designed more on "quality” lines curve is obtained, as the deficiencies
than the usual cheap set. of one speaker are covered by its
partner. In some matched pairs, one
loudspeaker deals with the higher fre¬
quencies whilst the other deals with
the low notes.
Inductor Dynamic Speaker. To
overcome all these defects in a mov¬
ing-iron loudspeaker seems rather
difficult. However, a certain in¬
ventor set to work, and the re¬
sult of his endeavours to produce
the ideal moving-iron movement is
known as the inductor dynamic
speaker. The actual arrangement is
the subject of Letters Patent, and
The inductor dynamic is the only a few firms in this country are
nearest approach yet obtained to the licensed to manufacture it. Fig. 239
ideal in moving-iron speakers. In shows the principle on which it works.
both of the previous movements it is There are four pole pieces to the mag¬
obvious that as the iron armature is net system and two armatures. The
fixed at one end, there must neces¬ two armatures are held together by
sarily be a certain amount of resist¬ means of rigid, but light, rods, and
ance to overcome in order to vibrate the armature assembly is held at the
the armature, and the tendency of front and back by very light springs.
the armature to return to its position It is obvious that, by being held in
of rest is always present, no matter two places,
what electrical impulses are at work. the strength
This prevents the slow oscillation of the springs
necessary to produce, say, a pedal may be very
note on the organ, and, in addition, much weaker
the cone is not operated in a direct than if only
push-and-pull movement. The actual one end was
direction of the cone’s movement, to held. Fur¬
produce true tones, should be what thermore,
might be termed a "piston” move¬
ment: that is, it should move in a
when the
ai mature is
cs
F1C. 238 —The Balanced Arma¬
horizontal plane. Now, as one end drawn to ture. As will be seen, the Arma¬
of the armature in the speaker move¬ either side ture is less rigidly arranged between
the two magnets.
ments so far described is fixed, it is by the signal
obvious that the operating reed is impulses it must travel in a true hori¬
taken through a small arc during its zontal direction, and the restoring
to-and-fro movement. This gives rise force in any direction is equal.
to a form of distortion. Moving-coil Speaker. The moving¬
Compensated Loudspeakers. An¬ coil speaker, is, of course, the best
other term for dual loudspeakers type of speaker yet designed, and
(which see). provided one of the best makes is ob-
2I9
 LOUDSPEAKERS

tained, either permanent magnet or production of the received sounds.

mains energised, will give a reproduc¬ The only faults with this type of
tion identical with the original. As speaker arise from faulty design, and
will be seen from Fig. 240 (mains are : too heavy a speech coil and
energised type) at the point of the cone; resonance set up by the rubber
cone diaphragm a light ring of paper or leather fixing ring; resonance due
is fixed, round which is wound a coil to the material of which the cone is
of wire known as the " speech wind¬ made, and one or two other little
ing." In the mains energised speaker points.
To get the very best from a mov¬
ing-coil speaker, a fairly strong signal
is desirable, and as it can give such
a good performance, the receiver
should be designed to give out a
signal to justify the use of such a
speaker. Particular care should be
taken to look after the lower notes
in the musical scale, as these can be
dealt with so effectively by the mov¬
ing-coil speaker.
Matching the Impedance. No
matter which type of speaker it is
intended to use, there is one point
which applies to the correct employ¬
a metal cylinder, having a central ment of any speaker, and that is,
rod (the "pot" and "pole-piece”), the impedance of the speaker must
contains a large winding which has to be matched to the output valve.
be connected to some source of direct This means that a certain valve will
current. The actual voltage depends only give straight-line reproduction
on the design of the speaker,
and varies in most speakers
from 4 volts to 150 volts.
The speech winding is sup¬
ported in a small gap sur¬
rounding the pole piece, and
this gap should be as small
as possible. Usually it is
approximately J in. When
the field is “excited,” which
means when the current
is applied to it, a magnetic field is set with a certain impedance in its anode
up across the gap. The speech coil circuit, and although valve manu¬
is connected to the output valve of facturers give this impedance figure
the receiver, and when the signal im¬ in the leaflets accompanying their
pulses flow through this speech wind¬ valves, unfortunately loudspeaker
ing it vibrates, travelling in and out manufacturers do not always give the
of the gap. The edge of the cone is impedance of their products. Usu¬
supported in some way, either by a ally, only the D.C. resistance is given,
ring of leather or rubber, and there¬ and this does not enable one correctly
fore the cone makes a true ‘ ' piston ' ' to match up the speaker. There are
movement, resulting in a faithful re- on the market, however, certain out-
220
 LOUDSPEAKERS
put matching transformers which the opening will have to double at
have various ratios, and if the lis¬ equal intervals throughout the length
tener desires to get the best from the of the horn.
set, one of these transformers or An example will make this clear.
matching units should be included in Consider a speaker horn, the en¬
the output circuit, and by adjusting trance (or throat) of which has an
it to various values it is possible suit¬ area of i square in. If at I ft. along
ably to match up the speaker. One the horn the area is 2 square in., then
final word. As the speaker can only at 2 ft. it will have to be 4 square
reproduce what is fed into it, the in.; at 3 ft., 8 square in.; at 4 ft., 16
choice of circuit should receive as square in., and so on. This rate of
much, or even more, care than the expansion determines the lowest fre¬
choice of speaker. quency at which the horn will main-
Electrostatic Speakers. The electro¬
static type of speaker employs two
plates separated by air (in the same
manner as a condenser). The differ¬
ences in potential applied to the two
plates produce movement, and by
suitable design of the plates, spacing,
etc., it is claimed that the reproduc¬
tion is better than any of the methods
described above.
Loudspeaker Horns. Owing to the
rapid advances in tire design of
loudspeaker movements as detailed
above, the horn type of speaker
has practically disappeared from the
market, tn spite of this, however,
some of the best-known talkie instal¬
lations employ a horn type of loud¬
speaker, and this has caused quite a FlC. 241.—A mains energisec Moving-coil Loud¬
number of wireless amateurs to speaker.
wonder which is actually the better
type—the horn or the hornless. Ex¬ tain its straight-line reproduction, 01
perts are divided on this question, some in other words, it governs the "cut¬
holding that the moving-coil speaker, off” frequency. The following table
correctly designed, is the best repro¬ shows these figures:
ducer, and others that the horn
Area doubling every 6 in., cut-off
type is unbeatable, provided it is
frequency is 128 cycles;
of the right shape, and this means
Area doubling every 12 in., cut-off
that it has to be very large, as
frequency is 64 cycles;
the following figures will show. In Area doubling every 24 in., cut-off
order that a horn may reproduce frequency is 32 cycles;
with a perfectly even response all the and so on.
notes in the musical scale, it must
be of a certain shape and of a de¬ To understand what this means,
finite length. The shape will have one must remember that the middle
to follow what is known as the ex¬ note on the piano has a frequency
ponential (or logarithmic) law, that of 256 cycles, and the lowest note a
is to say, the cross-sectional area of frequency of 26 6 cycles. If, there-
221
222
 SPEAKER IN SET
Methods

connect
ing extra

EXTERNAL
SPEAKER
speakers
DN-OFF ,
SW TCH ‘ EARTH
TO ANODE OF
OUTPUT VALVE
TO HT<

FlC. 245 (above).—Showing how the

primary winding of the output trans¬
former attached to the built-in speaker
may be used as an output choke to
feed an extension speaker
FlG. 245a (left).—A simple switching
system for use in conjunction with a
number of extension speakers.

223
 LOUDSPEAKERS
fore, one wishes the horn speaker size as to permit the air column
to reproduce the lowest note of the which is standing in the horn from
piano with the same degree of ampli- having too great a damping effect
on the diaphragm which is actuating
it. The most satisfactory size for
this opening will be obtained if
the diameter is made equal to one-
quarter of the wavelength of the
cut-off frequency of the horn. This
sounds very involved, but it is really
quite simple to work out. The veloc¬
ity of sound in air is 1.120 ft. per
second. It has been shown above how
to work out cut-off frequency, and

FlC. 247.—A method of forming to avoid

bulkiness.

fication as middle C, it must double

its area every 2 ft. So far the ex¬
ample has decided upon one figure
in the design, and it is necessary

F1C. 249.—How the very large Cinema Horns

are formed.

therefore to find the corresponding

wavelength of this proceed to divide
1,120 by the frequency, and that will
give the wavelength in feet. Dividing
this by four will give the diameter
of the opening, and one must there¬
fore make the horn of such a length
that it terminates when that diameter
is reached.
Supposing one wishes to construct a
Flc. 248.—A method of curving to avoid horn with a cut-off frequency of 64
bends.
cycles, and the unit for the speaker
has a fitting with an area of 1 sq.
to determine its length. This is in. The rate of expansion will be
governed by the size of the opening, every 12 in., and the mouth 4 ft.
or mouth. This must be of such a across. This means that the horn
224
 LOUDSPEAKERS — LOW-FREQUENCY COUPLINGS
would have ta be over 6 ft. long. It ¡ in. thick may be used, and if re¬
becomes obviou:; from these figures sonance is noticed, putty pressed on
that the old-fashioned type of table at different spots will damp out the
loud¬ resonante, or at least make it low
speaker enough to be unobjectionable. The
was a very horn may be curved and bent back
poor per¬ upon itself to avoid cumbersomeness,
former a s but—and this is important—avoid
far as the angular bends. Endeavour, if pos¬
bass was sible, to get nice steady curves of the
concerned, swan-neck type to avoid ‘'echoes.”
and it also Speaker units for use with this
1 c c o u nts type of horn should be capable of
for the size reproducing all frequencies equally.
of the LOW-FREQUENCY AMPLIFIER.
talkie —An amplifier which amplifies after
horns. rectification of the signal; it calls for
For those low-frequency (iron-cored) trans¬
home con- formers. (See also L.F. Amplifier).
ätiuctors LOW-FREQUENCY CHOKE.—A
who are still coil of wire having an iron core, and
s u f f i c i - used for smoothing and coupling low-
ently inter¬ frequency circuits (see Fig. 257). It
ested in the should have a low resistance to D.C.
expon- and high resistance to A.C. (See also
ential horn, Chokes and High-jrequency Chokes
and would for constructional details.)
like to carry LOW-FREQUENCY COUPLINGS.
out some —The method of coupling L.F. valves
e X p e r i - together has a great deal to do with
ments, be¬ both the volume of the output of
low' are the wireless set and the quality of
given that output. As there are several
some hints different methods of carrying out this
on construc¬ coupling, below is given a brief ex¬
tion. In the planation of each method, together
first place, with its advantages and disadvan¬
for simplic¬ tages.
ity of con¬ The most popular method is, of
struction, it course, the L.F. transformer. This
F1C. 250.—" Straight " Pattern must be consists of a core of soft-iron stamp¬
Logarithmic Hort:.
stated that ings, around which is wound two
there is no audible difference, on an separate coils of wire—either side by
ordinary home receiver, between a side or one upon the other (Fig. 251).
horn of round or square section. The The ratio of these windings deter¬
latter is certainly very much easier mines the amplification given by the
to construct. Any wood may be transformer, and thus a 3 to 1 trans?
used, and this should, theoretically, former means that the primary is
be thick to avoid resonance. (Do (roughly) one-third the size of the
not employ metal, because of reson¬ secondary. The primary winding is
ance troubles.) However, plywood connected in the anode circuit of
P.W.E.—H* 225
 LOW-FREQUENCY COUPLINGS
tlie valve, that is, one end of the fore, introducing poor quality. To
primary is joined to the anode, and overcome this defect various schemes
the other end to the H.T. supply. have been tried, such as using a core
The oscillations in this winding are of metal other than soft iron; using
transferred by induction to the different materials for the two wind¬
secondary winding, which is con¬ ings, etc.
nected to the grid circuit of the fol¬ If the D.C. can be kept from the
lowing valve, and therefore this valve primary, it would obviously improve
receives similar impulses to those the working characteristics of the
which are operating the first valve, transformer, and that now introduces
with the exception that they are the next method of L.F. coupling.
strengthened It is known as Parallel Feed—which
by the step means that the primary of the trans¬
up due to the former is in parallel with the preced¬
ratio of the ing valve—and to accomplish this a
windings. The resistance is included in the first
advantage o f anode circuit (instead of the
this type of primary’)» and one end of the
coupling primary is joined to the anode, and
lies in this the other end to earth (Fig. 252).
step up of The quality of the response given by
strength, but this method is an improvement, but
there are a the disadvantage is the same as that
Fig. 251. — Diagrammatic
illustration of the L.F. Trans¬ number of occasioned by resistance-capacity
former. See also Fig. I. disadva li¬ coupling, whic is dealt with in the
tages. fol lowing
Firstly, the inductance of the notes.
primary should be of a certain value To get the
dependent on the impedance of the best response
valve in whose anode circuit it is from a valve
included. As, however, there is a we must have
steady D.C. current flowing through an impedance
it, this impedance is reduced, the in the anode
greater the current the lower the circuit which
impedance. Therefore, it is not effi¬ is as great as
cient if included in the anode circuit possible com¬
of a small-power valve passing an pared with
anode current of io milliamps, or so, the actual im¬
unless it is wound with a normal pedance of the
inductance of 20 henries approx. This valve. In
means that the primary would have practice w e
to be very large, and then when a choose a
secondary with the necessary step up value about
in winding is included, a rather four times Fig. 252. — Resistance-fed
unwieldy component would result. as great as Transformer Couplings. A con¬
denser should be inserted
Therefore, generally speaking, the in¬ the valve’s between anode tap and primary.
tervalve transformer is equipped with i m p e d anee.
a rather small primary, and will not Take a standard 2-volt valve with
take more current than 7 or 8 milli¬ an impedance of 7,000 ohms and an
amps. without seriously affecting the amplification of 5. The impedance ta
value of its inductance, and, there¬ be included in the anode circuit oí
22Ó
 LOW-FREQUENCY COUPLINGS
this valve should be at least 28,000 signal strength one good L.F. trans¬
ohms. Suppose we use 30,000, which former-coupled stag'-. Further, the
is the neaiest commercial value size of the coupling condenser and
made. The anode current of the the grid leak are critical if true
valve in question will probably be straight-line reproduction is required,
about 5 milliamps. From Ohm’s and all sorts of distortion can be
Law we know that 150 volts are re¬ introduced by a wTongly balanced
quired to pass a current of 5 milli R.C. stage. If the grid leak is too
amps, through large, the valve will choke; if too
30,000 ohms. small, the output from the preceding
As the valve valve will be affected, as the anode
requires 150 resistance and grid leak are virtually
volts or there- in parallel. A small condenser will
abouts for offer a resistance to the lower musi¬
H.T., this cal frequencies, and so on.
means that The Parallel-fed Auto-transformer.
we shall re¬ To avoid the effect of the grid leak
quire an ini¬ and to obtain an increase in amplifi¬
tial voltage of cation, the parallel-fed auto-trans-
300 volts for former has HT
the H.T. sup¬ been intro-
ply. Here is duced. This is
the disadvan¬ a combination
tage of paral¬ of R.C. and
lel-fed trans¬ t r a n s f o rmer
formers or re- coupling, a re¬
s i s tance¬ sistance being
ca p a c i t y included in the
couplings. first anode cir¬
For R.C. cuit; a coupling
couplings a n condenser i s
anode resistance is included in the used to feed the
anode circuit of the first valve, the impulses to an
grid of the next valve being joined auto - trans¬
to this first anode via a condenser, former, which
and the junction of grid and con¬ steps up the
denser being earthed via a resistance impulses to the
(Fig. 253). As there is no iron in this grid (Fig. 254).
arrangement (ar.d provided good re¬ With this Fie. 254.—The Resist*
sistances and condensers are employed) method of ancr-fed Auto-transformer
arrangement.
this method of coupling should give coupling the
us perfect amplification. However, in condenser shoul be as larce as
view of the voltage drop described sible, say 2 mfds. or so, to get straight-
above, a somewhat low resistance line amplification, but to get an im¬
has to be employed. This means proved response from a circuit or speaker
that the amplification falls below the which is deficient in bass the condenser
normal amplification of the valve may be made smaller, so as to make
itself, which, in the case of a standard the coupling a resonant circuit and so
L.F. valve, is only about 4 or 5. give a bass ‘ ‘ boost / ’ The disadvantage
Obviously, then, we shall require here is the anode resistance again, in
three or four R.C. stages to equal in view of the high initial H.T. required.
227
 LOW-FREQUENCY COUPLINGS
It should now be obvious from the
set is built on the best lines.
foregoing remarks that an efficient
Connections for a transformer-
choke in the anode circuit, and a
coupled stage are given in Fig. 258.
choke in place of the grid leak—
It will be seen that an earth ter¬
retaining the coupling condenser—
minal is provided on the transformer
should result in good quality and
illustrated, but many transformers do
high amplification, and this method
not possess this minor refinement. In
is known as the impedance-coupled
some cases the same effect can be ob¬
circuit (Fig. 255). There is only one
tained by taking an earth connection
H-T commercial form from the metal casing. Again, some
of this coupling on transformers having a bakelite case
the market. The have one of the holding-down screw
anode impedance eyelets connected to the core, so that
must have a high an earth connection can be made to
inductance with a the screw itself. The connections,
low D.C. resist¬ shown in Fig. 258, relate to the
ance, and the grid average type of transformer, but some
impedance must of the older ones have their terminals
also be designed lettered"I.P„” “O.P.,” "I.S.,” and
in conjunction with " O.S. ” These latter correspond to the
the anode imped¬ newer letterings of "P.,” "H.T.+ ,”
ance, with which
and "G." respectively.
it is in parallel, as
A single transformer-coupled stage,
explained above. if correctly designed, will give all the
The above re¬ amplification necessary for most pur¬
marks should en¬ poses, but when two stages are re¬
able the experi¬ quired a good deal of care must be
menter to carry taken to avoid L.F. instability. The
out alterations in transformers should be good ones of
Fic. 255.—Choke Im¬ his set to produce
pedance Coupling. low step-up ratio, and should be
perhaps better mounted with their axes at right
quality than that at present ob-

228
 LOW-FREQUENCY COUPLINGS
angles. Earthing the cores is very Push pull. The push-pull system of
helpful, and it is also very desirable L.F. coupling is not very often em¬
to decouple the anode circuits of ployed in amateur-built receivers,
both the detector and first L.F. principally on account of its greater
valves. cost, but it can offer very many real
Tone-control Transformers. Trans¬ advantages in the way of undistorted
formers of this type operate in a output at high volume levels. The
similar manner to ordinary L.F. arrangement of a push-pull amplify¬
transformers, but have the added ad¬ ing stage is shown in Fig. 260, where
vantage that they can be "tuned.” it will be seen that two transformers
That is, by connecting a variable (input and output) are required. The
resistance across two of the terminals, primary winding of the input trans¬
the transformer can be made to give former is connected in exactly the
emphasis to notes of certain fre¬ same way as a transformer of the
quencies; when the resistance is re¬ ordinary type, but the secondary has
moved the transformer functions in three terminals. Of these, each of
the normal manner. The tone-con- the two outer ones feeds a separate
trol transformer is especially suitable amplifying valve; the third terminal,
for use in a very selective receiver in which is really a centre tapping,
which a certain amount of high-note takes the grid-bias supply for both
loss takes place in the tuning circuits. valves. It will be seen that half the
By operating the variable resistance, output from the transformer is fed
the high notes can be restored to any to each amplifying valve, and since
desired extent. The method of con¬ the valves are connected to opposite
necting a transformer of this type is ends of the secondary winding, one
illustrated in Fig. 261, but in this case receives the negative half of any
a circuit diagram is not given, be¬ cycle, while the other receives the
cause alternative arrangements are positive. The positive half-cycle is
employed by different makers. Gener¬ the only one which operates the
ally the "transformer” consists of valve, and consequently the two
both a transformer and special choke
mounted together in the one bakelite

Fig. 257.—Choke-capacity Coupling.

229
 LOW-FREQUENCY COUPLINGS

IF TRANSFORMED

practically the reverse

of the input transformer,
in that its primary wind¬
ing is centre tapped and
TO EARTH
collects ' ’ the output
from the anodes of the
two valves. The correct
FlC. 258.—L.F. Transformer Coupling. ratio of this transformer
is dependent upon the
valves work in “turns"; but as one impedance of the loudspeaker to be
end of the winding is always posi¬ employed. It will be seen that the
tive, one valve is always functioning. push-pull system is more efficient
The operation can be likened to that than any other, since it utilises both
of two men sawing through a log half-cycles of the signal frequency.
with a cross-cut saw; one man pushes A push-pull stage will also handle
the saw, while the other pulls. The twice the volume of a single trans¬
men in this case represent the valves. former-coupled valve, but as it does
This analogy is not quite correct, be¬ not give any appreciably greater de¬
cause the man who pulls is actually gree of magnification, it cannot pro¬
doing part of the work, whilst it is vide any greater loudspeaker volume
only the “pushing" valve that con-

230
 LOW-FREQUENCY COUPLINGS — MAINS HUM
than a single valve unless the input of the inner surface of a hollow sphere
to it is greater. having at its centre a light source of
Even small power valves can be one candle-power. One candle-power
used without overloading, and this = 4?r lumens. (See Foot-candle, Lux,
makes it possible to obtain good re¬ Micron, and Angström Unit.)
sults without the use of excessively LUX.—A metric unit of illumina¬
high H.T. voltages. Any kind of tion. The illumination produced on
power valves can be used in push- the surface of a sphere having a radius
pull, but the two should have similar of one metre by a uniform point source
characteristics. It should also be ex- of one candle situated at its centre.
plained that the filaments of ordinary It corresponds to a flux density of one
directly-heated valves used in push- lumen per square metre. One lux =
pull can be fed from raw A.C. with¬ 0093 foot-candle. (See Angstrom
out causing mains hum. Unit, Foot-candle, Lumen, Lux, and
Decouple the Grid Circuits. To pre. Micron.)

ary and the grid terminal of each MAGNETIC FLUX.— The number
valve holder. The positions of these of unit magnetic lines of force
resistances are indicated by two crosses traversing a given surface. Unit =
in the circuit diagram of Fig. 260. maxwell (which see).
LOW-FREQUENCY CURRENT.
MAGNETIC INDUCTIVE CAPA¬
—Any current having a frequency of
CITY.— The same as magnetic induc¬
less than 1,000 cycles per second.
tivity. Air is considered as 1. (See
LOW - FREQUENCY TRANS¬
also Dielectric Constants.)
FORMER.— See Transformer.
LOW TENSION.— Low voltage or MAINS ELIMINATOR.— See Elim¬
pressure—usually under 12 volts. inator.
LUMEN.— The unit of light energy. MAINS HUM.— Hum is sometimes
One lumen is the amount of light difficult to remove. A good earth
energy falling upon one square foot connection is essential.
231
 MAINS HUM
If a new mains- is advisable to isolate it from the
driven set hums anode current by either a trans¬
badly when it is former output or choke-filter circuit.
The anode current of the last valve
is then prevented from flowing
5.000 Q through the wind¬
VARIABLE ings.
RESISTANCE
- TONE CONTROL Only the low-fre¬
TRANSFORMER. quency signal cur¬
rents pass through
the loudspeaker.
FIRST IF.
This fact not only
eliminates all
first switched on,
the smoothing can
F1C. 261.-Tone¬
generally he taken control Transformer
as being inade¬ Coupling.
quate, and the lit¬ SECOND IF.
ting of an additional smoothing con¬ chances of shock if the L.S. terminals
denser in the filter circuit will doubt¬ are accidentally touched, but also
less improve matters. Rectifier hum greatly helps in decreasing hum. It
can be cured by wiring two i-mfd. may be necessary to alter the position
fixed condensers between the two of the low-tension A.C. heater wires
rectifier anodes and high-tension which run to the filaments of the
negative (see Fig. 262). valves from the power transformer.
Very often where a speaker is built They should be kept as far as pos¬
into the same cabinet with the set sible from the grid circuit.
and mains unit, ripple is caused by Another point to look for is poor
inductance of the speaker leads, contact at the grid pin of the de¬
especially if it is of the moving-coil tector valve in its holder. The grid
pattern. The leads must
be kept as far from the
mains side of the set as
possible. In some cases
the detector valve is
fitted too close to the
speaker, and the valve
will be affected by the
sound waves, causing
noises which may be
taken as mains trouble.
Shielding may be re¬
sorted to, but it is
better and often a neces¬
sity to move the valve
somewhat. The speaker
can be tested by tempor¬
arily working it away
from the set. With any
type of speaker con¬
nected to a mains set it F1C. 262. Rectifier Hum can be cured by connecting two '1 mid. Fixed
Condensers between the two Rectifier Anodes and High-tension Negative.
2.32
 MAINS HUM
circuit of the valve is very sensitive, more smooth. The choke in its turn
and the pin must therefore make does the work of opposing current
proper contact with its socket; a fluctuations, passing on a still more
lower value of grid leak may also steady flow to the second condenser;
be found beneficial. this is the final reservoir from which
Using Alternating Current. In
utilising alternating current from the
mains for high tension, the A.C. has
first to be converted to D.C. In-
stead of the current rising HTt
and falling in one direc-
tion and then
rising again in
the reverse direc¬
tion — in other D.C.
words changing Unsmoothed
its polarity —
some fifty times
Curren
Fig. 263.—Smoothing D.C. by means
per second, as it o* two barge-capacity Fixed Condensers and
does in alternat- an Iron-co ed Choke.

ing current, it has to be made to the high tension is derived for the
rise and fall in one direction only. set. Usually the inductance value
This is the work of the rectifier. of the choke is not less than 30 hen¬
There are two distinct types of this ries and the capacity of condensers
piece of apparatus in use at the pre¬ at least 4 mfds. each.
sent time, one the valve and the Spacing Components: in Mains Sets.
other the metal rectifier. Great care must be taken, when
To operate a wireless receiver it building a mains set, to see that all
must be supplied with a smooth, of the components are in their cor¬
direct current. Therefore, before the rect positions; place the power trans¬
rectified A.C. can be utilised, it must former as far away from the receiving
first be filtered, that is to say, side of the set as possible, also the
smoothed, for, although the rectified smoothing choke; in fact, it is better
current flows now in only one direc¬ to keep the whole of the mains unit
tion, it still is changing in intensity, at least 6 in. from the rest of the set,
i.e. pulsating. To eliminate ripple and, if possible, below the base¬
it is made to pass through condensers board.
and a choke. Across the D.C. leads Often what is supposed to be mains
are shunted fixed condensers of hum is actually L.F. oscillation.
several micro-farads capacity. In Some battery sets work perfectly
series with these condensers is a low- w’ith dry batteries on voltages in the
frequency choke; this is placed be¬ neighbourhood of 100, but when they
tween the first condenser, which is are connected to an eliminator giving
known as the rectifier condenser, and voltages of 150 to 180, a hum is
the last or reservoir condenser (see very noticeable. The obvious cure
Fig- 263). for this is the fitting of decouplers
The first condenser receives the pul¬ in the L.F. circuits and possibly in
sating D.C. from the rectifier, so that the ILF. circuit as well, especially
owing to the reservoir action of this in the case of a screen-grid valve.
condenser the current which flows Decoupling tends to stop varying
through to the choke is a great deal currents from entering or leaving the

233
 MAINS HUM — MAINS TRANSFORMER
transformer and valve circuits, and valves as possible and not actually
ensures a steady flow from the supply. across the transformer terminals.
It is when the mains are excep- MAINS TRANSFORMER.—An in-
tionally noisy that they show up strument for stepping up or stepping
down an A.C. voltage for the pur¬
pose of feeding the heaters and
anodes of mains valves.
A.C. mains are extremely useful as
a source of electrical energy, since
the voltage from them can be changed
to any required figure
with the greatest
ease. All that is
needed is a step-up
TRANSFOBMCg or step-down trans-
I former. Suitable
transformers can very
easily be constructed.
A transformer con-
sists essentially of an
Fig. 264.—A cure for Mains Hum—a Potentiometer is connected across the
Heater Supply Wiring. iron core, upon which
are placed primary
little defects in the wiring of heaters, and secondary windings. The type of
transformers, etc., and a hum is pro¬ core most frequently employed for
duced in the speaker. Sometimes, small transformers is that consisting
for instance, the set will be perfectly
silent during most of the day, but at
certain times, usually in the evening,
when the generators are working at
full load, it suddenly becomes noisy.
A device that is worth trying is
the fitting of a 30- or
40-ohm potentiometer
across the heater supply
wiring. The use of a WINDING
potentiometer allows SPACE WINDING
LIMB.
the dead-true electrical
centre to be obtained. Remember,
the mechanical centre of the trans¬ CORE CROSS
SECTIONAL
former is not always the same as the AREA
electrical centre. By moving the knob
of the potentiometer one way or the
other the hum can be exactly bal¬
anced out. In making the change,
disconnect the wire going to the centre
tap of the he ater winding of the trans¬
former and join it, instead, to the
slider of the potentiometer as in Fig.
264. The tapping on the transformer
is left free. A point to remember is Fig. 264a.—Details of the
to place the potentiometer as near the Transformer Core.

234
 MAINS TRANSFORMER
of fairs of " U ”- and " T "-shaped transformer has to handle. This is
Stalloy stampings of the kind shown in easily calculated by multiplying to¬
Fig. 264A. When these are assembled gether the voltage and current (in
they form a semi-solid core with two amperes) of the secondary winding.
"windows” and a "winding limb” For example, suppose tire transformer
(see Fig. 264A). Assuming that the had to supply 20 volts at 2 amperes,
stampings are of correct proportion the wattage would be 20 x 40 watts.
This assumes an efficiency of 100 per
cent., but as the actual efficiency is
generally about 80 per cent., the re¬
sult must be increased by 25 per
cent., which gives the power to be
handled as 50 watts. Reference to
Table I then shows that a core con¬
sisting of six dozen No. 4 stampings
will be suitable.
Once the core size has been deter¬
mined, the winding data can be com¬
piled. Starting with the primary,
which has to handle the total amount
of power (50 watts), it will be seen
from table, p. 238, that eight turns per
volt will be required, so decide upon
the gauge of wire necessary to carry
FlG. 264b. —Illustration of the Transformer Stampings the current involved. The current is
to be used in conjunction with the table on p. 238. found by dividing the wattage by the
voltage of the supply: for instance,
(as all those on the market are), the supposing the voltage to be 200, the
numbers of "turns per volt” for current would be 50 4- 200, or 0-25
both primary and secondary windings ampere. The correct gauge of wire
depend upon the cross-sectional area could then be determined by looking
of the winding arm and the frequency up a book of wire tables, but to save
of the mains supply. For example, this trouble the necessary informa¬
if the area is I sq. in. and the fre¬ tion in regard to the gauges in most
quency fifty cycles, eight turns should common use is given in Table II,
be allowed for every volt. If the where the smallest possible gauge is
area were halved, the numbers of seen to be No. 30. As this table
turns must be doubled, and vice is based on a current density of 2000
versa; on the other hand, if the fre¬ amperes per square inch, it is slightly
quency were doubled, the turns should better, where space permits, to em¬
be halved, and vice versa. This rule ploy a gauge of wire one size larger
is invariable, and forms the basis of than the minimum shown. The
ail transformer design. secondary winding will consist of
The Stalloy stampings are made in 8 x 20, or 160 turns, and since it has
a variety of sizes, some of which are to carry 2 amperes, the wire should
listed in Table I (page 238), where be not less than 20-gauge.
the "A,” "B,” and "C” dimen¬ In regard to the covering of the
sions are those defined in Fig. 264B. In wire, this may conveniently be enamel
order to determine the most suitable in all gauges less than about 24, but
size of stampings, it is necessary to for the stouter gauges it is better to
know the power, in watts, which the employ double-cotton-covered, since
235
 MAINS TRANSFORMER
enamel is liable to crack, and so allow in an end cheek and wind on the cor¬
turns to short-circuit. rect number of turns for the primary.
The size of core was provisionally The winding can be done most ex¬
decided on in the first place, but peditiously by fitting the spool on to
as the winding data are now known, a mandrel, which can be turned in
a check should be made by finding the lathe or a hand-drill gripped in
the actual “winding area” required. a vice, but it can be done by hand
This area can- easily be determined by if desired by cutting a handle of
making use of the "Winding turns wood which is a tight fit in the
per square inch” given in Table II. spool. After every four layers, or
Taking the same example as before, approximately 500 turns, it is ad¬
we see that 28-gauge enamelled wire visable to cover the winding with a
can be wound
3,760 turns per stout
square inch, and cardboard
therefore our
1,600 turns will occupy
rather less than j sq. in.
The secondary consists /
of 160 turns of 20-gauge
d.c.c. wire, which can \\
be wound 472 turns
per square inch, and
will therefore take up approxi¬
mately I sq. in. In other words, the
total winding area required is • sq.
in., and as the No. 4 stampings pro¬
vide i| sq. in. winding area, they
will be amply large.
The simplest method of making the
spool is illustrated in Fig. 264c. A
square-section cardboard tube is first T » THICKNESS
required and can be made by scoring OF CORE
and bending a strip of stout card of Fic. 264c.—Method of marking out and folding the
the dimensions shown. Next, a pair Winding Spool.

of end cheeks must be made to fit layer of empire tape, oiled silk, or
tightly over the ends of the tube, waxed paper to avoid the possibility
and these can be cut out of stiff of any two turns at widely differing
card or thin plywood and secured by potential getting close together. Take
means of strong glue. To make the care that no later turns are allowed
bobbin more rigid, it should finally to slip past the layer of insulation.
be given one or two applications of After winding the requisite number
thin shellac varnish and dried quickly. of turns a second length of flex should
To covêr the sharp edges of the be soldered to the end of the wire,
bobbin, which might cut the wire taken once round the spool and an¬
whilst winding, a few turns of empire chored as before. Thoroughly insu¬
cloth or insulating tape should be late the primary by covering it with
wound on. two or three layers of empire tape,
Solder a short length of flex to the etc., and then continue to wind the
end of the 28-gauge wire, anchor this secondary, following the same pro¬
by passing it through a pair of holes cedure as with the primary. Finally,
236
 MAINS TRANSFORMER
cover the outer layer with insulating or connections can be made directly
material to ensure that the windings by means of the flexible leads from
cannot be damaged in any way. the windings. Both methods of fin¬
The core stampings must next be ishing are shown in Figs. 265B and
fitted, and the method of fitting is All the details given above, al¬
clearly shown in Fig. 264A. First a though they have been applied to a
' ‘ T 1 ' and then a “ U ” are inserted particular component, are equally
from one applicable to any pattern of mains
end of transformer that the reader may re¬
the spool, quire. In some cases it is more con¬
after venient to design the transformer, so
which a that it can be used on any mains
s 1m i1 ar having a voltage of between, say,
pair of 200 and 250 volts. In that case the
stamp- primary winding would require an
ings is in- additional 400 (eight 50) turns, and
s e r t e d tappings would have to be taken
from the after winding 80, 240, and 400 turns
other end, for 240, 220, and 200 volts respect¬
this pro¬ ively. The tappings would be made
cess being by soldering suitable lengths of flex
repeat e d and passing these out through holes
until the made in the end cheeks. To safe¬
spool is guard against short-circuit between
quite full. the tapping points, the soldered joints
In order to should be covered with a strip of
insulating tape, or even with a piece
make the
core a tight of stamp edging.
F1C. 265a. —Dimensions of support¬ fit (as it When more than one secondary
ing foot of Transformer. winding is required, such as for H.T.
must be to
prevent vibration), it might be neces¬
sary lightly to tap the last few
stampings into position, but undue
force must not be used, or else there
might be a danger of “ bursting "
the spool. It will be noticed that
one side of each stamping is covered
with a white insulating film, and, to
ensure that every one shall be in¬
sulated from the next, the white sides
must face in the same direction.
The last step is to fit suitable
clamps to the core to hold the stamp¬
ings tightly together and provide a
simple means of mounting the com¬
plete transformer. These clamps can
be made from J in. thick strip brass
or steel, shaped and bent as shown in
Fig. 265A. They are attached by
means of i|-in. bolts and can be
F1C. 265b. —One method of finishing off. Flexible
fitted with a terminal strip, if desired, leading-out wires are used.

237
 MAINS TRANSFORMER — MARKING OUT
and L.T. supply for a wireless re¬ Table II
ceiver, it is generally most conven¬ Copper Wire Data
ient to divide the winding spool into
three or more sections by fitting Max. Enamelled Double Cotton-
Stan- Covered
extra cheeks. The position of these Work¬
dard
ing Wind- i Wind- i
will be determined by the area re¬ Wire
Current ing
Gauge Turns Yards Yards
quired for winding in the different (amps.) Turns |
per sq. Per lb. per sq. j
per lb.
sections. In order to prevent mains in. in. I

16 6-5 226 26-3 173 25’5

18 36 392 469 297 45-5
20 2-0 685 833 472 79'4
22 1-25 i,no 137 592 129
24 0-76 1,770 221 977 203
26 0-51 2,560 330 1,280 294
28 0-35 3,76o 488 1,630 422
30 025 5,370 694 1,990 587
32 0-i8 6,890 9X5 2,550 755
34 0*13 9,610 1,202 3,020 1,024
36 0’10 13,500 1,840 4,100 i,477
38 o-o6 20,400 2,810 5,100 2,287

In the above table the “ Max. Working Current **

(in amperes) is based on a figure of 2,000 amperes
per square inch.

MAINS UNIT.— See Eliminator and

D.C. Mains Unit.
MANSBRIDGE CONDENSER.— A
FlC. 265c.—In this method the windings are brought patented form of high-capacity con¬
out to a terminal strip.
denser in which the electrodes consist
hum it is best to place the L.T. of thin films of metal electrically de¬
secondary in the centre section, where posited on the paper dielectric.
it will serve as an effective screen MARCONI-STILLE RECORDER.
between the primary and H.T. —See Blattnerphone.
secondary windings. With all other MARKING OUT.— Tools are illus¬
kinds of “dual-secondary** trans¬ trated in Fig. 265 D. The scriber is
formers the primary winding should one of the pocket variety, the dividers
be arranged between the other two. a pair of 5-in. finely pointed, the
Table I centre punch is small, that is at the
(See Fig. 264B on page 235.) pointed end, the square has a blade
Details of Stalloy Core Stampings. that is movable on the beam and is
also rule marked.
In its simplest style marking out
takes the form of laying a blueprint
on a baseboard and pricking the
necessary holes off with a scriber.
sq. in.
Where a blueprint can be relied upon
li for accuracy this method has the ad¬
ä vantage of being direct, but where
3
5i the scale of the drawing is, say, half
I
21 size, all dimensions will have to be
Ij doubled, that is, of course, where
2f the distances are being pricked off the
si
drawing. In such cases the dividers
This table covers most of the commoner sizes
of stampings, but some makers give different
are adjusted to suit the various hole
numbers to stampings of similar size. centres and measured with a rule or
238
MARKING-OUT TOOLS
AND METHODS

FlG. 265d. —The tools used for Marking Out and various methods of using them.
239
 MARKING OUT — MATCHING THE SPEAKER
where practical the increase can be centre line. If properly carried out
made as in Fig. 265 B. Thus, if the a very accurate marking will result.
drawing was one-third full size the It remains to centre punch each
length between the divider points hole position. The best way to do
would be plotted three times. this is to make a mark with the
Just a word about keeping the point of the scriber at the point of
points of dividers in trim. They must intersection of two lines where a hole
be kept sharp and fine, and require is located. This will make a guide
oil stoning from time to time, but in for the point of the centre punch.
doing so see that the points do not By the way, panels, particularly if
gradually become stubby; also see they are of ebonite, or surfaces which
that the points are level when the may be visible on the completed ap¬
dividers are shut. This condition paratus side, should be marked off on
is important for marking small circles. the inside or invisible portion when the
Marking out squares or rectangles set is assembled. For this reason it
for baseboards or panels is carried should be remembered that markings
out as follows. Either one edge of will have to be made in reverse, i.e.
the material is prepared with a per¬ right-hand when viewed from the
fectly straight edge as a line to work front becomes left-hand on the back
off, or the steel rule is laid on to side. Large holes that can be drilled
the material for this purpose. In the direct should have an indicating cir¬
first case the blade of the square is cle scribed round the centre dot and
set to the vertical height required will be a check on drilling after the
and one end line is marked, also a centre dot has been removed by the
line is made against the top of the point of the drill.
blade of the square to indicate the Large holes, such as cannot be con¬
height. The square is moved to the veniently drilled in the ordinary
other end of the job and the process manner, are cut out by drilling a
repeated, the distance between the chain of holes. Thus, for a large cir¬
lines being controlled by a rule held cular hole, a circle of required di¬
at the first line leaving the required ameter is first scribed with the
amount overlapping as a gauge (see dividers. Inside this a further circle
Fig- 265 C). Where the other method is made (see Fig. 265 E).
is adopted the set square is called MATCHING THE SPEAKER
into use, the rule being used as a WITH OUTPUT VALVE.—For any
guide for the base of the square, and given output valve there are certain
also an indication is at once obtain¬ limits within which the load of the
able as to length by setting the right- speaker must fall if the full output
angled po.-tion of the square against of the valve and good-quality repro¬
the appropriate markings on the rule duction are to be obtained. But sup¬
(Fig. 265 D). pose that we have a pentode, requir¬
When marking out panels for ing an anode load of 8,000 ohms, and
drilling, a very similar procedure can a speaker the impedance of which is
be adopted. All vertical heights can only 2,000 ohms. Or, again, suppose
be made by adjusting the blade of we have a valve the optimum load
the square so that only the correct of which is 2,000 ohms and a moving¬
amount of rule is projecting beyond coil speaker of low resistance—say,
the square face of the beam. All 6 ohms only.
distances in the opposite direction are Obviously, it will not do to connect
measured with the rule either off one the speaker direct in the anode cir¬
edge or from a previously marked cuit of the valve, as its impedance is
240
 MATCHING THE SPEAKER — METER

far too low. What must be done is METAL - COATED VALVE.—A

to employ an output transformer, so valve sprayed on its outside with
designed that the impedance of the metal to act as a screen.
primary (which is connected in the METAL VALVES.—Transmitting
anode circuit of the valve) matches valves are usually arranged so that
the valve resistance, while the sec¬ the anode forms the outside envelope
ondary is wound to match the of the valve. By doing this water
speaker impedance. The correct ratio may be permitted to pour over the
for such a speaker is found by divid¬ anode during operation to reduce the
ing the optimum value of the load, high temperature which is developed
as recommended by the valve-maker, in these power valves. Ordinary
by the impedance of the speaker, receiving valves are now manufac¬
and extracting the square root. tured in this form in which the very
It should be noted that it is the im¬ minimum of glass is employed. The
pedance of the speaker, and not its re¬ seal between metal and glass is not
sistance, which should be used in this affected by temperature and greater
calculation. If this figure is not stated, uniformity in valve characteristics is
a fairly accurate approximation can be obtained. The valves are fitted with
obtained by using the resistance figure the ordinary valve base and are in¬
in the case of a moving-iron instrument, terchangeable with standard valves.
or one and a half times the resistance METER.— An instrument for mea¬
in the case of a moving coil speaker. suring. In wireless practice meters
MAXWELL.— The C.G.S. electro¬ are used for measuring voltages and
magnetic unit of magnetic flux. (See currents, and there are several differ¬
Gilbert, Weber, and Unit Magnetic ent types of meter in general use.
Pole.) The most common form is known as
MAXWELL’S LAW.—(a) Any two a “moving-iron” instrument, and
circuits carrying current tend to so dis¬ consists of a coil of wire inside which
pose themselves as to include the largest is mounted a piece of iron. The indi¬
possible number of lines of force com¬ cating painter is attached to this piece
mon to the two. (b) Every electro¬ of iron.
magnetic system tends to change its The other type of instrument in
configuration so that the exciting cir¬ general use is known as a "moving¬
cuit will embrace the largest number coil ” instrument, and this consists of
of lines of force in a positive direction. a coil of wire which is suspended be¬
MEGA.—One million. tween the poles of a permanent
MEGACYCLES.—O ne million magnet system, and the pointer is
cycles or one thousand kilocycles. This attached to this coil. The passage of
term is used in reference to the fre¬ current through the coil causes rota¬
quency of short-wave transmissions. tion and movement of the indicating
(See also Frequency.) pointer in the same manner as just
MEGGER.—A measuring instru¬ mentioned. The moving-coil type of
ment for very high resistances. The instrument is very delicate, and the
term is really an adaptation of the small moving winding has to be
words Megohm-meter. It is used to wound on an extremely light former
ascertain the resistance of bodies in order to respond to small applica¬
which normally should have no elec¬ tions of potential. This type has the
trical contact—such as determining scale divided into equal sections.
that the insulation between two ter¬ Both types are invariably fitted with
minals is sufficiently high. a small hairspring in order to restore
MEGOHM.—One million ohms. the indicating pointer to zero.

241
 METER
In the more expensive types of in¬ as the "hot wire” meter. This con¬
strument two hair springs are fitted, sists of a thin piece of wire firmly
one in front and one at the rear of attached at one end, its other ex¬
the moving portion in order to balance tremity being attached to a weak
the rotation and restoring force. spring. The pointer is attached at
The moving-iron instrument suf¬ the junction of spring and wire, and
fers from a fault which is not very is pivoted just above this junction
easily remediable, namely, oscilla¬ point. When a current is passed
tion of the indicator. In other words, through the wire it heats up and ex¬
when the meter is joined to the cir¬ pands, the spring taking up the
cuit to be measured, the pointer slack. This pulls the end of the
swings over right past the correct pointer, and by reason of the pivot
point on the scale, drops back to just above, causes the other end of
a lower reading, swings over again, the pointer to make a radial move¬
and so oscillates backwards and for¬ ment.
wards for several seconds before A suitable scale enables the degree
coming to rest at the correct read¬ of expansion or sag—otherwise, the
ing. This, of course, is irritating applied current—to be measured.
when a reading is wanted in a hurry. The thermo-coupled type of instru¬
To overcome this defect a damper ment is not in general use, but is
is sometimes fitted, and this gener¬ often used in laboratories. In this
ally takes the form of a fairly large type of meter two dissimilar metals
" fin ’’ to act as a kind of air brake. are attached to each other, and these
The moving-coil instrument, on have different coefficients of expan¬
the other hand, moves across to the sion and contraction. Arranged near
exact reading in a fairly gentle man¬ the point of juncture is a heating
ner and consequently is known as element, and upon the passage of a
‘‘dead beat.” current this gets hot and transmits
Another type of instrument often its heat to the junction of the
used for measuring currents is known metals. Owing to the variations in

F 1C. 266.* A cneap Moving-iron Movement. The top plate carrying bearing for pivot has been removed to enable
the movement to be shown.

242
 METER
expansion a torque, or twist, very fine scales or divi¬
is developed, and this is Po/NTEfí sions. The more expen¬
transmitted to a pointer sive instruments, how¬
traversing a suitably engraved ever, have a very thin
scale. pointer with the end
There are other types of meter turned to present
a knife edge to
Centre view. Where
Pole extremely fine
readings are

MMN® Co/L

MaGNETS
F1C. 267.—A Moving-coil Instrument with the hair spring and bearings, etc., removed to show
assembly details.

which are more or less experimental necessary, and the indicating scale is
—but those described above are the divided into very fine divisions, a
types in general use. portion of the scale is made of pol-
For measuring a voltage (or pres- ished metal,
sure) the meter has to be joined in or in some
parallel with the source to be mea¬ cases a mirror
sured, whilst to measure a current is used, and
(or flow) the meter has to be in the true read¬
series. ing of the
All types of meter may be made to pointer is ob- Po/NTER
indicate a reading higher than that t a i n e d
shown on the scale supplied with the when the
meter by shunting (or connecting knife
in parallel) a resistance across the edge and
two terminals of the instrument. By its reflec¬ Pll/OT
suitably choosing the value of the tion are
resistance the scale
on the instrument
may be made to 0
read double, treble,
or even in multi-
^Spring
pies of ten. The
pointers of cheap
meters are rather
thick, and there¬
fore prevent ac- _ ,, z„ . ... , c . n • j
.. r FlC. 268.—Elements of a hot-wire instrument. View showing bpring, Bearing ana
Curate readings of method of making connection.

243
 METERBRIDGE — METERS, USING
in line. (See also Voltmeter, Milliam¬ to leads to connections, switches, etc.
meter, Ammeter.) The two most commonly used
METERBRIDGE.—A particular meters in wireless are the voltmeter,
style of Wheatstone Bridge, in which obviously for measuring volts, and
ohms are substituted by units of the ammeter, which measures am¬
length. peres. With these two instruments
METERS, USING.—To obtain the it is quite possible to see distortion
maximum efficiency of quality and in a set, although perhaps even the
volume from the receiving set it is human ear does not detect it.

r 1C. 269. Perspective view of the active elements of a moving-coil instrument.

necessary to apply the correct volt¬ Choosing Meters. The greatest care
ages on the filament, anode, and must be taken in choosing measur¬
grid of the valves. Some means of ing instruments, for some of the
checking these various voltages are cheaper grades require more watts to
essential, and for this reason accur¬ deflect the needle over the dial than
ate measuring instruments are indis¬ the whole current consumption of
pensable. the set. The most expensive meters
The valve makers supply with each take the least current to operate
new valve curves which definitely them; it is for this reason, there¬
state the best voltage that should be fore, that a good voltmeter must
applied tn it, and users should en¬ have a very high resistance, it may
deavour to keep to these values both be as much as 1.000 ohms per volt,
from an economical point of view and the current taken would be only
and also to obtain the best results. i milliampere, the best type being
Incorrect grid bias, for instance, will the moving-coil pattern. This type
cause distortion, and if not suffi¬ operates on the principle of a wound
ciently Itigh will put a very heavy coil moving in the field of a per¬
drain on the high-tension battery. It manent magnet. It is only suitable
must first be understood that all for use on direct-current circuits,
meter tests should be made under and being of the polarised type the
load, that is to say, when the set leads must be connected up in the
is working, so as to allow for the correct manner to deflect the needle
potential drop in the current due of the instrument across the dial in
244
 METERS, USING
the right direction. If the leads are pointer moves for thousandths of an
changed and connected the wrong ampere, or as it is known, milliam¬
way round then the needle swings peres. In Fig. 271 is shown a milliam¬
over in the opposite direction; al¬ meter connected in the anode circuit
though a meter v.-ill often stand cur¬ of a valve, and in Fig. 272 is given
rent in the reverse direction, it may the position of the meter when read¬
possibly damage the needle by caus¬ ing the whole consumption of the
ing it to hit the reverse stop very set in milliamps. The meter should
hard, thus putting a strain on some be joined in series with the nega¬
of the mechanism. Accurate meters tive high-tension lead.
are generally fitted with an adjust¬ When a milliammeter is joined in the
ment which will return the needle to anode circuit of the power valve, as
zero, thus enabling it to be brought in Fig. 271, it is possible and very

F1C. 270.—Voltmeters for checking different values of high tension.

to exactly 0 on the scale before the interesting to test for correct values
instrument is used. of H.T. and grid bias, also to see
Voltmeters. Voltmeters can be ob¬ the movement of the needle when the
tained in various voltage ranges, and latter is incorrect. The G.B. should
also there are those on the market be adjusted to that stated by the
which cover several readings, en¬ makers of the valve and the set
abling voltages to be taken of, say, switched on, it being tuned to a
o to 10 volts LT. and o to 200 volts station giving a medium amount of
H.T. The lower readings are suit¬ volume. If the biasing is correct the
able for testing filament voltages and needle will remain steady, and the
low-tension battery voltages when reading on the dial should be noted.
the set is working. In Fig. 270 are Switch off the set and reduce the
shown the correct positions for the bias a little. Switch on again, and
voltmeter for checking different it will be observed that not only will
values of high tension, and for test¬ the needle no longer be steady, but
ing the condition of the high-tension the current from the H.T. battery
battery. The voltmeter, it should be will have increased, thus indicating
noted, is in parallel with the battery. that distortion is occurring, and, as
Milliammeters. The anode current before stated. H.T. current is being
taken by the valves in a set is so used wastefully.
small that it is very seldom that an If the same operation is gone
ammeter is used. To measure these through, but this time increasing the
minute currents a milliammeter is bias on the valve, it will be seen that
used, which is so arranged that its the needle of the meter tends to kick

245
 METERS, USING
upwards on strong signals, at the it does not result in overloading the
same time the anode current from last valve. A very good scheme is
the battery will decrease, coupled, of to have two aerials and arrange a
course, with distortion. This goes switch to change from one aerial to
another. If the
set is used for
long distance
then the original
aerial may be
used, but when
listening to local
stations switch
on to the shorter
aerial, which
only needs to
be a few yards
in length.
Several of the
modern sets of
to-day have
these shorter
aerials incorpor¬
ated in the top
part of the
cabinet.
Testing for
Leakages. Tests
should be made
with a milliam¬
FlC. 271.—A Milliammeter connected in the Anode Circuit of a Valve to determine meter in the
its consumption. H.T. circuit
when the set
to point out that nothing is to be is not switched on to see if there
gained by having any but the correct are any slight leakages through bad
high-tension value on the valve, and insulation or other causes which
that upward kicks of the anode cur¬ would put a continuous load on
rent indicate that the G.B. is too the battery and considerably shorten
great and downward kicks that it is its life.
too small. When the needle of the Sockets for Meters. It is possible
milliammeter kicks both up and down to fit on the panel or on the side of
the dial, and no alteration of the the cabinet sockets, wired from the
grid bias will correct it, it can be set internally, enabling plugs at¬
assumed that the valve is overloaded, tached to voltmeter or milliammeter
that is to say, that the input to the to be inserted, thus getting over the
set is rather greater than the valve difficulty of prodding about inside
can handle. If the power valve is the set with the meter leads. In
overloaded a more suitable valve Fig. 273 is shown the method of
must be used in the last stage or the fitting these sockets; the plugs are
input to the receiver reduced. All merely banana pins taken from old
that is necessary is to reduce the sig¬ valve bases and soldered on to the
nal input slightly to that point where leads which are wired to the instru-
246
 METERS, USING — MAKING A TEST METER

inents. As a milliammeter has to because the user has failed to ap¬

be inserted in series, that is to say, preciate some of the ' ‘ finer ’ ’ points
the circuit has to be broken and of working. To rectify this he must
the meter inserted into the two leads, be introduced to meters, as in this
it means that a connecting piece way adjustments made on the set

FlC. 271a.—Theoretical diagram oí the arrange¬

ment shown pictorially in Fig. 272.

HT—
A/WWXAA/WW

must be made to remake the circuit do not then become just “ shots in
after using the milliammeter (see the dark ” but arise from an analysis
Fig- 273). of the effects shown by the meter
needle movement when measuring the
MAKING A TEST METER.— variable quantities. Any aids to
Everyone possessing a wireless re¬ achieve this end more than repay
ceiver is anxious to ensure that the the trouble in making, and the unit
results obtained represent the maxi¬ here described is really quite
mum efficiency for the set in ques¬ straightforward.
tion. Unfortunately, the final efforts In Fig. 274 is shown the theoretical
frequently fall far short of the ideal, circuit. Since the unit in the main

FlC. 272.—Reading the Anode Consumption oí the Set in Milliamps

247
 MAKING A TEST METER

minais are in use on

the set join the out-
Oo^eCT/NG P/£C£ P ut of the set to
the input of the

7¿sr/ó/?

> /<WA'f£T&?
I 7¿yr£

KoArj
unit, and the
loudspeaker to
//vs¿/¿¿r£D the output of
//^£>£O Shears the unit.
Although in
those cases
where the loud¬
Fig. 273.—Fitting Sockets on the Panel enabling the milliammeter and voltmeter speaker is di¬
tests to be made from the exterior of the set.
rectly in the
output plate
will be employed between the output circuit it is regarded as conven¬
circuit of the wireless receiver and tional to join the long spring of the
the input to the loudspeaker, not only output jack to I LT. + and the short
are there input and output terminals, spring to the valve plate, and cor¬
but a plug and jack have been in¬ respondingly the ball of the plug to
corporated also. In the
case of the latter it is OUTPUT +
necessary with this unit
FLEX TQ SPRING
merely to remove the loud¬ OF JACK
speaker plug from the
jack in the set, place it in
the jack of the unit, and
FLEX TO
finally insert the unit's STEM QF PLUG. J FLEX TO
plug into the set. This COLL PR OF
will interpose automatic¬
INPUT OUTPUT
ally the milliammeter in
the output circuit, and its Fig. 274.—The Theoretical Circuit.
variations can be noted and
adjustments made according to the L.S. + and the stem of the plug to
information which will be given in L.S. —, there are cases where this
succeeding paragraphs. When ter- scheme is not followed.
248
P.W.E.—I 249
 MAKING A TEST METER
To allow for this, a double-pole " quality ” products, and ensure that
double-throw change-over switch has they will fit in the space available.
been included, so that a positive One ebonite panel, 6 x 6 x | in.;
reading of the instrument is ensured, one sloping-deck type oak cabinet to
irrespective of the type of connec¬ take above panel; one 0-30 milliamp.
tions. range moving-coil milliammeter; one
In addition, a variable resistance double-pole double-throw rotary
has been incorporated, and this is switch; one single-pole double-throw
used in conjunction with the milliam- rotary switch ; one variable resistance
(flat wire-wound type), 5,000
ohms resistance ; four in¬
sulated terminals (engraved),
marked output+, output—,
input + , and input — ; one
single circuit jack with ter¬
minals ; one embossed tele¬
phone plug ; four cabinet
corner cushions and mount-

Fig. 278.—A view of the Tester with the front Panel removed to show the Wiring.

meter in a manner to be described ings ; small quantity of insulated con¬

later. necting wire, and 3 ft. of red and
To meet those contingencies whe^e black flex.
the resistance is not required, how¬ The construction of the unit should
ever, a switch is shunted across the be quite a simple matter, even for
resistance so that it may be short the novice. Fig. 279 will serve as the
circuited. panel-drilling diagram, it being im¬
The Components Necessary. A list portant to remember that all of the
of the components required for holes must be symmetrically ar¬
making up the unit is given herewith. ranged. Do not forget to mark out
Alternatives can be chosen in lieu of on the back of the panel, so as not
those specified, provided the usual to damage the polished face; but
precautions are taken to choose owing to complete symmetry in lay-
250
 MAKING A TEST METER
out no difficulty will arise at this is mounted directly on to the right¬
juncture. hand side of the oak cabinet. Two
Just allow clearance holes for each flexible leads then join the output +
component, and. fix the four ter¬ and output — terminals with the
minals, two switches, variable resist¬ jack, as shown in the illustrations
ance, and meter in place. Figs. 278 and diagram. Also the red and black

the work.
The Wiring. Check every lead on
the inside view (Fig. 274) by cross
hatching with light pencil strokes the flexible lead which terminates in the
lines shown in the illustration, and plug has its free ends passed through
then the unit will not fail to func¬ the left-hand side of the cabinet, and
tion owing to the omission of a is connected to the input + and in¬
necessary link. put — terminals. This completes the
You will notice that the small jack construction of the unit, and the
£5i
 MAKING A TEST METER
panel can be screwed into place in necessary, and this falls within the
the cabinet. second category.
To join up the unit to the re¬ Should the needle kick upwards
ceiver, assuming that the loudspeaker violently and persistently there is
is connected directly in the plate probably too much grid bias, and it
circuit of the output valve, it is is necessary either to reduce the value
necessary only to remove the speaker applied or, alternatively, increase the
and join it to the unit’s output ter¬ H.T. voltage. Providing there is no
minals (or in the jack). Then con¬ overloading, either of these palliatives
nect the input terminals (or the will cause the needle to cease kicking.
plug) of the unit to the vacant loud¬ On the other hand, if there is a tend¬
speaker terminals on the set, and ency for the needle to kick down¬
“ short circuit ” the variable resist¬ wards from its mean position, there
ance so that true current flow can be is insufficient grid bias, and the cure
registered. is obvious. Make a point of adjust¬
Provided the L.T. and H.T. sources ing both H.T. and G.B. values so
are quite satisfactory (this is where that there is a minimum current
a voltmeter of dual range is so valu¬ flowing consistent with an absence of
able) under normal circumstances needle kick, as the drain on the H.T.
when signals are not being received, source is thereby reduced.
the needle of the meter will take up It will be seen, therefore, that the
a steady reading, the actual milliamps meter connected in the anode circuit
flowing through the instrument being of the output valve in the manner
dependent upon the valve employed described is a very faithful guide to
and its associated filament, H.T. and correct operating conditions. In ad¬
G.B. voltages. With the reception dition, however, there are several
of signals, however, the plate current other uses for a piece of apparatus of
naturally varies, and if the variations this character.
are symmetrical about the mean Other Uses for the Unit. For these
value initially registered, then the additional purposes, it is necessary to
needle will remain stationary, its bear in mind that connections to the
inertia preventing it from following milliammeter itself are provided by
the rapid current alterations, and dis¬ the output + and input + terminals,
tortionless reception is taking place. the resistance being short circuited if
Should there be any needle “kicks,” accurate current readings are to be
then you are departing from distor¬ determined or, alternatively, left in
tionless reception, and alterations and circuit if the instrument is merely to
adjustments are called for. be employed as a current-flow indi¬
Overloading the Last Valve. If cator.
the needle movements are violent, Under these circumstances, the
and in any one particular direction, milliamp. consumption of individual
the cause is probably an overloading valves can be ascertained merely by
of the last valve, and two alternatives joining up the meter in series with
are open for curing the evil. Either the H.T. lead passing to each valve
cut down the input to a lower value, and noting the reading. If a
or replace the valve with one capable "break” in a circuit or component
of handling the full grid voltage winding is suspected, then the meter
swing. Of course, there is a possi¬ will prove or disprove the suspicions.
bility that the valve has developed With the resistance switch open
a deficiency, such as loss of emission, circuited, join one end of a 2-volt
but even so, a replacement will be battery (or higher voltage according
252
 THE METRIC SYSTEM

to the resistance of the circuit under io metres = i decametre.

test) to input +, and then the free 10 decametres = i hectometre.
ends of individual wires joined re¬ 10 hectometres = i kilometre.
spectively to the other end of the io kilometres = i myriametre.
battery and output- become the
Linear Measure Equivalents
“test leads.”
i inch = 2’54 centimetres, or
If a current flow is indicated by
25-4 millimetres.
the needle movement, then there is
i foot = 30-4799 centimetres,
continuity in the circuit, but if the
304-799 milli-
needle refuses to move, a ‘ ' break
metres, or *3047
is present. When carrying out these
fests always start with all the vari¬ metre.
able resistance in circuit so as to I yard = •914399 metre.
protect the meter against too high i mile = 1*6093 kilometres =
a current flow. Then, if desired, the 5,2^0 feet.
resistance value can be reduced to i millimetre = •0937 inch.
give a good needle movement for i centimetre = •3937 inch.
observation purposes. i metre = 39-370113 inches.
THE METRIC SYSTEM.— In the 3-28084 feet.
metric system all multiples and sub¬ 1-093614 yards.
multiples are decimal, and multiples
I kilometre = -62137 mile.
are expressed by Greek prefixes and
sub-multiples by Latin prefixes. i decimetre =3’937 inches.
i decametre
List of Prefixes (10 metres) = 10-936 yards.
mega means a million times,
kilo means a thousand times, METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS
hecto means a hundred times, To convert —
Millimetres to inches X -03937 or -r 25-4
deka means ten times, Centimetres to inches X -3937 or -r 2-54
deci means a tenth part of. Metres to inches . X 39’37
centi means a hundredth part of. Metres to feet X 3’201
Metres to yards X I 094
milli means a thousandth part of. Metres per second to feet
per minute X 197
micro means a millionth part of. Kilometres to miles X -6214 or 4- 1-6093
Kilometres to feet X 3,280-8693
Square Measure Square millimetres to
roo sq. metres = I are. square inches . X -00155 or -r 645-1
10,000 sq. metres = i hectare. Square centimetres to
square inches X -155 or -r 6-451
Weight Square metres to square
feet X 10-764
io grammes = i decagramme. Square metres to square
io decagrammes = hectogramme. yards X 1-2
Square kilometres to acres X 247-1
io hectogrammes = i kilogramme. Hectares to acres . X 2-471
1,000 kilogrammes =i tonne. Cubic centimetres to cubic
inches . X -06 or -r 16-383
Capacity Cubic metres to cubic feet X 35’315
Cubic metres to cubic
i litre = i cubic decimetre. yards X 1-308
= I decalitre. Cubic metres to gallons
io litres (231 cubic inches) . X 264-2
io decalitres = i hectolitre. Litres to cubic inches X 61-022
= i kilolitre. Litres tc gallons X -2642 or -r 3-78
io hectolitres Litres to cubic feet -ï- 28*316
Length Hectolitres to cubic feet X 3’531
Hectolitres to bushels
io millimetres = i centimetre. (2.150-42 cubic inches) X 2-84
io centimetres = i decimetre. Hectolitres to cubic yards X -131
Hectolitres to gallons . 26-42
io decimetres = i metre. (Continued on next page)

253
 MFDS. — MILLIAMMETER
Grammes to ounces in current variations which may be
(avoirdupois) . X -035 or 28-35
Grammes per cubic cm. made to reproduce the original sounds
to lb. per cubic inch 4- 27-7 through an amplifier and reproducer.
Joules to foot-lb. . X -7373
Kilogrammes to oz. X 35’3 An alternative form of mike has the
Kilogrammes to lb. X 2-2046 carbon covered by a disc or diaphragm
Kilogrammes to tons X -ooi
Kilogrammes per sq. cm. which provides the necessary move¬
to lb. per sq. inch . X 14-223 ment of the carbon. A condenser
Kilogramme-metres to
foot-lb. , X 7-233 microphone consists of two plates
Kilogramme per metre arranged very close together, the front
to lb. per foot X -672
Kilogramme per cubic plate being flexible. Sounds imping¬
metre to lb. per cubic ing on the top plate thus vary the
foot X -062
Kilogramme per cheval capacity between the two plates, and
to lb. per h.p. X 2-235 these are part of the grid circuit of a
Kilowatts to h.p. .
Watts to h.p. valve, thus giving rise to a means of
Watts to foot-lb. per reproducing the original sounds. A
second . X -7373
Cheval vapeur to h.p. X -9863 ribbon or velocity microphone con¬
Gallons of water to lb. . X 10 sists of a permanent magnet between
Atmospheres to lb. per
sq. inch X 14-7 the poles of which a thin narrow
metallic tape or ribbon is suspended.
MFDS.— Microfarads. (See also
Microfarad?) The crystal mike consists of a thin
quartz or piezo-crystal, sounds im¬
MHO.— The unit of conductivity pinging upon which vary its resistance.
(the word ohm reversed). The MICRO WAVES.— Wavelengths of
reciprocal of resistance. less than 1 metre.
MH YS.—Microhenrys. MILLER EFFECT.—The feed-back
MICRO.— One-millionth. of energy from anode to grid; input
MICROAMPERE. — One-millionth admittance. After John M. Miller.
of an ampere. MILLIAMMETER.— An instrument
for measuring current in milliamps.
MICROFARAD.— One-millionth of The name is derived from the two
a farad.
words Milliamp and Meter —a mea¬
MICROHENRY.—One-millionth of surer of milliamps. This instrument
a henry. is probably the most important type
MICROHM.—One-millionth of an of instrument which is used in wire¬
ohm. less practice. It provides the only
MICROLUX.— One-millionth of a certain way of ascertaining whether
lux (which see). valves are in good condition; whether
they are working in a receiver in the
MICRON.—A term signifying a one¬
correct manner; whether distortion or
thousandth of a millimetre. It is used
overloading is taking place; the drain
in expressing the wavelength of light.
on an H.T. battery, and any other
(See Angström Unit, Lux, Foot¬
features which the real wireless man
candle, Lumen.)
must know if he wishes to thoroughly
MICROPHONE.— A device for understand his receiver. A milliam¬
converting into electrical currents meter inserted in the anode circuit
sounds which are produced in its of a valve (that is, between the H.T.
proximity. The simplest microphone positive source and the component
consists of carbon granules bridging in the anode circuit, whether trans¬
two electrical contacts and sound former primary, anode resistance,
vibrations vary the resistance of the loudspeaker, telephones, etc.) will show
carbon bridge so made. This results the total anode current of the valve.
254
 MILLIAMMETER — MUSICAL NOTES FREQUENCY
In theory, the needle o£ the milli¬ or similar device for checking out¬
ammeter should remain perfectly put of a transmitter or amplifier.
stationary whilst music is being re¬ MOLYBDENITE.— See Crystals.
ceived. If the needle kicks in an up¬ THE MORSE CODE —The Morse
ward direction, it shows that the grid code (named after Samuel Morse) is
bias applied is higher than is required. as follows :
If the needle kicks in a downward
A • - J- S • • •
direction, insufficient bias is applied. B - • • • K - • - T -
Should the needle oscillate backwards C - • - • L ■ - • • U • • -
and forwards, the valve is being over¬ D - • • M- V • • • -
loaded. Connecting the meter in the E • N - • W • - -
H.T. negative lead will indicate the F ■ • - • O- X - ■ • -
total current consumption of the set. G - - • p . - - . Y-
(See also Meter.) H • • • • Q - - - Z - - • •
I • • R • - ■
MILLIAMP.— A thousandth part
of an ampere. MORSE DRILLS.—See Drills.
MILLIHENRY.— One thousandth MOTOR BOATING.—The term ap¬
of a henry (which see). plied to low-frequency oscillation.
MILLILUX.—One thousandth of a
lux. (See Lux and Microlux.)
MILLIMICRON. — One-thousandth
of a micron (which see).
MIXER.—Controls used to combino
output from one microphone with
another or other apparatus.
MMF.— Abbreviation for micro¬
microfarad—one-millionth part of a
microfarad.
MODELS, WIRELESS CONTROL
OF.— A licence is not required for
wireless control of models. You may
not use a spark transmitter, and as
the apparatus you use may cause in¬
terference, adequate steps must be
taken to avoid this. The P.M.G.
advises restriction of transmission Fig. 280.—A panel-mounting Milliammeter.
during broadcasting hours, a limita¬
tion of the power to a maximum of Popping noises, which are of regular
2 watts and a wavelength between period, and hence sound like the ex¬
haust of a motor cycle or motor boat
100/150 metres.
MODULATION.— A process of —hence the name. The cure for this
varying the frequency of a circuit by form of instability is to decouple the
introducing into it the frequencies of anode circuits. (See also Decoupling.)
the matter being transmitted. MOVING-COIL SPEAKER.—See
MODULATOR.— The circuit used Loudspeaker.
to apply the frequencies of any desired MUSICAL NOTES FREQUENCY.
signal to a transmitter. —The frequency of the notes of the
MOLECULE.—The smallest part of pianoforte covers the band from 26
matter capable of existing alone. to 4,096 vibrations per second. The
MONITOR.— A device used for lowest note, A, has a frequency of 26,
checking. It can be a small receiver middle C (the centre note of the

255
 MUSICAL NOTES FREQUENCY — NEUTRODYNE CIRCUIT

standard piano keyboard) a frequency distortion. The neon lamp, when a

of 256, and the top note of the stan¬ large current is taken, has a lower
dard piano has a frequency of 4,096. resistance, and consequently tends to
The following table shows the piano even up the load on the unit.
notes and their frequencies : NEON TUBE.—A glass vessel filled
with the inert gas known as neon, and
A 26 G 96 F 341 E 1,280 fitted with electrodes at each end.
B 30 A 106 G 384 F 1,365
C 32 B 120 A 426 G 1,536 When a high potential is applied to
D 36 C 128 B 480 A 1,706 the electrodes the gas glows with a
E 40 D 144 C 512 B 1,920 yellowish red glow. It is the neon
F 42 E 160 D 576 C 2,048 lamp which makes visible the images
G 48 F 1 70 E 640 D 2,304 received by a television set.
A 53 G 192 F 682 E 2,560 NEPER.— Unit of level. One neper
B 60 A 2 1 3 G 768 F 2,730 equals 8-6 decibels. (See also Bel,
C 64 B 240 A 853 G 3,072
D 72 C 256 B 960 A 3,413 Decibel, Phon, and Acoustic Watt.)
E 80 L> 288 C 1,024 B 3,840 NEUTRALISING CIRCUITS.—
F 85 1 320 D 1,152 C 4,096 See Neutrodyne Circuit.

MUTUAL CONDUCTANCE.— The NEUTRALISING CONDENSER.

relation of anode current change per See Neutrodyne Circuit.
volt grid-potential change. Another NEUTRODYNE CIRCUIT.—The
term for this is " Slope.” (See also whole secret of obtaining successful
Characteristic Curves.) ILF. amplification is the prevention
MUTUAL INDUCTANCE Th e of ‘'feed-back” from the plate cir¬
result of coupling together two in¬ cuit of the ILF. valve to its grid cir¬
ductances so that a change in the cuit. In the modern S.G. scheme
current in one winding produces an this is achieved by very complete
E.M.F. in the other. screening, not only between external
circuits, but between the actual
N electrodes in the valve itself. With
NATURAL FREQUENCY.—The an ordinary three-electrode valve the
natural frequency of a circuit is the outside screening may be arranged in
frequency with which it oscillates just the same way, but, obviously,
when no external electromotive force a certain amount of “feed-back”
is applied. will take place in the valve itself.
NATURAL WAVELENGTH.— The well-known Hazeltine "neu¬
The wavelength of an aerial which is trodyne ” circuit very ingeniously
connected directly to earth (ioo-ft. got round this difficulty by arranging
aerial = 120 metres). that energy should be intentionally
NEGATRON. — A four-electrode fed back from the anode circuit to
valve in which a negative resistance the grid circuit in such a way as to
effect is produced. cancel out the amount of unwanted
NEON STABILISER.—A special feed-back. This was done oy extend¬
neon lamp arranged to be included ing the anode coil; the H.T. was
across the output from a small mains tapped on to the centre of the tuned
battery eliminator so that it may de¬ circuit so that both ends of the coil
liver an even current when used with were "live” and at opposite phase.
Q.P.P. or Class B amplification. The From the end remote from the plate
sudden high currents taken by the a very small adjustable condenser was
valves working on these principles used to couple back directly on to
result, with most mains units, in the grid of the same valve (see Fig.
sudden voltage drops and consequent 281). When the value of this con-
 NEUTRODYNE CIRCUIT
denser was exactly rigkt, the circuit ing overloaded, and that it may be
was perfectly stable—an unheard-of necessary to use a "first L.F.” type
state in those days. A really high or even a power valve for that pur¬
amount of amplification could be ob¬ pose.
tained, and the only drawback was The Process of Neutralising. Little
the fact that very complete screen¬ need be said about operation except
ing was necessary—-although it al¬ for a description of the actual pro¬
ways is—and that the actual ‘ ' neu¬ cess of neutralising. Without trying
tralising ” process—the adjustment of to find the correct position, tune the
the condenser—was often rather set to the local, bringing it up to
tricky to the unskilled hand. ( maximum volume.
It is well known that a screened- Now remove one filament lead from
grid valve will overload very easily, the terminal on the H.F. valve
and that the signal, straight off the holder. Leave the valve in position,
aerial, from a
nearby broad¬
casting station
is quite cap¬
able of ex¬
ceeding the
legitimate grid
swing. In
cases where
people want a
receiver with
rather better
distance - get¬
ting properties Fic £_
than the con- Hazeltine Neutro- « —
V e n tion a 1 Circuit. "ST
“detector
and two L.F.,” and happen to be of course, but with its filament
situated so near a broadcasting sta¬ switched off. The local will prob¬
tion that a screened-grid valve in the ably be heard at quite good strength
first stage will overload, the neutral¬ if the neutralising condenser is either
ised triode forms an excellent sub¬ "all in” or “all out.” Adjust the
stitute for the S.G. neutralising condenser until the sig¬
The circuit arrangement shown in nal from the local disappears alto¬
Fig. 281 should provide no difficulties, gether. Having obtained it, move
if the anode coil is mounted at right the tuning condensers slightly to
angles to the grid (aerial) coil, and make sure that it does not come in
on the opposite side of the screen. again. If it does, readjust the neu¬
A complete suggested layout is shown tralising condenser.
in Fig. 282. When the ideal stale of affairs has
A general-purpose type of valve— been found, the filament of the H.F.
a ‘ ‘ HL ’ ’—or a " H ” type will valve should be switched on again,
suit the purpose admirably. If one and the set should operate in a
is very near the local the “HL” is stable condition. It should be pos¬
preferable. It should be remembered sible to make it oscillate by means
in such a case, however, that the of the usual detector reaction con¬
detector now stands in danger of be¬ denser; but when it does so, it should
p.w.E.—I*
 NICKEL-IRON-ALKALINE BATTERIES
only be the detector that oscillates. tion. The temperature of the solu¬
Remember that the true setting of tion is an important factor, and
the neutralising condenser depends should be kept within similar limits
upon the grid-plate capacity of the to that of the lead-acid type. Acid
actual H.F. valve in use; this im¬ must not be allowed on or in an
plies that if a different valve is used alkaline cell, and considerable damage
the whole process will probably have will result if this is permitted. Hy¬
to be gone through again. drometer tests are useful in deter-

F1C. 282.—Suggested Layout for the Circuit shown in Fig. 281.

Tuning should be found to be very mining whether a change of elec¬

straightforward, and simply a matter trolyte is desirable. These tests
of keeping the two controls “in should not be taken during a charge,
step ” with each other. nor after adding distilled water for
NICKEL-IRON-ALKALINE BAT¬ topping up until a further charge.
TERIES.—The nickel - iron - alkaline The temperature of the solution
battery as used for lighting and start¬ should be noted, and corrections
ing purposes on commercial vehicles made to obtain the density readings
is capable of withstanding a consider¬ at 60° F. The correction constant is
able amount of neglect and rough •00025 f° r each 10“ F. variation, and
usage. The state of charge when the this amount should be added to the
cells are stored is not of very great density readings for temperatures
importance, but the best conditions above 60° F., and subtracted for
are maintained if the cells are fully temperatures below that value. The
charged and then half discharged be¬ normal specific gravity of the solu¬
fore storing. The electrolyte consists tion used in Ni-Fe cells is 1190.
of a solution of potassium hydrate in This density will gradually decrease
distilled water, and is supplied at the during the charge and discharge
correct density by the battery manu¬ operations over a period of about
facturer. The specific gravity does twelve months, until a specific gravity
not alter with the state of charge, of 1170 is reached. At this point the
and gassing is not an indication of battery will have lost its efficiency,
full charge. and the electrolyte should be emp¬
Temperature of the Alkaline Solu- tied out and renewed.
258
 NOCTOVISION NOISES
The normal density of the solution result. The same types of charging
as used in Edison storage cells is equipment described for acid cells can
i-zoo, and when this decreases to be suitably applied tor charging al¬
1160 it should be renewed. Alkaline kaline cells. (See also Accumulator.)
cells must not be allowed to stand
empty. Glass or enamel ware should
be used for filling purposes, and
vessels previously used for acids must
not be allowed to come in contact
with the solution.
Defective vent plugs may cause ex¬
cessive swelling of the steel cell cases,
and the plugs should be tested period¬
ically to ensure that efficient ventila¬
tion is maintained.
Charging Voltage of Alkaline Cells.
The charging voltage of alkaline cells
commences at 1-4 volts and rises to
1-8 volts per cell, so that it is neces¬
sary for the charging voltage of the
D.C. supply to be not less than 185
times the number of cells charged in NOCTOVISION.—A process of
series. The first charge must be at television, where the object is
the normal current for double the scanned by infra-red rays. By this
normal means, the object to be televised
period. O n may be in darkness but owing to
discharge, the the action of the infra-red ray the
voltage of television transmitter will receive im¬
this type of pulses from the scanned object, and
cell should they may thus be transmitted in the
not be allowed same way as when they are placed
to drop be¬ in bright light. The received image
low 10 volt bears all the light and shade of the
per cell. When ordinary method, and it is difficult to
the cells tell that the original object is in
are charged darkness. (See also Television.)
the cases NODE.— A point of zero current or
are electrified, potential in an oscillatory circuit.
and short NODON VALVE.—See Accumu¬
circuits will lator, p. 6.
occur if con¬ NOISES.— Noises which occur from
tact is made causes outside the set are usually far
between them more difficult to eliminate than those
by metal which are caused through some de¬
spanners used fect in the receiver itself, since it is
for tightening very rarely that they can be tackled
te r minais at their source. That the source may
or for other be well known is not usually of much
purposes, and help for that reason.
ex te nsive The usual noises experienced are
F1C. 283.—A dual-range
Frame Aerial. damage may crackling and similar noises due to
259
 NOISES
electrical machinery, mains hum, at¬ approaching owners of noisy plant,
mospherics, and heterodyne whistles. such as electric charging systems,
Interference due to Electrical Mach¬ sausage machines, etc. Often the fit¬
inery. The problem of disturbances ting of such an inexpensive addi¬
due to electrical machinery in the tion as a good earth connection or
neighbourhood of the receiver is one a pair of 4-mfd. condensers across the
of the hardest to solve. Amongst brushes, with the centre point
the more usual sources are trams, earthed, will make all the difference.
trains, electric signs, automatic traf¬ Frame Aerial as a Cure. As regards
fic signals, charging plants, genera¬ the receiver itself, there are various
tors, etc. The radiations are appar¬ dodges which may be tried, but prob¬
ently caused by sparking at com- ably the most successful of all is the
centre - tapped
frame aerial. An
ordinary frame will
generally effect
some improvement,
but not to the
■ extent that a
properly balanced
frame will. The
merit of the frame
is not due to the
fact that it is less
efficient than an
outdoor aerial, and
that therefore it
picks up less of the
disturbance.
If that were so there
F1C. 285.—A Counterpoise Earth. would be no advan¬
tage, since signals
mutators and switches, etc. These would also be reduced in proportion,
act in muc h the same way as a spark and any attempt to increase the
station, the transmitting aerial being signal strength would increase the
represented by the supply mains disturbance again. Actually, how¬
which feed the machinery. In the ever, the frame appears to be much
case of trams, the overhead trolley more sensitive, at any rate, to the
which collects current from the con¬ distant broadcast than to the local
ductor is often a prolific source of disturbance.
crackles and crashes, and even the The circuit for the balanced frame
ordinary tumbler switches of the is shown in Fig. 284. It is similar
house lighting system cause a click to that of an ordinary frame, except
in the loudspeaker every time they that the centre point of the winding
are operated. is earthed. One end of the frame
In some of the worst cases a com¬ goes to the grid of the first valve in
plete cure is often impossible unless the usual way. The centre tap goes
the cause is removed. The B.B.C. to earth, while the other end is
are, of course, doing much useful work joined to one side of the tuning con¬
in this connection, but one can often denser only. Points to remember in
supplement their excellent efforts by the fitting up of such a frame are :
260
 NOISES
that each half of the frame should valves is sometimes very helpful in
be as nearly identical as possible, reducing electrical disturbances, as
electrically as well as mechanically. both tend to give a silent background.
Both the outside leads should be the Another scheme is the use of a coun¬
same length and equi-distant from terpoise earth. This has somewhat
the same action as the frame
aerial, although it is not so effec¬
tive. In its simplest form it con¬
sists of an insulated wire similar
to the aerial and placed directly
underneath it. Naturally this is
not always a practical arrange¬
ment, but for those who wish to
Fig. 286.—A Cure for H.F. Interference via the Mains. try it, it is illustrated in Fig. 285.
The earth terminal of the set is
the centre or earthed lead. Natur¬
ally, one will need a sensitive re¬
ceiver with a frame if it is desired
to get foreign stations with any
degree of volume. A super-het. is
ideal, but a straight four-valver, with
a screen-grid stage, will usually meet
all average needs. The placing of
the receiver in a metal box or in some
way screening it, will be an advan¬
tage when used in conjunction with
the frame, although it is unlikely to
FlG. 288.—Suitable Potentiometer
for eliminating Hum.

joined to the counterpoise instead

of to earth.
H.F. Interference via the Mains.
It sometimes happens that most of
the noise arrives via the mains, and
not down the aerial. This can be
tested by disconnecting the aerial.
If the noise continues then, one can
be fairlv certain that the mains are
picking up most of the unwanted im¬
pulses. Try a good H.F. choke in
each lead with a fixed condenser
across them, as in Fig 286. A -oi-
mfd. condenser (or larger in the case
of D.C. mains) will be suitable.
F1C. 287.—Another Cure for Mains Hum. NOISES, CURING.— Noises may
be roughly divided into two classes—
be of much help with an ordinary those which come from some cause
aerial. within the set, such as motor boat¬
Using a Counterpoise. The use of ing, microphonie noises, and certain
band-pass tuning and variable-mu crackling noises, and those which ar-
261
 NOISES, CURING

same way sound from the

speaker itself, on striking
the valve, will set it vibrat¬
ing. This in turn causes
the ringing sound in the
speaker, and in bad cases
this ringing sound gradu¬
ally builds up to a volume
which drowns everything.
The fitting of anti-micro-
phonic valve holders is ob¬
viously the first step to¬
wards a cure. Try also fit¬
ting a rubber ring round
the bulb of the valve, or
placing a jacket of cotton
gauze round it, as in Fig.
292. If the trouble still
persists, the cause may not
lie only with the valve, but
may be due to the vibra¬
tions from the speaker set¬
ting up sympathetic vibra¬
tions in the vanes of the
variable condensers. In this
case the building up usually
Speaker Leads occurs only when the set is
tuned-in to a heavy carrier.
Condensers without sup¬
rive via the aerial or the mains, such ports to the tips of the moving vanes
as atmospherics, mains hum, etc. In¬ (see Fig. 293) are usually the cause,
ternal noises will be dealt with first. and the remedy lies either in their
Microphonie Feed-back. This par¬ replacement by more rigid types or
ticularly vicious form of disturbance the mounting of the speaker or the
practically disappeared with
the improvement in valves,
but, unfortunately, has re¬
turned to a certain extent
with the introduction of so
many self-contained sets. It
is chiefly caused by the sound
waves from the speaker im¬
pinging on the detector valve.
If the electrodes of this are
not absolutely rigid, it will
act as a microphone, as can
be demonstrated by tapping
the valve sharply with your
finger. A microphonie valve
will give out a ringing sound
from the speaker. In the 290. If crackling noises cease when the aerial is disconnected,
this is certain proof that they are caused by atmospherics.
262
 NOISES, CURING

baffle on felt
or sponge
rubber pads
as in Fig.
295-
L.F.Howl-
ing and
Motor Boat¬
ing. Most
home con¬
structors
have en¬
countered
this at one
time or an¬
other. It is usually so low a note “plop, plop, plop! " In this latter
that each separate beat can be dis¬ form it is known as motor boating.
tinguished, thus producing a regular It may be due to a variety of causes,
such as interaction between
components resulting from
Sound Waves bad spacing, feed - back
From Speaker caused by a worn-out H.T.
battery, overloaded mains
unit, etc. Fortunately, it
is not difficult to overcome
if tackled systematically.
One of the oldest and sim¬

!!I ! Ui
plest dodges is that of
changing over one pair of
leads to the L.F. trans¬
Cotton Wool former. Simply reverse the
connections to either the
primary or the secondary,
but not to both. In the
case of two-transformer
stages, only one should be
altered. Failing that, fit a
decoupling resistance and
condenser in the anode cir¬
cuit of the detector valve as
in Fig. 296. Also try a
choke and condenser output
filter if one is not already
present. This is an almost
certain cure where the
trouble emanates from the
mains unit. Fig. 297 shows
the usual arrangement. In
the case of receivers which
Fig. 292.—A jacketof cotton-wool round the detector valve,so as to derive their grid bias from
prevent sound waves from the speaker impinging on it, will often the mains, decoupling should
stop a microphonie howl.
263
 NOISES, CURING
be included, as is also shown in public. Naturally, a few cases do
Fig. 297. occur where trouble arises through
H.F. Oscillation. Unsuitable com¬ some unseen cause, such as excep¬
ponents, bad layout, and inadequate tional local conditions or a bad
Unsupported Vanes component; but it is more often the
set which is not to specification, or
has been altered from time to time,
which causes most trouble.
As regards a cure, one can only re¬
peat what everyone has heard time
and again—namely, pay particular
attention to layout and wiring. Un¬
shielded coils should be placed with
their windings at right angles to
minimise interaction. The same ap¬
plies to H.F. chokes, which should

Rubber

F1C. 293.—Vibrating condenser vanes

may cause a microphonie howl.

screening all contribute towards in-

stability in the H.F. stages, resulting
in uncontrollable oscillation. Of
course, with home-constructed sets
built up according to the designer’s
specification the trouble is not likely
to occur, since such troubles are cured,
before the design is offered to the

F IC. 295.—Mounting
the speaker o n
Sponge Rubber so as
to prevent the me¬
chanical transmission
of vibrations to the
set itself.

not be placed with their wind¬

ings in the same plane as those
Change of an adjacent coil. Fig. 298
Oten
shows the proper way to mount
These
them. Non - inductive - type
W/NES
condensers should be used
where possible, especially for
decoupling band-pass coils.
Keep the connection from the
grid of the detector valve to
Fig. 294.—One of the oldest the grid condenser as short as
dodges for stopping L.F. howl¬
ing or motor boating—change over the con¬
possible, as in Fig. 299. The
nections to one of the windings of the L.F. substitution of metallised
Transformer as shown by dotted lines.
valves for ordinary ones in the
 NOISES, CURING
TO,OOO - £0,000 "burnt-out" transformer wind¬
UMS'
ings, and faulty resistances. If
it is known definitely that the H.T.
battery is the cause, the remedy is
obvious, but if this is not cer¬
tain, the voltmeter will give
some idea. Usually, if the volt¬
age has dropped by 25 per cent.,
the battery has little useful life
left in it, and is more than likely to
crackle. If the battery is O.K.,
it is quicker to test the receiver
stage by stage than to try to guess
the cause. Disconnect the loud-

FlC. 296.—How to fit a decoupling resistance

and condenser to stop motor-boating.

S.G. and detector stages also helps

where screening is inadequate.
Crackling
Noises.
Some of the
causes of in¬
term ittent
crackling
noises pro-
d u c e d by
Fic. 298.—
the receiver Unscreened
itself are as H.F. Chokes and Coils
should not be mounted near
follows: one another, but if this is
worn - out unavoidable place them with
their windings at right
bat t eries, angle-, to prevent inter¬
bad con¬ action and H.F. howling.
nections.
speaker and join it, or
Output Cuore a pair of phones would
Fig. 297.—The Cir- be better, in the anode
cuit for decoupling by circuit of the detector
Choke-filter Output. The
Output Grid Circuit is valve, as in Fig. 300.
also shown decoupled. / If the cracklings are ap¬
2-4 M^D parent in the phones,
then the trouble lies in
the H.F. or detector
stages. Tighten all ter¬
minals and examine all
soldered joints very
carefully. A soldered
Oeroi/Pi/Na connection may be
/PesuMuce cracked right across
AäourfaMi ffmüâ/21
¿tesTfMuce without the crack being

265
 NOISES, CURING
visible until pulled apart. Test the resistance fitted, join the phones
valves in their holders and open each across A and E, so as to include the
valve leg slightly to ensure its mak- resistance as well. The commence¬
ing proper contact. Short the switch ment of crackling would indicate that
with a piece of wire while it is in the the resistance is the cause. If there
“on” position, as in Fig. 301. If are still no results, pass on to the
the crackling ceases, the fault lies in next stage by connecting the phones
the switch. Any spaghetti resistances (or rather the loudspeaker, as the
present may be the culprits, especially signals will be louder in this stage!
if twisted or stretched. Of course, if in the anode circuit of the next stage.
If this is also the last stage, then,
naturally, one will join the speaker
to its usual terminals. Now test for
loose terminals, faulty resistances,
etc., in this part of the circuit, as
in the previous stages. In the case
of R.C. coupling, the coupling con¬
denser is unlikely to give trouble,
but the simplest way to test it is to
replace it with another. The same
applies to decoupling condensers.
Faulty Mains Unit. In this stage-
by-stage test it has been more or less
assumed that the set under test is
battery operated. In the case of a
mains set, procedure is the same ex¬
cept that there is just the possibility
of the trouble being caused by a par¬
tial breakdown in the mains unit. In
this case one would not get beyond
Fig. 299.—By placing the grid Condenser close to
the Valve-holder the lead from Grid to Condenser is the first stage, since, whatever test
kept short—which makes for stability. were tried, the crackling would per¬
sist. Fortunately, this is of fairly
or not they are the cause. Test rare occurrence. The cure is ob¬
the grid leak in the same way. viously an overhaul of the mains unit
Here is a tip worth while—if one and the replacement of any defective
hasn’t any spare grid leaks or re¬ parts. Another rather rare cause of
sistances for comparison when making crackling noises is due to a defective
these tests, one can always borrow L.T. accumulator. The positive
one from the idle L.F. stages. The plates of old accumulators of the
values may not be quite the same, block plate type are inclined to break
but they will be quite all right for up. Only intermittent contact occurs
the purpose of locating the crackling. between the two parts. A broken lug
If no crackling is heard in the will have the same effect.
phones when placed in the detector Smoothing the H.T. Supply. A
anode circuit (across A and B in potentiometer may also be included
Fig. 300), alter the connection to in¬ with advantage across the filament of
clude the primary of the transformer. the usual full-wave rectifier valve, the
If the crackling appears, the trans- H.T. positive lead being taken from
forrtier is the cause. If the set is the slider instead of from the centre
still silent, and there is a decoupling tap of the transformer. This will
266
 NOISES, CURING
balance out any hum that would of the transformer in the power unit
otherwise enter the filter circuit. The and the earth terminal of the set.
connections are shown in Fig. 287. Atmospherics. These do not trouble
There are several potentiometers on us much in this country except dur¬
the market suitable as hum elimina¬ ing the few periods of thundery
tors. The type shown in Fig. 288 is weather experienced each summer.
specially made for the purpose. It In fact, what is often put down to
is inexpensive. atmospherics is nothing more than
The shielding of all heater wiring crackles caused by a worn-out H.T.
in earthed sleeving and the use of battery or some faulty or dirty con¬
earthed lead-covered wire from the nection in the set. If there are no

F1C. 300.—How to test for " crackling ” noises. To test the H.F. and detector stages dis¬
connect H.T. from E and join 'phones across A and B. To test H.F. choke as wed join 'phones
across A and G To include transformer join them across A and D. To include decoupling
resistance join across A and E.

mains to the set are other well-known doubts as to the cause, disconnect
dodges for eliminating hum. Take the aerial temporarily. If the crackles
care also that the aerial, earth, and cease they are due to atmospherics.
speaker wires do not run close to or A cure is practically out of the ques¬
parallel with the supply mains. tion at the present time, but those
Tunable Hum. A hum may some¬ means herein described for the elim¬
times be experienced when tuned into ination of electrical disturbances may
a strong transmission like the local be found helpful in reducing their
station. This must not be confused effects. One thing to remember is
with the microphonie noise due to that volume control should never be
vibrating condenser vanes. Tunable effected by detuning, since by this
hum is usually accentuated, if not method the atmospherics, being un¬
caused, by a poor earth connection. tunable, remain at full strength, while
Failing a cure when this has been at¬ the signal is reduced. The best way
tended to, try the following : connect is to tune in the required station ac¬
a 01-mfd. condenser (1,000 volts curately and then reduce it to a
D.C. test) between one mains terminal workable volume with the reaction or

267
 NOISES, CURING — OHM
the volume control. This will at the dress here lies with the Post Office.
same time reduce the atmospherics. Assuming, however, that the trouble
It is perhaps not quite correct to say is due to jamming, and if the station
atmospherics are untuned, as they affected is a favourite one, fit up
will often be found to be less trouble¬ a high-note filter. This is shown in
some on the medium waves than on Fig. 291.
the long. In this case, if there is NOMOGRAM.—An abac (which
a choice of using either band for see).
the local programme, as for instance NON-INDUCTIVE COIL.— An in¬
when Daventry National and London ductance which is wound back upon
National are giving the same pro¬ itself or otherwise doubled so that
gramme, one will naturally tune in the self-induction of each section neu¬
tralises that of the other.
NON-INDUCTIVE CONDENSER.
—A condenser in which the electrodes
are so disposed that there is no in¬
ductance. A mica and copper-foil
condenser is non-inductive, but a
paper condenser of the type where a
long strip of waxed paper and a long
strip of foil are wrapped round and
round is inductive.
NON-INDUCTIVE RESISTANCE.
—A wire-wound resistance, having
the wire element wound back upon
itself or otherwise doubled so that the
self-induction of each section neu¬
tralises that of the other. The term
is also applied to a resistance which
Flc. 301.—Shorting a Switch in this manner will is composed of some element other
indicate whether crackling noises are due to faulty
contact.
than wire, such as a graphite com¬
to the one which has the least inter¬ position. A resistance which pos¬
ference. sesses no inductance.
Heterodyne Whistles. A very shrill NON-OSCILLATORY.—A current
whistling sound is sometimes heard which commences in a circuit and
above the legitimate signal when then dies away without reversal.
tuned to a particular station. This NON-SYNCHRONOUS.—The same
is due to jamming by another station as Asynchronous.
working on the same, or nearly the o
same, wavelength. It is not uncom¬ OCTODE.— A combined first de¬
mon in these days of overcrowding tector-oscillator valve having six grids
on the broadcast wavebands. First in addition to the anode and cathode.
of all make quite certain that it is It is similar to the heptode or penta¬
not caused by the receiver being grid except for the additional screen¬
on the border of oscillation and ing grid.
itself heterodyning the incoming car¬ The two sections of the valve ap¬
rier. It is quite possible for this to pear as an H.F. pentode (first de¬
happen if one is trying to squeeze tector) and a triode (oscillator).
the last ounce out of the reaction. OHM.—The unit of resistance de¬
Again, the trouble may be due to a fined by that resistance offered by a
neighbour's receiver oscillating. Re¬ column of mercury at the tempera-
268
 OHM — OHM S LAW

F1C. 302.—Various simple tests to apply, and Causes of trouble.

ture of melting ice; 14-452 grammes OHM’S LAW.— A law which gives
in mass, and of uniform cross section the relations existing in any circuit
and with a length of 106-3 centi¬ between current, voltage, and resist¬
metres. When an electrical pressure ance. The formula is : current =
of i volt is required to force a cur¬ voltage resistance, which is set
rent of i ampere through a circuit, down in mathematical form thus :
the circuit is said to have a resist¬
I E (I being the electrical symbol
ance of I ohm. K
269
 OHM’S LAW — OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT
for current, E the symbol for voltage, only, the formula is : I = 2irfÆ, or
and R the symbol for resistance).
From this equation it is obvious that
the voltage can be found by multi¬ OMNIBUS BARS.—Bus bars.
plying the current by the resistance OPEN CIRCUIT.— A circuit which
(E = IxR), and the resistance is is incomplete; for example, an accu¬
given by dividing the voltage by the mulator which is not in use is in open
circuit.
current In all the above
OPEN-CORE TRANSFORMER.—
equations the three terms must be A transformer in which the two ends
in the units of the respective mea- of the iron core are not joined. It
is, therefore, similar
to an induction coil.
OPPOSING E.M.F.
—Back electromotive
force.
ORDINATE. — In
graphs, the distance
of any point from
the axis of abscissae,
measured on a line
parallel to the axis of
ordinates.
OSCILLAT-
ING CURRENT. —
Alternating current
possessing a fre¬
OPTIMUM LOAD (OHMS) quency of hundreds
of thousands of cycles
Fic. 303.—Graph for Moving-coil Speaker.
a second.
surements, namely, I in amperes, E OSCILLATOR.— An instrument for
in volts, and R in ohms. For an generating radio frequencies for test
example take a circuit consist¬ purposes. It consists essentially of an
ing of a battery of 6 volts, across oscillating valve in a coil-condenser
which is joined a resistance of 3 circuit which can be tuned over a
ohms, and this results in a current band of frequencies or wavelengths.
of 2 amps. The generated signal can be used in
place of a normal broadcast signal for
Current ~ - —2 amps. checking receiver performance, for
locating faults, and for accurate ad¬
Resistance = 5 = 3 ohms. justment of trimmers.
2
Voltage =2x3 = 6 volts.
OSCILLATOR COIL.—Two coils
of wire (one of which is tuned)
OHM’S LAW FOR A.C.—Circuits coupled together and connected re¬
E ' spectively in the grid and anode cir¬
having inductance: 1 = —=• . Ohm's cuits of the oscillator portion of the
2TTfL
law for an A.C. circuit having induct- frequency-changing valve of a super¬
V het. (See also Coils.)
anee and resistance : I = + (2tt/L) 3.
OSCILLATORY CIRCUIT.—Any
For A.C. circuits having capacity circuit having inductance and capacity.
270
 OSCILLOGRAM — OUTPUT STAGE
OSCILLOGRAM.— The graph pro¬ of the answer. Stated mathematic¬
duced by an oscillograph. ally, the formular is :
OSCILLOGRAPH.—A device for Ratio = -y/ Opt- Load
obtaining a visible representation of Sp. Imp.
the oscillations of an alternating cur¬ As an example, suppose a 7-ohm
rent, which are transmitted in the speaker is to be used with a power
form of reflected light rays to a screen. valve such as the well-known 41
(See also Cathode-ray Tube.) M.P., having an optimum load of
OSCILLOTRON.—Another name 2,600 ohms. The correct transformer
for Oscillograph. ratio would be y or approxi-
OUTPUT STAGE.— It is a pre¬ *
valent idea that an improvement mately a/ÍÕÕ, which is, of course, 20
follows the fitting of a new speaker. (to l)-
Any will function with an efficient re¬ For the benefit of those amateurs
ceiver provided that it is connected who are not mathematically inclined,
in a suitable manner. This is because the graphs given in Figs. 303 and 304
any valve operates
most efficiently
when the impedance
connected in its
anode circuit is of a
fairly critical and
definite value; this
value is called the
" Optimum Load,”
and is measured in
ohms. ,
The Transformer
Ratio. It is evident
that a speaker of
different impedance
could not be em¬
ployed for each type OPTIMUM LOAD (OHMS)
of output valve, and F1C. 304.—Graph for Moving-iron Speaker.
therefore some
simpler system must be devised. have been prepared. To use these,
All listeners know that a trans¬ first find the optimum load on the
former can be used to ' ' step- horizontal ordinate and take up the
up ” or "step-down” A.C. voltages, vertical line to meet a horizontal
and it is this instrument which is one drawn from the position on the
used for the purpose under discus¬ vertical ordinate which corresponds
sion. If one knows the optimum load to the speaker impedance. The cor¬
required by any valve, and also the rect transformer ratio is given by the
impedance of the speaker to be used inclined line passing through (or
with it, one can find a particular near) the point of intersection. The
transformer ratio with which the lines corresponding to the example
valve and speaker will be matched. given above are shown on the graph.
In the case of a moving-coil speaker In the case of moving-iron and
the correct ratio is obtained by divid¬ vibrating-reed speakers (most types
ing the optimum load by the speaker of cone or balanced-armature instru¬
impedance and taking the square root ments come within this class), the
271
 OUTPUT STAGE
calculation is rather different, because not known the makers will be pleased
the impedance of such speakers in¬ to supply figures.
creases very rapidly with increase of Moving-iron Speakers. When deal¬
frequency. To allow for this, “ Half ing with moving-iron speakers, their
the Optimum Load ” is substituted impedance at about 250 cycles should
in the above equation. The formula be considered and not their D.C.
thus becomes resistance. Here again one is up
lííl tio = x/ Half Opt. Ld. against a difficulty, because some
* 8p. Imp. makers state only the D.C. resistance
To take another example, suppose of their products. In such cases the
one wishes to use a valve like the impedance can be taken as being one
small power, having an optimum and a half times the resistance. It
load of ii.ooo ohms with a 2,400-ohm is safe to assume the impedance of
balanced armature speaker. The moving-coil speakers to be twice the
D.C. resistance when the latter
factor only is known.
Choke-capacity Output Filters.
So far the ratio for output trans¬
formers connected as shown in Fig.
305 have been considered, but the
same rules apply when a tapped
choke is used with a condenser to
feed the speaker. The latter ar¬
rangement is illustrated in Fig. 306.
The tapped choke serves the
purpose of what is generally re¬
ferred to as an “ auto-trans-
former,” and gives a step-down
of voltage in exactly the same way
as does a transformer having both
primary and secondary windings.
Fig. 305.—Transformer Output.
By connecting the feed con¬
transformer ratio should therefore be denser C to tappings a, b, c, and
d in turn, a number of alternative
or approximately 1-5 : 1.
ratios are obtained and the correct
This is shown on the graph in Fig. one can be chosen as explained above.
304, from which other ratios can be When C is connected to tapping d the
obtained for any particular valve and ratio is I : I, but when it is taken to
speaker. Both graphs are equally a centre tapping at b the ratio is
applicable to either three-electrode or 2:1. It will be clear therefore that
pentode valves, and they provide a any desired ratio can be obtained by
very convenient ' ' ready reckoner. ’ ' choosing an appropriate tapping point.
Unfortunately, some few manufac¬ In practice, however, it is seldom
turers do not state the optimum load satisfactory to employ a choke for
of their valves, but in these cases it ratios greater than about 4:1, so
will be sufficiently accurate to take when higher ratios are necessary the
it as being twice the A.C. impedance transformer is to be preferred.
except for pentodes, where no definite Special Cases. There are two special
ratio exists between optimum load cases which require some little extra
and impedance. In any particular consideration. These are : (1) when
instance where the optimum load is two or more valves are connected in
272
 OUTPUT STAGE — PERMEABILITY TUNING
parallel to enable the output stage to parts of a circuit.
handle more signal power, and (2) PELTIER EFFECT.— The term ap¬
when a push-pull output stage is plied to the effect where liberation (or
employed. In the former case the absorption) of heat takes place at the
effective optimum load is found by joint where current passes from one
dividing the O.L. of one valve by the material to another.
number of valves in parallel. PENTAGRID.— The American term
In the case of a push-pull stage the for a 7-electrode valve or Heptode.
effective optimum load is twice that The electrodes consist of cathode,
of a single valve, since the valves are anode, and five grids, and the com¬
virtually in series. In other words, the bination is designed to function as a
optimum load of two battery P220
valves in push-pull is twice 9,600
ohms, or 19,200 ohms. It is the latter
figure then which indicates the correct
ratio.
If two speakers are connected in
parallel, the effective impedance is
halved; in series it is doubled.

p
PAPER CONDENSER.— A fixed
condenser having a dielectric of
paraffin-waxed paper. (See also Con¬
denser, Variable Condenser, Mans-
bridge Condenser, Billi Condenser, etc.)
PARALLEL.—When more than
one path is open to a current they are
“ in parallel.” The term “ shunt ” is
sometimes used. combined first detector and oscillator
PARALLEL FEEDING.— See Low- in a super-heterodyne receiver. The
jrequency Couplings. coupling exists only as an electronic
PARAMAGNETIC.— Having the stream. One grid and the anode act
property of being attracted by the as in the ordinary first detector, whilst
pole of a magnet, and hence, when the remaining grids are employed as
suspended or placed freely in a mag¬ oscillator grid and oscillator anode
netic field, of taking a position parallel and screening grid.
to the lines of force. Opposite to PENTODE. — The five-electrode
Diamagnetic (which see). valve. (See also Valve.)
PARAPHASE.— A special form of PERIKON DETECTOR.— A crystal
push-pull amplification in which the detector consisting of zmcite in con
usual centre-tapped transformer is not tact with copper pyrites.
used. A second input voltage 180° PERMEABILITY (symbol a) is
out of phase with the normal input the ratio of magnetic flux produced bv
voltage is obtained by means of a a magnetic force to the magnetic flux
paraphasing valve. The grid is con¬ produced by the same force in a
nected in the anode circuit of the valve vacuum. (See also Iron-core Coil.)
preceding the push-pull stage. PERMEABILITY TUNING.— An
P.D.— Potential Difference. The arrangement where the usual tuning
pressure in volts existing between two condenser is omitted, and tuning is
273
 PERMEABILITY TUNING — PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELL
Phons—
carried out by varying the inductance 130—Threshold of feeling or pain.
of the coil. This is effected by em¬ 110-120—Vicinity of aeroplane engine.
105-110—Vicinity of pneumatic drill.
ploying an iron-core and moving 10O-105—Vicinity of loud motor horn.
either the core or the coil in relation 90-95—Interior of tube train, windows open.
80-85—Interior of express train, windows open.
to each other. Constant selectivity 60-75—Conversation (average to loud).
is obtained by such a scheme, and 40-50—Quiet street.
20-30—Quiet country house.
efficiency does not fall off o—Threshold of audibility.
in the circuit at high
wavelengths due to the¬
- Mêêêu °y (See also Bel,
fíELAT-^ L_ Decibel, Neper,
and Acoustic
Photo-Electric Cell
Watt.)
Cathode PHONES.—
/OO K Telephones.
MEG.
PHONOVISION.
Anode
— An adaptation
o f noctovision.
Electric current
SO volts variations are made
to operate a special
Fig. 307.—The standard method of connecting the Photo-electric Cell. pick-up which
makes grooves on
use of small inductance and high a record. A pick¬
Anode
capacity as in the usual arrangement. up is used in con-
PERMEANCE.— The reciprocal of ¡unction with
reluctance (which see). copies of the re¬
PERMITTIVITY.—The ratio be¬ cord, and operates
tween the capacitance of two con¬ a neon lamp.
ductors, when surrounded by the PHOTO - ELEC¬
medium, to the capacitance in a TRIC CELL.—The
perfect vacuum. cell consists of a
PHASE.—The difference between small glass tube—
two identical oscillating currents at very similar to a
any instant is known as the phase wireless valve—and
difference. If one oscillating current it c o n -
Cathode
is at zero and another is at maximum, tains two
the phase difference is 90 o. If both me t a 1 plates — a
currents are at the same value, they cathode and an
are in phase. anode. In the type
PHASE DIFFERENCE.— The time shown in Fig. 308,
difference between maximum voltage an ordinary valve
and maximum current in A.C. base is fitted, the
PHASMAJ ECTOR. — An image anode being joined
emitter providing a standard video to the anode pin,
signal source to aid television experi¬ and the cathode to
ments. Actually a “television tun¬ the grid pin. The
ing-in ” signal emitter. glass envelope is
PHON.—The unit of loudness ar¬ not evacuated, but
rived at by the Ministry of Transport. Fic. 308.—The Photo- contains a gas.
Some idea of the phon can perhaps electric Cell, show- The peculiarity of
ing the shape of the ,, . ,
be obtained from this noise chart: Electrodes. this cell is that
274
 PHOTO-ELECTRIC CELL
when a light is applied to the cathode may be mentioned burglar alarms,
electrons are emitted, and if a positive switching lights on or off at predeter¬
potential is applied to the anode (as mined times, or giving warning of
in a wireless valve) these electrons are the arrival of a customer in a shop.
attracted to the anode. The circuit One or two suggestions may be
shows how the cell may be arranged

Fig. 309.—The Recorder in process of cuttings Record.

power valve, so that the application given. A 6o-watt lamp is most suit¬
of any light on the cell will operate able for this particular cell, and it
the relay in the anode circuit of the should be arranged, with the circuit
valve. If the cell connections are shown, at a distance of 3 ft. or so,
reversed the method ol operation is and then gradually brought towards
also reversed, that is,a light shining on the cell. If before the lamp has
the cell will give a steadycurrent in the been brought at the required distance
anode circuit of the valve, holding the from the cell the relay is operated,
relay closed; and, on the light source then it is necessary to reduce the cell
being interrupted, the relay will open.
There are a great many uses to which
this cell may be put, amongst which

Fig. 310.—The Recorder as a reproducer. The Tracking Arm is out of action, and weights arc
placed on the back of the arm.

275
PICK-UP, RECORDING
potential. Alternatively, if the lamp
has to be brought closer than 6 in.
before the relay is operated, then the
resistance across the grid circuit
must be increased in value. Where
it is desired to operate the relay with
only a weak source of light, the grid
bias should be lowered until the
anode current is brought just below
that value required to operate the
relay. A slight increase in current
caused by a weak light on the cell will
then be sufficient to work the relay.
PICK-UP, RECORDING.— In order
to make gramophone records of one’s
own voice, or the voices of one's
friends, a wireless set and a special
recorder are needed.
The discs on which the records are
made are of aluminium, and are 6 in.
in diameter, but they play for as
long as an ordinary 10-in. record and
are double-sided.
Fig. 309 shows the recorder mounted
on the motor board of a gramophone,
and in process of making a record. As
can be seen from the illustration, the ap¬
paratus consists of a pick-up mounted
on a long wooden arm. Fixed to the
latter is a small brass arm terminating
in a needle holder. To make a record,
a tracking disc is placed on the gramo¬
phone turntable. (The tracking disc
is simply an ordinary record with
grooves, but with no sound waves im¬
pressed on them.) On top of this is
placed an aluminium blank, which is
smaller than the tracking disc by
about 2 in. all round. A special hard-
steel needle is fitted in the pick-up,
and a special reproducing needle is
fixed in the tracking arm. The pick¬
up is connected to the output ter¬
minals of a wireless set tuned to good
loudspeaker strength, the turn-table
released, and the point of the cutting
needle placed about J in. from the edge
of the aluminium disc. The needle in
the tracking arm runs on the tracking
disc, making the pick-up arm move
towards the centre of the record.
276
 PICK-UP, RECORDING

Thus the cutting needle makes a bend to the smaller end. as can be
spiral groove on the aluminium simi¬ seen in Fig. 311. Round off the top
lar in pitch to the groove on the of the arm with chisels and sandpaper
tracking disc. The speech or music to give the apparatus an elegant ap¬
from the wireless set, however, causes pearance. Along the centre of the
the needle in the pick-up to vibrate underside cut a channel } in. wide
sideways in the same way as the and in. deep to hold the flex lead
to the pick-up. Drill a |-in. hole
horizontally through the arm if in.
from the wider end and f in. from
the bottom.
The Pivot and Base. The
pivot and base for the arm
come next, a section of
which is shown in Fig. 312.
Cut a 2-in. circle in f-in.
oak for the base and drill
a Ä-in. hole through the
centre. Also drill three
equidistant f-in. holes
F1C. 313.—The end of the arm is cut as shown here.
around the edge of the base
about in. in. Now ob-
armature of a loudspeaker. Thus the tain a round piece of oak or other
groove in the aluminium is modulated hardwood for the pillar, if in. in
with minute waves corresponding to diameter, and if in. long. Drill a
the original broadcast. T^-in. hole down the centre of this,
The record is now cleaned to re¬ using a bench drill if one is avail¬
move the small pieces of metal which able, as it is very important to keep
have been left by the cutter. By this hole upright. Cut two if-in.
fitting a fibre needle to the pick-up circles from
and connecting the latter to the 18 gauge
pick-up terminals of the set the re¬ sheet brass,
cord can be played in the same way using a
as a commercial one. The tracking¬ coarse
disc, aluminium blanks and the neces¬ metal fret¬
sary needles can be obtained from saw for the
any wireless or gramophone dealer. job. Drill
The Construction. Now for the -in. holes
actual constructional work. Make the also
arm first out of a 13-in. length of through
IJ X f-in. oak. Fig. 311 shows the centre
how to mark and cut the wood. Take of each of FlC. 314.—Bearing Discs for
the pick-up.
great care, in cutting the narrower these, and
end of the arm, to get the angles of also
the face correct, as the accuracy of two ^-in. holes as shown in Fig.
the tracking depends on this. 314. These latter are countersunk.
Fig. 313 gives an enlarged view of Screw one of the brass discs to the oak
the face, and should make the dimen¬ base, making the centre holes coin¬
sions quite clear. cident, and fix the other to one end
The thickness of the arm is de¬ of the oak pillar. Make sure that
creased from f in. to f in. from the the screw heads are sunk well below
 PICK-UP, RECORDING
the brass, as the two surfaces have to fit the smaller end of the arm.
to run over one another. Fig. 318 will give the idea. Leave
The fork on which the arm pivots two flanges and drill two ¿-in.
is made by bending a j-in. strip of holes in each for screws to fix into
stiff brass to the shape shown in Fig. the sides of the arm. The pick-up
315. Drill the holes as indicated, and is fixed to the front of the bracket
screw the fork on to the top of the by two small nuts and bolts passing
pillar, using round-headed brass through the back plate of the pick¬
screws. up. Screw the bracket tightly to the
On the end of a 2-in. length of arm.
2 B.A. threaded rod screw a nut and The Tracking Arm. The parts for
solder it in position. Push the rod the tracking arm are shown in Figs.
through the oak base, after having 316, 317, and 319. Cut the fixing
chiselled a recess for the nut. Now plate and arm from 18 gauge brass,
slip on the oak pillar complete with and drill the holes indicated. The
the brass fork. Put a spring washer arm is bent approximately as in the
and a nut on the top of the rod, and sketch and bolted to the fixing plate.
Screw the latter to the under¬
side of the wooden arm, so
that the ends of the tracking
arm come level with the
needle holder of the pick-up.
Now obtain the needle
holder from an old sound box,
and cut it off with a hacksaw
as in Fig. 321 (top). Solder
it to the end of the track-
tighten up sufficiently to prevent any ing arm.
play, but allowing the pillar to re¬ The distance plate (Fig. 316) is cut
volve freely. A trace of petroleum from 22 gauge brass. Drill three
jelly between the brass faces will act ¿-in. holes as shown, and bend the
as a lubricant. Mount two small “tabs” back at right angles. The
brass terminals on the base for the plate is fixed to the pick-up arm by
pick-up connections. these, just behind the pick-up. The
The Pick-up. A pick-up will now position of the slot in the plate is
be required, but no doubt many lis¬ dependent on the size and shape of
teners have one already, complete the pick-up, but Fig. 320 shows how
with arm. In this case remove the to determine it. When the track¬
pick-up from its present arm and ing arm is passed through the slot
fix it to the wooden one just con¬ and locked at x, the distance between
structed, for the recorder will play the cutting and tracking needle must
commerced records just as well as an be 1} in. Cut the slot with a metal
ordinary pick-up and arm. If a pick¬ fretsaw. The device for locking the
up has to be purchased they can tracking arm tightly in position in
be obtained without an arm quite the slot consists of a cam, fixed just
cheaply. The method of fixing de¬ above the arm on the distance plate.
pends on the type one possesses. When the cam is pushed over to¬
The one illustrated is a typical model wards the pick-up, it presses on the
and is fixed by means of a brass arm, preventing it from moving while
bracket ; most others can be fixed a record is being made. The arm can
in the same way. Make a bracket be released and slid to y when the
278
 PICK-UP, RECORDING
recorder is being used for reproduc¬
ing purposes.
The cam is cut from 18 gauge brass
and a ^-in. hole drilled in it, as in
Fig. 321. Fix the cam to the distance
plate with a nut and a bolt, using a
lock nut to prevent it coming un¬
done.
Assembling the Recorder. The re¬
corder can now be put together for
a test. Fix the pick-up arm to the
pivot by pushing a thin piece of steel
wire through it and tire brass fork.
The wire should be thin enough to
allow a little play. Solder the ends
of the wire in place in the holes
in the fork. It will be found
necessary to cut a recess in the un¬
derside of the wooden arm to make
room for the nut and washer on top
of the pillar (see Fig. 322). Just
behind the pick-up drill a -ft-in. ver¬
tical hole through the arm to take
the pick-up lead. A small eyelet
is pushed in the top of the hole
to make it look neat. Bring the lead
through the hole and along the groove
underneath the a-m. Keep it in place
by screwing on small brass plates at
intervals. Take the lead through the
base and solder the ends to the ter¬
minals. Chisel two shallow grooves
in the bottom of the base, so as to
sink the wire below the level of the
wood. A piece of green baize glued
on the base will protect the leads
from damage.
The Weights. In a piece of f-in.
oak drill a i-in. hole, and in a small
piece of 3-ply fix a piece of ^¡-in.
iron rod. Fix the 3-ply to the
oak so that the rod runs down the
centre of the hole (Fig. 323). This
forms a mould in which to case the
necessary weights for the recorder.
Melt some oddments of lead pipe in
a tin and cast five weights. Dust the
inside of the mould with French chalk
to prevent the lead sticking to the
wood. Clean the rougli castings with
a file and emery cloth. Drill two
279
 PICK-UP, RECORDING
■^-in. holes j in. deep in the pick-up less programme to record and tune it
arm, one in the back end, and the to good loudspeaker strength. A
other on top, about 4 in. from the military band is a good subject to
pick-up. Into each of these cement start with. Connect the recorder
a 2|-in. length of ^-in. steel rod, across the loudspeaker, and if the
and bend the back one upwards a pick-up is in working order, you will
little to prevent the weights sliding be able to feel the
off when the arm is raised. needle vibrating on
Recording. Mount the recorder on holding your finger
against it.
Wind the gramo¬
phone motor up fully
in order to develop
the maximum power,
and place one or two
weights on the up¬
right rod nearest the
pick-up. Two or
more can be placed
on, so long as the
pressure of the cut¬
ting needle does not
tend to slow the turn¬
table. A little experi¬
menting will show
the best numbertouse.
Now start the turn¬
table, and when it has
F1C. 320.—Diagram showing relative positions of Cutting and Tracking Needle».
attained full speed,
the motor board of a gramophone. place the cutting needle on the edge
Put a needle in the pick-up and place of the aluminium disc. If the needle
the point on the central peg of the does not run smoothly, but grates as
turn-table. Keeping the needle there, the record revolves, turning the
find a convenient position for the
base and fasten it down with three
screws, passing through the holes
made for them. Fix a pick-up arm
rest on the board to keep the arm
raised.
Place the tracking disc on the
turn-table, and on it an aluminium
blank. Lock the latter, by giving it
a slight twist in an anti-clockwise
direction, when the little slots in the
blank will engage with the brass
studs on the tracking disc. Now put needle round in its holder will remedy
a cutting needle in the pick-up and matters. The pick-up will gradually
a special reproducing needle in the move across the record, cutting a
tracking arm, taking care that they spiral groove as it goes.
are locked tightly in their holders. Do not use the whole of one side
Select a suitable item from the wire¬ of a blank for the first test. About
280
 PICK-UP, RECORDING — PLUG
Ä in. of recording should be sufficient quartz and Rochelle salt crystals.
to determine whether the first effort The latter are now widely used in
has been a success. microphones, pick-ups, and speakers.
Replace the cutting needle in the The principle forms the fundamental
pick-up with a fibre or special repro¬ basis of the Stenode (which see). (See
ducing needle, remove the tracking also Bimorph.)
needle, and transfer the weights to the PITCH-— The tone produced by the
back of the arm. This is to take the frequency of the diaphragm of a loud¬
pressure off the needle, otherwise the speaker or telephone. The distance
rather soft point would soon wear away. from the top of one screw thread to
On no account must a steel needle be the top of another.
employed on an aluminium record.
PLANTÉ PLATES.—See Accumu¬
Connect the recorder to the pick¬
lator.
up terminals of a set, and if the
PLATE CIRCUIT.—The part of the
pick-up is a sensitive one, it will be
circuit of a valve wireless receiver in
necessary to connect a volume con¬
which the amplified current flows.
trol across it. Before playing the
PLIODYNATRON.—A dynatron,
record, clean it with petrol to remove
with the addition of plates to control
any dirt and grit. Play the record
the negative resistance effect.
in the usual way.
PLUG.—A device us, d in conjunc¬
To make personal records, a micro¬
tion with a jack providing two insulated
phone of some kind is necessary.
contacts and hence enabling a circuit
Connect the microphone to the pick¬
up terminals of the set, with a dry
battery of the voltage recommended
by the makers of the microphone.
Play the items into the ' mike,” and
record them in the usual way.
If listeners do not wish to buy a
microphone, a passable substitute can
be found by connecting up a sensitive FlC. 323.—The Mould for casring the weights,

loudspeaker to the pick-up terminals. quickly to be completed or broken.

To obtain the best results with the Briefly the uses of plugs and jacks
recorder, a little experience is neces¬ are as follows:
sary to determine the best volume to (i) They can be used as a con¬
record at, and the number of weights venient means of plugging-in the loud¬
to use, both when recording and speaker—either at the set itself or at
playing the discs. extensions in other rooms of the house.
When the completed apparatus is (2) The plugging-in of the speaker
working well, a coat of dark-brown can be made to switch on the receiver.
enamel paint given to the recorder (3) They can be used as a means
will make it resemble bakelite, and it of cutting out the last amplifier valve.
will harmonise with the cabinet. (4) hi a means of making a quick
PIEZO ELECTRICITY.— The pro¬ change over from speaker to phones
perty possessed by certain substances when ether searching.
of forming electric voltages on oppos¬ (5) The gramophone pick-up can
ing surfaces when subjected to be easily plugged-in to either detector
mechanical pressure. These voltages or L.F. stage, the grid bias being
are of opposing kinds, giving rise to automatically adjusted.
differences of potential. The best (6) They provide a quick method
known piezo-electric substances are of connecting or disconnecting the
p.w.E.—K 281
 PLUG
batteries, and even the aerial and that the stem is really a metal tube
earth. (Note. —For this latter duty and that the ball is attached to the
in order to reduce H.F. losses to a end of a rod which passes through
minimum special low-capacity jacks the stem. Rod and stem are kept
should be used.) concentric and insulated from one an-
other by means of an ebonite or fibre
washer at each end. The rod is not
surrounded with ebonite for its whole
length, as this
is unnecessary
and would only
add to the self¬
capacity of the
plug. The rod
and stem are
each connected
to a separate
terminal or
binding screw.
I n connecting
the plug to the
speaker or pick¬
up the two
wires forming
the leads are
Construction of the Plug. For joined to the two binding screws and
those who are not familiar with the are thus in direct electrical contact
elements of jack switching an ex¬ with the ball and stem. The body
planation of the construction of the of the plug being of bakelite insulates
plug and jack and how they work the hand from any of the metal parts
will not be out of place. Fig. 324 when plugging-in.
shows two popular plugs. The Jacks. These vary in detail ac-
“business”
parts are
the ball
and stem
and these
are stand¬
ard as re¬
gards size
and shape.
The only
difference
between
one make
and an¬
other is in the shape of the body or cording to the particular switching
"shell” of the plug and the method they have to perform, but all com¬
of connecting the leads. Fig. 325 is prise a socket to receive the plug
a sectioned drawing showing the con¬ and one or more insulated spring con¬
struction of a plug. It will be seen tacts. Figs. 326 and 327 illustrate a
282
 PLUG

Fie. 326.—Details oí Single-circuit Jack.

single open circuit jack. The socket However, by the multiplication of

which receives the stem of the plug is springs in the jack, other and more
in the form of a metal bush which varied operations can be performed.
screws in to the frame of the jack and For example, the jack shown in Figs.
also serves as a means of fixing the 331 and 332, will complete two circuits
jack to the panel of the set. The on insertion of the plug. Here three
single spring is mounted on a pile of springs are used, and if you examine
fibre strips whit h insulate it from the the illustrations you will see that
metal frame and at the same time normally all three are separated from
hold it at just the right height to one another. When the plug is pushed
make easy but firm contact with the home it not only makes contact with
ball of the plug. The spring is usually the frame of the jack and with the
of nickel or German silver. lower spring, thus completing the
The lower sketch in Fig. 327 shows speaker circuit, but also in raising the
just what happens when the plug is lower spring it connects the two upper
inserted. The stem of the plug makes ones together. There is a little fibre
contact with the frame of the jack and Peg underneath the middle spring
the ball connects with the spring.
This is the simplest switching opera¬
tion possible with a plug and jack.

F1C. 327.—How the Plug and Jack connect.

283
 PLUG
against which the lower spring presses frame and parallel springs is the most
when it is forced upwards by the ball ; common, but is not the only variety
thus the obtainable. Notable exceptions are the
middle Midget Jack shown in Fig. 328 and
spring similar jacks of a small size. The
is also former is specially designed for use
bent up¬ in H.F. circuits and one type is
ward. It of unusual design in that it has a
does not bakelite frame and springs fitted with
actually convenient terminals. Owing to the
Fig. 328.—A Midget Jack for make shape of the springs it does not pro¬
use in H.F. circuits. con tact ject so far from the back of the panel,
with but on the other hand it takes up more
the lower spring because the fibre room on the panel itself. Another
peg is an insulator, but it does type of jack is the wall jack shown in
connect with the upper one which has Fig. 329.

Fig. 329. Speaker Points can be arranged in different rooms by means of Wall Jacks.

a special silver contact for the pur- Various Circuits. Now consider
pose. what jacks to use, and how to
□ perform the var-
vious enumerated.
The first use
is the pro-
vision of a
1 quickly made
' speaker con¬
nection.
Of course, the
circuit is sim¬
plicity itself. It
is illustrated in
F i g ■ 330. In¬
stead of having
two terminals
marked "L.S.”
you use a single
The two wires
284
TOH.T.+

Fie. 332.—How the

Jack wosks when the
OLT.+ Plug is inserted.

OLT-

285
 PLUG
which would normally be joined to the from the set, or from the set to the
"L.S.” terminals are connected in¬ first point, and from there to the next
stead to the two tags of the jack. one, and so on. Use whichever ar-

Flc. 334.—The modification necessary to the circuit in Fig. 340 when parallel-fed is used.

The plug is joined to the two leads rangement is most convenient, or that
from the speaker. A further elabora¬ which requires least wire.
tion of this arrangement is shown in A very useful method of switching
Fig. 329. Here, several jacks are on a battery receiver is illustrated in
connected in parallel. An ordinary Figs- 331 and 332. On plugging-in
jack is fitted to the set and wall jacks the speaker the filaments are auto¬
are fitted in any rooms where the matically switched on. This is some-
times a good scheme where
there are children about, as
GRID CONDENSER
no on-off switch is required
on the panel of the set. If
the speaker is placed on a
shelf with the lead and
plug well out of the way
of inquisitive little fingers,
GRID LEAK there is no chance of the
set being switched on while
GB —
the grown-ups
are out of the
room. The
working of
F1C. 335.—An easy way to plug in the Pick-up to the Detector Valve of a battery set. the particular
three - spring
speaker is likely to be used. Good jack which is used has previously
quality rubber-covered double wire or been described, and a further study
double flex should be run along the of the illustrations should make
picture-rail or skirting to each point the connections quite clear. The two
286
 PLUG
upper springs are connected to the on the left, that is, the one in the
wires which normally go to the fila¬ plate circuit of the first L.F. valve, is
ment switch, and the lower spring and of the single, closed-circuit type. The
one in the output circuit is
the same type as that used
in Figs. 331 and 332.
When the plug, which is
connected to the speaker,
is inserted in the right¬
hand jack the receiver
works in the normal way,
both L.F. stages being
used. On taking the plug
out, the plate circuit of the
output valve is broken
and so is its filament cir-
B/ASO£S cuit. If the plug
is now inserted in
the other jack it
connects the
F1C. 336.—The mains version oí Fig. 335. bbte grid bias is cut out speaker in the
when the radio is in use plate circuit of the
the body of the jack are joined to the previous valve, the upper spring con¬
wires which would otherwise connect necting with the ball and the frame
to the terminals marked “L.S. — "
and "L.S. + ” on the receiver. The
plug is naturally connected to the
speaker.
Cutting out the Last Valve. Some
years ago it was quite common to
have several low-frequency stages of
amplification, but, nowadays, with
the general improvement in H.F. am¬
plifiers and the introduction of the
pentode, one stage is often sufficient.
However, ' there is undoubtedly a
large number of listeners who prefer
the extra punch provided by two or
three L.F. valves, especially when re¬
ceiving dance music. Naturally, the
full volume is not always required,
although it is nice to know it is there
if needed. This means that there are
many occasions when drastic use has
to be made of the volume control. At
such times, the ability to cut out the
last valve would be a great boon, and
Fic. 337.—A Two-circuit Jack.
in the case of a battery set would
result in no small saving of "juice."
Fig. 334 shows how this can be done with the stem of the plug. The raising
in a transformer-coupled set. The jack of the upper spring causes it to break
287
 PLUG — POLAR FLUX
contact with the lower one, which is would be substantially the same as
conected to the primary of the L.F. those in Figs. 331 and 332.
transformer, and thus the transformer Plugging-in the Pick-up. One of
is cut out while the speaker is in the chief “snags” in connecting a
circuit. gramophone pick-up in the detector
It will be noticed that the decoup¬ circuit of a receiver is that the de¬
ling resistance is not shown as being tector valve has to be biased while
disconnected as well as the trans¬ the pick-up is in use. Nevertheless,
former, although this could easily be this drawback can easily be overcome
arranged by altering the connections. by the use of jack switching. A simple
The reason for this is that the cutting closed-circuit jack is used, as in Figs.
out of the decoupling resistance would 335 and 336. These show the connec¬
produce a rise in the plate voltage tions in the case of a battery and
applied to the valve, with the prob¬ mains receiver respectively. Grid bias
able necessity for an increase in the is automatically applied as soon as
grid-bias voltage. Rather than com¬ the pick-up is plugged in. The de¬
plicate the circuit by arranging for coupling resistance, shown in Fig.
automatic readjustment of the bias 336, is optional, and is not included
the resistance is left in circuit. in all sets. If it is not used, the con¬
The same remarks apply to any re¬ nections from the frame of the jack
sistance of a high value in the plate and from the left side of the decoup¬
circuit, whether it be for voltage con¬ ling condenser are joined to H.T. —.
trolling purposes, decoupling, or anode Where a mains receiver employing
coupling. It is better to leave them resistances for various voltage drop¬
in than endeavour to work the valve ping purposes is in use there are one
at a higher plate voltage, and so get or two points which must receive at¬
distortion owing to insufficient bias. tention. We refer particularly to the
However, automatic adjustment of use of a detector valve as the valve
bias can be arranged by using a five- to which the pick-up is joined. If
spring jack. this employs a decoupling resistance
Phones or Speaker. Now as regards in the anode circuit, the voltage drop
the method of coupling the L.F. trans¬ through this will depend upon the
former. Fig. 334 is the circuit to use anode current when the valve is in
when ordinary series coupling is em¬ use as a detector. When used with
ployed, but in the case of a parallel a different bias, there will be a dif¬
feed it will have to be modified to ferent voltage drop in the anode cir¬
that of Fig. 333. Here, again, the re¬ cuit, and generally speaking this will
sistances in the anode circuit are left be greater than when the valve is em¬
connected so as not to disturb the ployed as a detector. It will there¬
working conditions of the valve. One fore be necessary to arrange that the
advantage of the jack method of cut¬ value of the decoupling resistance is
ting out the last valve is that by also altered when the pick-up is
fitting another plug to a pair of head¬ plugged into circuit.
phones these can be used in place of P.M.G. AERIAL.—The maximum
the speaker. They will very often be length of outdoor aerial permitted by
found useful for D.X. work. If the Postmaster-General is 100 ft., in¬
necessary, of course, a jack can be clusive of lead-in.
fitted in the plate circuit of the de¬ POLAR FLUX. — The magnetic
tector valve, and often ample strength field of an electric generator. The
will be provided with the phones magnetic flux produced by the poles
plugged-in here. The connections thereof.
288
 POLARISATION — POLISHING AND STAINING
POLARISATION.—A term indicat¬ varnish on new wood, but first treat
ing the changing of the polarity due to the surface with glue size. This will
bubbles of hydrogen forming on the give a body for the varnish, which
positive plate. The internal resistance would otherwise be bright in some
of the cell increases during this action. places and dull where the finish had
POLARITY.— See Accumulator. sunk in. Varnish is very glutinous,
POLARITY OF A MAGNET.—The and needs special brushes which have
North Pole of a magnet is that which had their bristles fixed to withstand
seeks the geographical north. It is, the pull of the work. Paint brushes
of course, actually its South Pole, as are kept in water when not in use,
unlikes attract, and likes repel. but varnish brushes should be hung
POLE-FINDING PAPER.— Blot¬ in linseed oil or the varnish itself.
ting paper impregnated with neutral The best time to do varnishing is in
salt of sodium and a trace of phenol the early morning. If the work is
phthalein. The paper is moistened done in a dry atmosphere, a peculiar
and the two wires laid on it, when milky appearance will show, due to
the area in contact with the negative moisture getting on the varnish when
pole turns red. it is nearly dry.
POLE STRENGTH, UNIT OF - Varnish must not be put on too
thickly, but an even amount must be
POLISHING AND STAINING.— spread over the whole surface.
There are several methods of polish¬ Several coats may be applied if neces¬
ing woodwork, and it is always sary, but a streaky surface must be
largely a matter of opinion as to avoided. The brushes used are flat,
which method is preferable. Most but small ones can be used for edges
work is finished with a highly or moulding. See that it does not
polished surface, but certain classes drag, and apply evenly in one direc¬
of work should be left dull. Again, tion.
there is the work which is merely Polishing with Linseed Oil. Oil
oiled, whilst another worker will polishing is quite a simple process,
prefer to add a coat of varnish and and is merely a matter of rubbing the
leave it at that. Oak looks very nice wood with raw linseed oil to bring
fumed, which is another method of up the grain or “ figure,” and at the
finishing the work. Plain woodwork same time to give the work a nice
can be painted or enamelled, or, of colour. The work, however, is a
course, the wood can be left in its lengthy process to get the best results,
natural state, without treatment of for any number of coats can be given
any kind. with a long space of time between
Thus, the worker has six different each. Mahogany, beech, or oak are
methods of completing his work. all greatly improved by the applica¬
Varnishing. Varnishing is certainly tion of oil. Everything, however, de¬
the easiest method, but this process pends on the continued rubbing until
merely adds a thick transparent coat the oil has soaked right in. A polish
to the wood, which allows the grain will not be obtained for some time,
to be seen, but does not add to its and the rubbing must be frequently
appearance. There are numerous repeated with as much pressure as
kinds of varnish—water varnish, for possible.
the protection of paper; elastic var¬ How it is Done. The oil is ap¬
nish, which has to stand expansion plied by means of a rubber as shown
and contraction of weather; church in Fig. 339, where a piece of
varnish, and so on. Do not use flannel is wrapped round a pad of
P.W.E.—K* 289
 POLISHING AND STAINING
wool. It is most suitable for large the wood and dyes it the colour re¬
flat surfaces. It cannot always be quired, and serves to bring out the
applied to fretwork, as the oil rubs grain. There are stains for almost
over the edges without actually stain¬ all kinds of wood—oak, mahogany,
ing the interior parts. For the same walnut, and so on, and a wide range
reason, oiling cannot be done on of colour is obtainable by their use.
moulding or carved ornaments. The One coat of stain will colour the sur¬
longer the rubbing is continued the face—further coats will darken it
better the resulting polish will be. down to the shade desired. The two
Certain woods naturally take more oil principal classes of staining, so far
than others, but in every case con¬ as the amateur is concerned, are the
stant rubbing is essential. It should water stain and spirit stain, which
implies the liquid in which the stain
is mixed. Both kinds are used in the
same way, but each has advantages
and disadvantages. Both kinds are
obtainable in all the shades used by
the amateur.
Home-made Stain. Water stains
are not so powerful as spirit stains,
nor are they so quick in action. A
spirit stain will soak in and often
not be applied too freely, but just dry very quickly, whereas the water
sufficient to rub into the wood until takes some time. It must not be
it becomes gradually stained and dried by putting in front of the fire
coloured. Raw linseed oil is quite or anything of that sort. One dis¬
cheap, and a little goes a long advantage of water stain is its tend¬
way. ency to "raise the grain.” The ap¬
Very few boards of timber are plication makes the wood swell, and
ever exactly the same shade, even the surface becomes rough. In con¬
when all of the same class. Trees differ sequence, i t
in age and texture, so the boards must be
from them vary in grain and colour¬ rubbed down
ing. In consequence, unless the with glass-
timber is picked with special care paper be¬
(which is not often possible), some¬ tween each
thing must be done to bring all parts coating of
of the work to the same shade. Stains
must be used to secure this result,
and the amateur is now fortunate in
being able to obtain these quite
cheaply and ready to use. The pro¬
fessional uses a number of chemicals
Fig. 339. The pad below is oí wadding or similar
to obtain the result—dragon’s blood, absorbent substance to be used as a polisher. It is
bichromate of potash, turmeric, wrapped in linen to the shape shown by the upper
drawing.
saffron, cochineal, and so on. The
amateur need not worry over these, stain. Use a fine paper and be
because he buys his material mixed, careful not to rub off the actual
ready to apply. colouring. One way of overcoming
The stain, as its name implies, is this is to damp the wood first with¬
a coloured liquid which soaks into out any stain, and then rub it down
290
 POLISHING AND STAINING
with glasspaper before commencing amateur, however, is confined to
work. Water stain is naturally darkening the actual woods in their
cheaper than spirit stain, and is natural shades.
usually sold in the form of crystals. Bar Polishing. A special polish¬
These are mixed with water in a ing process, as its name implies, in
saucer, putting in just the quantity
to make the desired shade. Be sure
to mix sufficient to complete the job,
as it is difficult to make a second
quantity exactly the same. Make
sure the crystals are dissolved, and try
out the colour on some waste piece
of wood first. A tin of stain (or dye
crystals), costing ^d., will do a large
number of jobs if used economically.
Points to Remember. Stains are
applied with a flat brush, similar to
that used in varnishing, or a gilder’s
mop, or can be put on with a sponge
or a wad of rag. Apply in the direc¬ which beeswax and turpentine, or
tion of the grain quickly and evenly, some similar preparations, are used.
but do not splash it on in too big a Wax polishing creates a surface of
quantity. As mentioned, spirit stain soft, milky appearance, but has not
dries very quickly, and, in conse¬ the high gloss of french polish. It
quence, the work must be done is to be seen in “ period ' ’ or antique
quickly. Do not overlap the work furniture generally, and is most com¬
with a second coat or a darker patch monly used as a finish to mahogany,
will result. The end grain always oak, or satin walnut. The great ad¬
soaks up more than the surface, and vantage of wax polish is that it is
additional coats must be given. Take simple in application and gives pleas¬
care it does not run. ing results. It is most easily used
One of the big advantages of stain on large plain surfaces, and cannot
is that it can be used to alter be recommended for
the wood to imitate other intricately fretted
kinds. The grain itself, of work. Professional
course, cannot be altered ; polishers, of course,
beech can never be made into mix their wax, but the
amateur is saved the
time and trouble by
using Waxine, sold in
small tins for 6d. This
is ready to use, and a
Fie. 340.-A suitable tin contains sufficient
rubber is made, au shown, for several large jobs
if applied economically.
It is yellowish in colour,
oak, for instance. But whitewood and is of the consistency of butter.
can be stained so that it looks like Occasionally it becomes hard, and
walnut, or pine can be coloured to needs melting down. This can be
look like satinwood, which is yellow. done by holding it on a tin over a
The general use of stains for the flame. Be careful, however, not to
291
 POLISHING AND STAINING
let the flame get to the wax, because, and it is often helpful to use a block
as it contains turpentine, it will of wood as a rubber, wrapped well
easily ignite and blaze up. round with several layers of rag.
The Foundation. The work to be Again, much energetic rubbing is
treated should first be cleaned thor¬ necessary to obtain a good result,
oughly, and then given a coat of but one advantage is that the work
Lightning polish to form a bed for can be given further treatment
the wax. The polish must be allowed periodically, in a similar manner to
to harden in before the waxing is furniture cream being used on furni¬
done—otherwise satisfactory results ture. Oak, and similar open-grained
cannot be obtained. Do not over¬ wood, needs more work than, say,
do the coating of polish, however, for walnut, but the waxing of oak gives
the grain should not be entirely filled a pleasing and very popular result.
up if the best appearance is to be Fumed oak is generally treated in
obtained. Care must be taken, too, this way. The work should be pol¬
to see that neither the wood nor the ished, where possible, before being
rubber fe damp. put together, and if there are
The wax is rubbed any ornamental or fretted
into the wood with parts, the wax can be rubbed
a piece clean in by means of a close, fairly
stiff, small boot-brush
or nail-brush.
Fumed Finish. Men¬
tion has been made of
fuming, and this is an¬
other process which
those who are fond of
oak may like to know
something about. Fumed
oak is a particularly dark
shade of wood produced
by treating the work to
How a packing
case is turned into a fuming the penetrating fumes of
chamber. Note the two saucers ammonia. This chemical
for the ammonia.
is a liquid obtainable
rag, and applied evenly over the from any chemist for a few pence.
whole surface. See that a level sur¬ It is very strong—usually with a
face and coating is maintained—the gravity of -88o, so one must be care¬
actual direction of the rubbing does ful of the choking effect of its vapour.
not matter greatly. The great thing An Airtight Fuming Box. When
in wax polishing is great pressure, for the oak is placed in an airtight cham¬
only by hard rubbing is a good sur¬ ber with the ammonia, the fumes of
face obtained. the latter penetrate the wood and the
The Work of Wax Polish. When resultant action brings the colour
the wax has been rubbed well in, down to a dark brown. The process
leave the work for a few hours to is quite simple—the most important
allow the turpentine to evaporate. feature being to obtain a chest or
Then take another clean soft rag for packing case large enough to contain
polishing, and go over the whole sur¬ the work, and so constructed that it
face again. Naturally, the more it is can be made airtight without a lot of
rubbed the better will be the result, trouble.
292
 POLISHING AND STAINING
To make the packing case airtight, and put on warm with an old brush.
it can be lined with paper and, when Another treatment of wood on
the lid has been put in, the cracks certain occasions is to make its sur¬
are covered with strips glued along. face dull black. This is a method
The ammonia is placed in saucers on which can be applied to the back¬
the floor of the case—two being suffi¬ ground for overlays in cabinets, or
cient for ordinary amateur work. The to panels of small doors to make a
striking contrast. The most com¬
mon use, however, is on the edges of
cabinet fronts and edges of speaker
cut-outs, where the colour serves as a
relief and gives the wood a thinner
appearance. This black is obtainable
by application of Eggshell Black,
so called because the surface it gives
has a dull level appearance like an
egg. The liquid is applied by means
of an ordinary soft paint brush, a
smaller one being used to get to the
interior frets, or along the thin edges
of the work.
more ammonia, naturally, the greater A Polished Black. There is a good
depth of colour and it is wise to fit amount of spirit in the black, so it
a little glass window in the case to dries fairly quickly, and if a glossy
know when the work is sufficiently surface is desired, white polish can be
fumed. Another method is to have a mixed with it before use. Hold the
slot cut, and through it push a strip work carefully, and see that the fin¬
of the same wood, as a sort of colour gers do not come in contact with
stick. This can be withdrawn period¬ any part of the surface which has been
ically for examination. The time re¬ coloured until it is thoroughly dry.
quired varies with the depth of French Polishing. This finishing
colour required, and the strength
of the ammonia. Light colouring
will take place in about five hours,
whilst a day and a half may be
required for a dark shade.
The work should be fumed be¬
fore the parts are assembled, and
must be laid in the box without
any overlapping. Otherwise the
parts which are covered will be ■
unaffected by the ammonia. All
the work, too, must be thoroughly
cleaned with glasspaper, care be¬
ing taken to get off all grease and
greasy finger-marks. Uneven just squeezes through.
results may come from the use of
different varieties of oak. Dark process requires a great deal of time
patches, however, may be made and practice to acquire perfection, and
lighter by applying oxalic acid dis¬ many an amateur who has tried his
solved in warm methylated spirit, hand at it has become tired of his

293
 POLISHING AND STAINING
attempts without making any real adhesive may hold to the natural
success. There is, after all, no secret wood.
in it. The wood is given a number To obtain the same colour through¬
of coats of trench polish, applied with out, the parts must be stained in
a circular motion and the right pres¬ the manner previously described,
sure on a wad or rubber. The art taking care that the work has been
has to be learned by experience, and thoroughly cleaned first. Finish off
the amateur naturally wants some¬ with a grade 0 of glasspaper to give
thing quicker and more certain of a perfectly smooth surface. If the
results. Anyone can undertake pol- wood is soft and the grain open,
woodfiller must be rubbed well into
the grain as usual. The method
adopted in the best work, and before
woodfillers were known, was to apply
the polish to provide the body. This
is undoubtedly the best way, but a
good many applications have to be
made before the wood will even com¬
F1C. 345.—How to hold the polishing rubber.
mence to polish, due to the wood
ishing, but a special preparation is absorbing so much before the grain
now available which is made for the is filled. This method is thus more
beginner in woodwork. The process expensive, as well as more tedious
is the same; indeed, the work is the than the use of a proper filler.
same, whether ordinary french or Having stained the work down and
Lightning polish is used, but the got a proper surface with filling,
worker who has been discouraged the operation of polishing can be
with the former will find his results commenced. It is important to have
much more certain and satisfactory a perfectly smooth, clean surface,
with the latter. and after the final rubbing with
Clean the Wood First. The work grade 0 glasspaper the work must be
to be polished must be thoroughly wiped to rid it of any dust. Another
clean and iree from grease, in order point to remember, too, is that the
that the liquid may soak in. For it polishing should be undertaken in
must be remembered that a job can¬
not be satisfactorily patched up. If
the polish is not put on evenly, or
develops an "egg”—that is, a kind
of bald patch—the only remedy is
to clean the work down again with
glasspaper. The work, too, should
be polished before it is finally con¬
structed. Having satisfactorily built F1C. 346.—An ornament is glued to a piece
of paper on a board when polishing.
up the piece of work temporarily, it
must be taken apart again so that a fairly warm- room. The liquid is
each piece may be treated independ¬ much more workable, and the results
ently. When put together again after better if the temperature is a little
polishing, remember that the glue above the ordinary heat of a living¬
will not grip on this coated surface. room. If the polish is used very cold
In consequence, all portions to which it will drag and be too sticky to
glue is to be applied must be produce good results.
scratched clean of polish so that the Unlike varnish or paint, the polish
294
 POLISHING AND STAINING
is applied to the work with a ‘ ‘ bob cular motion. Do not let the rubber
or "rubber,” and the shape of one remain still on the wood, but keep
is given in Fig. 343- 'This is pear- it working in fairly wide circular
shaped and just large enough to be sweeps (Fig. 347). Do not press too
held comfortably in the hand, so that hard, or attempt to use the bob when
the fingers may maintain an easy and the polish is used up.
even pressure on the “ toe.” Pour in some more polish and con¬
Forming the Polishing Rubber. tinue over the surface until it has
The " bob ” is composed of a pad been covered entirely. Take the bob
of wadding wrapped inside a piece straight off the edge and be careful
of linen. The wadding is pressed into not to scrape it in coming on again.
a pear-shaped pad not too tightly It is not the pressure or the amount
squeezed. A square of clean linen or of polish which produces a good sur¬
rag is then cut to provide an ample face, but the continued rubbing.
wrap for the pad. This cloth must The first coat of palish forms the
be of fairly fine texture and nothing body to the work, and cannot be ex¬
which is hairy or liable to fluff up pected to bring up a surface. Leave
must be used. If it is, it will stick the wood for about ten minutes to
to the polish and not produce a good allow the polish to become set,
surface to the work. Lay the wad¬ and then repeat the process. This
ding in the centre of the linen and time keep the bob moving in slightly
smaller circles, and do not
polish one part more than
another. As the grain of
the wood becomes gradually
filled, less polish will be
needed, and more time must
be allowed to elapse before
repeating the rubbings.
After the second coat the
then bring the corners over to form work must be rubbed down lightly
a satisfactory hand grip. It is es¬ with very fine glasspaper. The be¬
sential that the bottom of the rubber ginner is apt to use this too firmly,
be perfectly smooth, whilst the ends and care must be taken to see that
above are twisted into a handle. the polish is not actually cleaned
Open the rubber up again and pour away. The finest paper should be
a quantity of polish on the wadding used, and then only to lightly touch
as shown in Fig. 344. Let it be nicely the surface of the work to smooth
saturated, so that when squeezed it out.
thé polish will ooze out. Do not put Three rubbings with Lightning
the polish on the wrapper of linen, polish are sufficient to bring up a
but do the wadding pad up as before. very polished surface, providing the
Hold the whole rubber lightly in the rubber has been used correctly.
hand between the fingers and thumb Hints to Remember. Speed does
(see Fig. 345), so that enough pres¬ not matter, but rather an even steady
sure can be exerted to squeeze the movement with an even pressure on
polish on the wadding through the the work. The constant application
linen surface. The work is com¬ of the bob will bring about the de¬
menced by rubbing the wood with sired result. Do not: put on too much
the bob, gradually squeezing the polish, nor work the bob when it is
polish on to its surface with the cir¬ dry and stiff. The work should be

ï 95
 POLISHING AND STAINING — POTENTIOMETER
completed at one operation, because polish itself will not colour up the
the bob will get stiff and hard if al¬ wood. For this reason, and to do
lowed to dry. It can be used again away with staining, the amateur can
if kept in an airtight tin, but on no obtain a Lightning Colour Polish.
account must it be used if the sur¬ This is, as its name suggests, the
face is hard. This will only scratch special french polish in which the
the work and blemish it. colouring stain has been mixed. In
IF orking on Shaped Pieces. The consequence, it colours as it polishes
work must not be handled so that —the work being done with a “ bob ”
greasy fingers come in contact with as previously described. The Colour
the polished surface. The wood should Polish is obtainable in oak, mahog¬
be laid flat on the bench against any, and walnut, and although pri¬
a stop of some kind to prevent it marily intended for use on boards of
moving about. A good plan is to that particular class, it can be used
drive screws in so that the heads pro¬ on suitable whitewood or similar
ject above the top of the bench just boards.
far enough to act as a stop. Or if
POLYPHASE.— When two or more
the work must be held, put a screw
circuits have a rise and fall of elec¬
into the edge of the wood to serve
tromotive force which is not in step
as a handle. The final strokes must
they are said to be polyphase.
be given with the rubber from end
to end, carrying the bob right off the PORTABLE ACCUMULATOR —
wood each time in the direction of See Accumulator.
the grain. In polishing moulding, it PORTABLE SET.— Any self-con¬
should be held by a frame at each tained receiver which may be carried.
end, whilst the small wooden orna¬ Such a receiver includes a com¬
ments which are so popular now in partment for high- and low-tension
decorating can be fixed for polishing batteries and a frame aerial and
by gluing them to a piece of coarse speaker.
paper and then gluing the whole
POSITIVE POLE.—A positive pole
down to another board (Fig. 346).
of an accumulator or cell is that con¬
nected to the positive plate.
POTENTIAL.— Any voltage above
or below zero. (See also Potential
Difference and under E.M.F.)
POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE.—
The difference in electrical pressure
which exists at the ends of an elec¬
trical circuit. The voltage drop across
a resistance.
F 1C. 348. A Potentiometer shown theoretically
POTENTIAL DIVIDER—Another
name for a potentiometer.
In this way, the ornament can be taken
off after polishing has been completed. POTENTIAL RECTIFIER. — A
A Useful Outfit. Special polishing type of crystal rectifier requiring an
outfits can be obtained which contain initial current before it becomes sen¬
all that is necessary for the polisher. sitive.
There are stains and woodfiller as POTENTIOMETER.— A compon¬
well as polish and rubber and glass¬ ent for tapping off a portion of a
paper. It must be remembered that potential difference. It should not
296
 POUNDAL — PUSH BUTTON TUNING
be confused with an ordinary rheo¬ which needs to have a current of
stat or resistance, for it is shunted electricity passed through it, a pro¬
across the circuit. portion of which it stores. An ac¬
POUNDAL. — The foot-pound- cumulator is a secondary cell.
second unit of force. The force which primary cells and second¬
gives a mass of i pound a velocity ary CELLS.— A primary cell is one
of i foot per second. Its equiva¬ in which energy is produced by the
lent in C.G.S. (centimetre-gramme- chemical action of bichromate and
second) units is 13,825 dynes. other solutions on two elements such
POWER GRID DETECTION.— as carbon and zinc. A secondary cell
The essential features of this method or accumulator will merely store an
of detection are large standing anode electric current.
current, with a good, strong signal PRIMARY CIRCUIT.— Any circuit
applied to the valve so as to pro¬ which supplies current to another.
duce a drop in current of about 15 PROTON.— The positive electric
per cent. Owing to this large anode charge in an atom; this is neutralised
current, it is necessary to use a valve by the negative ions. The funda¬
with an impedance of between 10,000 mental unit of positive electricity.
and 25,000 ohms, and it is also im¬ Its mass=r-66x to 24 grammes.
practicable to use the majority of PULSATOR.— An interrupter or
L.F. transformers owing to satura¬ buzzer. (See Interrupter and Buzzer.)
tion troubles. This means that either PUSH-BUTTON TUNING. — A
resistance-capacity coupling or a system wherein station selection is
parallel-fed transformer must be used,
and it is quite obvious that a large
current through a resistance to match
an impedance of the order stated will
result in a very heavy voltage drop.
Owing to the convenience of A.C.
mains, it is possible to use 400 or 500
volts for H.T., and the drop through
a suitable anode resistance still per¬
mits the valve to receive its maximum FlC. 349a.—Selecting preset condensers, by means of
a change-over switch, for automatic tuning.
H.T. voltage. An alternative method
is to use an iron-cored choke with accomplished by pushing button in¬
a very high inductance value. Small dicators instead of turning a tuning
values are chosen for the grid leak condenser. There are two systems,
and condenser, usual values being one of which causes fixed condensers
•ooor mid. and 25 megohm. The
detector circuit is standard, except
for these latter values.
POWER LEVEL.—See Decibel and
Phon.
PRESSPAHN.— A proprietary in¬
sulating material manufactured from
wood fibre.
PRIMARY CELL.—A cell of the
bichromate, Bunsen, Daniell, Le¬
ela nché, or dry-cell type, producing
voltage by chemical action as distinct may be automatically switched by using two or more
from a secondary cell or accumulator, presets on the fines shown in Fig. 349a.

297
 PUSH-PULL CIRCUIT — QUENCHING COILS
to be included in the circuit and thus bias to both Gi and Gz alike. The
to tune to the desired station, and anodes of the valves Ar and Az con¬
that in which an electric motor is set nect to the terminals of the primary
in motion when the button is pushed. of the transformer, and the H.T. is
This motor rotates the tuning con¬ supplied by centre tapping T.
denser and it is automatically stopped Firstly, it may be noted that the
constant component of the H.T. cur¬
rent is divided and flows equally and
in opposite directions round the two
halves of the O.P. primary winding.
It consequently has little or no effect
as inducing magnetisation in the core;
and the transformer core is normally
without field. Under these conditions
the effective inductance is about
double or treble. This results in the
low frequencies being more fully
transmitted.
Secondly, since one of the power
valves is taking more H.T. current
when the other takes less, the draft on
at a predetermined setting. A large the H.T. battery is almost constant.
number of buttons may be used and Thirdly, distortion is very greatly
provided with name plates for the reduced; the valves being in opposite
most easily received stations on the phase result in the two correcting one
receiver. The circuit may be fitted another.
with A.F.C. to overcome any slight Two valves coupled in push-pull will
loss introduced by the motor failing give far more output. (See also Class
to turn the condenser to the exact A, Class B, and Class AB.)
setting. (See Figs. 349A, B, and c.) PYRITES.— Mineral disulphide of
PUSH-PULL CIRCUIT.— Fig. 3490 iron. Chemical formula FeS,.
shows that the coupling of the penulti¬ PYRON DETECTOR.— An iron
mate stage is by transformer, the pyrites crystal. A copper cat's whisker
should be used in connection with it.

Q
Q CODE.— See abbreviations, p. vii.
Q.A.V.C.—Quiet Automatic Vol¬
ume Control (which see).
Q.M.B.—Quick make and break.
Q.P.P.—See Quiescent Push-pull.
Q.S.A. CODE.— See abbreviations,
Fig. 349d.—Diagram explaining the Push-pull
Circuit. p. vii.
QUENCHING COILS.— These are
secondary’ of which feeds the grids of used in super-regenerative receivers
two power valves, Gi and G2, in op¬ for the purpose of providing the
posite phase, i.e. when the one swings “ quenching ” oscillations which com¬
positive the other is negative. The bine with the signal-frequency os¬
centre of the said secondary is tapped cillations to produce the regenerative
and goes to earth via the grid-bias effect. The quenching coils can either
battery B, which supplies the required be included in the grid and anode cir-
298
 QUIESCENT PUSH-PULL — RECTIFICATION
cuits of the signal-frequency valve RADIOGRAM. — An American
(when the circuit includes a single term for any message sent by wire¬
valve) or in the circuits of a quench¬ less telegraphy. The English mean¬
ing valve when two are used. ing signifies a radio gramophone.
QUIESCENT PUSH-PULL. — A RADIOSONDAGE.— System of test¬
form of push-pull amplifications char¬ ing temperature and pressure at high
acterised in that instead of biasing altitudes, by sending up small balloons
the two valves at the middle portion to each of which is attached a tiny
of their curves the bias applied is ap¬ short-wave transmitter, which trans¬
proximately twice that normally re¬ mits back to earth every change of the
quired. This brings the standing anode thermometer and barometer. The bal¬
current down to nearly zero, and the loon bursts at a certain altitude, and
arrival of a signal causes an increase as the equipment falls a parachute at¬
in anode current. When the two valves tached opens and brings the equip¬
are correctly chosen the standing cur¬ ment safely to the ground. They
rent is only of the order of one or two drop from a height of about 7 miles.
milliamps., and this rises on a loud RASTER.— The rectangular picture
signal to 15 to 20 m/A. The current area built up by the scanning spot on
varies according to the type and vol¬ the end of the cathode-ray tube.
ume of music received. Best results RATIO OF TRANSFORMATION.
are obtained with two pentodes. —The ratio between the number of
QUIET A.V.C.— Also referred to as turns in the primary and the second¬
“Squelch” (which see) and “Noise ary of a transformer.
Suppression.” An additional valve REACTANCE.— Another term for
which renders the L.F. amplifier the resistance or impedance offered
inoperative on signals below some to a current passing through a coil
predetermined strength. The valve and distinct from the resistance due
is referred to as a " Q.A.V.C.” or to the current acting back on itself
“ Squelch ” valve because of its func¬ (back electromotive force). The react¬
tion, and it works by applying an ex¬ ance of a condenser is found from the
cessive G.B. negative voltage to the
grids of the L.F. valves until a signal formula: —ohms, where C is
2irJC
of “programme” strength is tuned
in. (See also Delayed A.V.C. and capacity in farads and /= frequency.
Automatic Volume Control.) REACTION CHOKE.—A coil of
wire used to prevent the passage of
R H.F. current into the L.F. amplifier
R CODE.—See abbreviations, p. vii. so that it can be used as feed-back
RADIOACTIVE.—A term applic¬ (reaction) to the grid circuit. (See
able to substances like radium, which also Chokes and High-frequency
unceasingly emit helium nuclei (X- Chokes for constructional details.)
rays), which carry a positive charge. REACTION CIRCUIT.—The cir¬
RADIO FREQUENCIES. — Fre¬ cuit of a wireless valve connected so
quencies above audio frequencies; any that part of the energy in the anode
frequency over 20,000 cycles per sec. circuit is fed back and made to react
RADIÓ GONIOMETER.— An in¬ upon the grid circuit.
strument with two aerial coils and RECTIFICATION. — The process
a swinging coil similar to a Bellini- of converting an alternating current
Tosi direction finder. It is used purely into a uni-directional current. In the
for direction finding. (See also crystal detector this is carried out
Bellini-Tosi.) by means of a piece of mineral in

299
 RECTIFICATION — REMOTE CONTROL
contact with a metal, or another piece used in a mains eliminator for con¬
of mineral. The application of an verting A.C. to D.C.
alternating current to this junction REFLECTOR AERIAL.—See Aerial.
results in one-half of the wave being REFLECTED WAVE—See Fading.
suppressed, and the result is that a REFLEX.— A circuit employing a
D.C. current is passed on, this D.C. valve for the dual purpose of ampli¬
current bearing the variations corre¬ fying at high and low frequencies.
sponding to the applied signals. The The arrangement most commonly em¬
valve is caused to rectify by insert¬ ployed is to include the secondary of
ing in the grid circuit a condenser an L.F. transformer in the grid circuit
and grid leak, and this acts in the of a valve acting as an H.F. amplifier.
same manner. In anode-bend recti¬ REFLEX CIRCUIT.— See Circuit.
REGENERATIVE CIR¬
CUIT.— See Circuit and Arm¬
strong Circuit.
REINARTZ. — A circuit
employing a single coil for
grid reaction and aerial cir¬
cuits. The aerial is tapped
into the coil, and the earth is
also tapped into the coil at
a position between aerial and
grid. The reaction is effected
by a capacity between anode
and one end of the coil.
REINARTZ CIRCUIT—
See Fig. 350.
REJECTOR CIRCUIT—
A tuned circuit which rejects
fication a large negative potential is certain frequencies. (See Wave Trap.)
applied to the grid, and this results RELATIVE INDUCTIVITY. —
in only the positive half-cycles of Specific inductive capacity.
the applied signal oscillations being RELAY.—A device having a sensi¬
reproduced as changes in the anode tive magnet to which is applied a
circuit, negative applications produc¬ weak current from one circuit which
ing no apparent change in anode energises it for controlling another
current. For power-grid rectification circuit. (See also Remote Control.)
a condenser and leak are employed, RELUCTANCE.—The ratio of the
together with a large anode voltage. magnetomotive force to the magnetic
The usual values of condenser and flux produced by it.
leak for normal rectification are -0002 REMANENCE.—The magnetism
or -0003 mfd. with 2 megohms, and retained in iron, etc., after magnetic
for power-grid rectification the con¬ induction has stopped.
denser is ooor, with a leak of only REMOTE CONTROL BY
•25 megohm. RELAY.—There are a number of
RECTIFIER, METAL.—See Ac¬ ways in which this can be carried out.
cumulator. The cheapest, and at the same
RECTIFIER, TUNGAR—See Ac¬ time the simplest way is illustrated
cumulator. in Fig. 351. All that is required for
RECTIFYING VALVE.—A valve this is a simple switch and a length
having two anodes and a filament, of good quality bell wire or flex.
300
 REMOTE CONTROL BY RELAY
maximum
especially
in the case
of the 2-
volt class.
As will be
seen from
the dia¬
gram, the
switch i s
fitted i n
the room
contain¬
ing the
speaker,
and from
the switch
the wires
run to the
accumula¬
tor and re-
c e i V e r.
Fig. 351.—The method of Wiring-up when the Loudspeaker is in one room and the Receiver One wire is
in another.
taken to the
The wire must be of heavy gauge, or L.T. negative terminal of the set,
there will be a substantial voltage and the remaining wire to the nega¬
drop through it, and this will result tive terminal of the accumulator.
in the valves not working at their The positive terminal of the accumu-

F1C. 352.—A Relay which consists of the Magnets and Armature of an electric bell.

301
 REMOTE CONTROL BY RELAY
lator is then connected to the L.T. + this method the magnets are consum¬
terminal of the set. If the set is ing current all the time the valves
fitted with an on-and-off switch this are in use, although the current is
will, of course, have to be left in the not taken from the accumulator.
"on” position. Whilst satisfactory, a better scheme
A Relay from Bell Parts. The is available, and is detailed in the
other methods described here will en¬ next paragraph.
tail the nse of a relay, which may Another Method. A more ambi¬
conveniently consist of the magnets
and armature from an ordinary elec¬
tric bell.
In Fig.
352 the
a r m a -
ture of the
bell has
been ex¬
tended
by a piece
of thin
ebonite or
fibre ce¬
mente
on. T w o
small con¬
tacts, (A)
and (Bl,
made from
brass or
from an
old dis¬
mantled
bell push,
are then
m o u n t e d
close t o -
gether so
that when
the arma¬
ture is at¬
tracted to
the mag¬
nets the piece of fibre will press the tious scheme is next illustrated (see
two contacts together. A small dry Fig. 353)- This method is no doubt
cell and a switch are then connected the best, but a certain amount of
as shown, whilst the accumulator labour and skill will have to be ex¬
leads are arranged as for the method pended in its construction. Again
first described. If, now, the switch is the bell magnets are employed, with
operated the magnets will attract the an extended armature. In addition,
armature, the contacts will close, and a small-toothed wheel will be re¬
the valves will be switched on. With quired, the actual size and number
302
 REMOTE CONTROL RESISTANCE
of teeth depending on the movement and so the valves are switched on.
made by the armature of the relay To switch the set off, the bell push
in use. At the end of the armature a is again depressed, and this causes
small piece of metal is hinged, and the spindle to be rotated once more,
kept in a position at right angles to bringing the point off the contacts
the armature by a small spring. This and so breaking the accumulator cir¬
may be the rear half of a small safety cuit. It will be seen, therefore, that
pin. The toothed wheel is soldered to this control works alternately : one
a small spindle upon which is mounted push to switch on, the next push
a star-shaped piece of ebonite or other switching off, and so on.
fairly strong material, having half as Of course it should be understood
many teeth as the other
wheel. Two contacts, for
which the long arms from
an ordinary pocket-lamp
battery may be called into
use, are then arranged as
shown. A certain amount
of adjustment will have to
be carried out to get this
little piece of mechanism FlC. 355.—A plan view of the Box.
working smoothly. A dry
cell to operate the relay and, this that these methods of remote control
time, an ordinary bell push are then are only applicable to battery-oper¬
arranged as shown. ated sets, and in any case where the
loudspeaker is employed at a distance
from the receiver an output trans¬
former or filter output circuit must
be used. It should be kept well in
mind that the filter output circuit
consists of low-frequency choke and
a condenser of 2 mfds. arranged as
shown in Fig. 354.
REPAIRING ACCUMULATORS.
—See Accumulator.
RESIDUAL CHARGE. — The
charge remaining in a condenser after
its first discharge. It is caused by
electric absorption.
RESIDUAL MAGNETISM.—The
With this method of control, cur¬ magnetism retained by iron, etc.,
rent is only used when the set is after contact with a magnet, or after
switched on or off, and it is therefore the application of a magnetising
most economical. When the set is lorce.
to be switched on, the bell push is RESISTANCE.— The opposition to
depressed. The armature is at¬ flow in an electric current. The re¬
tracted to the magnets, the little arm sistance of a wire is directly propor¬
engages on the toothed wheel, and tional to its length, to its specific
the spindle is thereby rotated slightly. resistance and inversely to the area
One of the points of the star-shaped of its cross section. Unit of resist¬
wheel presses the contacts together, ance is the ohm.
SOI
 RESISTANCE BOX
RESISTANCE BOX.— Many ex¬ with a circumference of exactly 11 in.
periments in electricity need a re¬ The accuracy of the instrument de¬
sistance which can be adjusted pends upon this being correct. The
to different values, and below is best way is to make or get one
described a simple, cheap, and effi¬ slightly smaller and wind on a sheet
cient instrument for performing this of thin paper until the exact size is
duty. If made carefully, it will give obtained. Drive in a small brass
very accurate results. First procure screw (or bolt and nut) | in. from
a 2-oz. reel of “Eureka” resistance the edge A. Start winding the re¬
wire, 22 gauge. Such a reel, double sistance wire from this screw. At
silk covered, costs
about is. $d. Fig.
355 shows the top
of the box, which
is ift. 8 in. X
4 in. Mount two
terminals with a
space of exactly
17 in. clear be¬
tween them, and
stretch a piece of
the resistance wire
lightly between 356and357.-(Left) Details of the "Jockey," and (Right) the Former on
which the Resistance is wound.
them. This piece of
resistance wire must be bared by hav¬ the end of three complete turns twist
ing the whole of its silk covering the wire round a second screw, B.
stripped off. Now mount a second After six more turns twist it round
pair of terminals an inch away from a third screw, C; six more turns,
these, and between them stretch a round the fourth screw D; fifteen
piece of thick copper wire (about more turns, round the screw E; thirty
it in. thick). This, too, must be bared. more turns, round the screw F; thirty
All terminals must be raised | in. more turns, round the screw G; sixty
above the board by placing thin final turns, round the screw H. This
pieces of wood under them, as shown. gives a total of 150 turns, spacing
The two parallel wires should be fas¬ them about in. apart. The wire
tened under the base of each ter¬ must be bared where it is twisted
minal, so leaving the upper part free round the screw.
for temporary connections. Before driving the screws home,
The “jockey” is a piece of brass hook about 2 in. of thick copper wire
11 X J X I in. File two grooves in under the head of each.
it, as shown in Fig. 356, so that it Fix the former into the box and
will ride nicely on the parallel wires. join each of the copper wires to the
Mount the eight terminals 3, 4, 5- base of one of the terminals, as
10 at equal distances, and join 2 and shown.
3 by a stout copper wire underneath How to work the Instrument.
the board. The resistance of the wire is 1 ohm
The Former. Fig. 357 shows the per 33 in., so three complete turns
"former” upon which the resistance on the former give 1 ohm. The re¬
is wound. It is a cylinder of wood, sistance of the entire coil at terminal
cardboard, or one of the many pre¬ 10 is thus 50 ohms. Suppose one
parations used in wireless coil formers, terminal of a battery is connected to
3°4
 RESISTANCE BOX — RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS
terminal i (Fig. 355) and the other to own receiver. He is the man who
a terminal of a piece of apparatus. sometimes takes a fancy to the H.F.
The other terminal of the piece of side of one receiver and the L.F.
apparatus is joined to 10, and the stages of another, and attempts a
jockey is pushed over to the left in combination of the two. Often his
contact with 2. practical knowledge is sufficient to
The current enters at 1, passes allow him to make a success of the
along the copper wire and jockey to arrangement, but in rearranging the
2, through the entire resistance to 10, voltage-dropping resistances or H.T.
through the apparatus to the battery battery eliminator he encounters
again. If less resistance is required, difficulty.
join the apparatus to one of the other In such circumstances the con¬
terminals. structor, owing to his unfamiliarity
RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS. with Ohm’s Law, resorts to "hit-
—In the light of modern-set design, and-miss” methods, ofien with dis¬
it is interesting and instructive to astrous results. Ohm’s Law is here
view the practice indulged in not so repeated. (See also Ohm’s Law.)
very long ago of choosing resistances Voltage = current x resistance
for their values, regardless of the or (E = IxR).
current-carrying capabilities and self¬ voltage
capacities. Indeed, many ardent Resistance =-
Current
constructors of the early days can
remember when the acquisition of or / E\
a resistance of a certain value was IR — I
deemed a “find,” and it was no un¬
\ 1/
voltage
common thing to be forced to make Current =-
one from questionable material, such resistance
as Indian ink, blotting-paper, etc.
Nowadays the position seems to be
entirely the reverse. There are liter¬
ally dozens of makes available, and Wattage = voltage x current
each in three or four different types, or (W = ExI).
each cf which again is available in Where
about four or five dozen resistance E = voltage
values. Add to this multitude the I = current
question of a wattage rating, or in R = resistance
other w'ords, a current-carrying capa¬ W = wattage.
city, and it will be realised what a As an interesting example, let us
difficult task it is for the average assume an output valve requires a
constructor to arrive at a suitable 100-ohm non-inductive resistance in
selection for his proposed set. Of its anode circuit. We require to com¬
course, such difficulties do not arise pute the wattage of a resistance, and
when a published set design is fol¬ we know the maximum anode cur¬
lowed, since the designer is invariably rent of the valve is 6j m / A from the
careful to name makes, types, and data slip supplied by the makers.
ratings, while the resistances chosen Since it is not possible to apply the
are usually capable of withstanding formula W = E x I until the voltage
50 to 75 per cent, overloads. drop across the 100 ohm resistance
There is another type of construc¬ has been decided, we utilise E=IxR,
tor, however, who has just sufficient which in this instance will be E =
technical knowledge to design his •063 x 100 = 6-3 volts (-063 is 63 m/A
305
 RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS
expressed as a fraction of i ampere). valve, plus the valve-holder capacity,
Thus, W = 6-3 X -063 = -3969 watt. are often of a greater dimension than
From a commercial aspect, a 5-watt the anode resistance alone. Conse¬
(half-watt) resistance would be quently, unless one has taken extreme
chosen, though as surges of current precautions to avoid high-note loss
sometimes take place, or as resist¬ in a resistance-coupled L.F. stage,
ances of too ohms are rarely avail¬ by using a low-loss valve holder, de¬
able between 25 and 1 watt, the capping the valve, etc., the choice
latter would be the wisest choice. need not be a narrow one. The choice
A further example is a power grid nowadays inevitably depends on the
detector, with a positive bias of 15 price, and it is a matter for con¬
volts on the grid. This valve has an gratulation that some of the most
applied H.T. potential of 450
volts, which on test shows an
anode current of approximately
8 m/A when a 20,000-ohm anode
resistance and 15,000 decoupling
resistance are employed. We re¬
quire to know the wattage rating
of the resistances, also the volt¬
age on the anode.
By Ohm's law E = IxR,
or, in one case. E = 20,000 x
•008=160 volts, and in the other
E = 15,000 x -008 =120 volts.
Ignoring the resistance of
the H.F. choke, which is
negligible, the voltage drop is
160+120 = 280 volts. Subtract¬
ing 280 from 450, the actual
voltage applied is therefore 170
volts. Reverting to W = E x I,
in the first case, W = 160 x -008
= 1-28 watts; in the case of
Flc. 358.—The Resistance necessary in a Power Grid Rectifier
the decoupling resistance W — which is also decoupled.
i2ox-oo8 = -96 watt. Strictly
suitable resistances would be one cheap and reliable of resistances are
20,000 ohms, 2 watts, and one 15,000, also non-inductive.
15 watts. However, two 2-watt re¬ Decoupling Resistances. Decoup¬
sistances would suit. ling resistances can be of any con¬
Non-inductive Resistances. From venient form, so long as they are of
technical considerations it is always suitable wattage. Wire-wound resist¬
advisable to employ an anode resist¬ ances, with adequate ventilation to
ance, of a non-inductive nature, as a avoid overheating, are undoubtedly
wire resistance, wound in the form of the best, as they are always silent in
a solenoid on a heat-resisting former, operation, and rarely change their
invariably possesses inductance and, values under different loads, so long as
consequently, a definite self-capacity. the maximum ratings are not exceeded.
However, from past experience, we On the other hand, the manufac¬
are unable to stress the point, as the turing costs of a modern set do not
internal electrode capacity of the allow for wire-wound resistances, and
306
 RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS — RESISTANCE VALUES

synthetic carbon resistances have “ frying " noises in the process. By

been commissioned in great quanti¬ allowing a generous margin for over¬
ties. Chemistry has played a very load, therefore, no trouble should be
large part in the perfection of graph¬ experienced; the resistances behave to
ite compounds, and considerable in¬ all intents and purposes as if they
genuity has been shown in some of were wire wound. The strict differ¬
the designs at present on the market. ence lies in their physical properties,
Metallised Resistances. The metal- wire windings increasing in resistance
lised resistances, which have achieved with increase of temperature, and
a high degree of success, are exam¬ carbon resistances decreasing slightly
ples of evaporated water colloidal in value with similar increases.
carbon deposits hermetically sealed Finally, a few words about grid¬
in practically non-porous porcelain leaks. For H.F. and detector circuits,
tubes. It is pos¬ ordinary grid-leaks of reputable make
sible to run these can be relied upon not to break down,
resistances at con¬ but for L.F. circuits, particularly in
siderable overloads mains sets and in power-valve grid
UP CHOKE circuits, the -5-watt type are
(not that it is ad¬
visable or desirable) to be preferred, since occa¬
before any signs sionally grid current may flow,
-°
o f disintegration ZOO
'4.MFO and the higher rating of the
occur. Another re- OHMS latter type will satisfactorily
LS deal with the momentary
PP5/4O0 loads imposed.
-1 RK 25 Decoupling grid resist¬
ances of -i to -25 meg. should
4v 2 amp always be of the 5-watt (or
•! HEC -1 seconooto
larger) type. Automatic grid¬
•5wnr.
TRHHS K bias resistances, as a matter
SECOHDAPY of good practice, should
2mfo 30 OHMS POT^ normally be wire wound.
RESISTANCE CAPACITY
SOO OHMS COUPLING.—See Coupling.
■IMEC TO CHHRY RESISTANCE
■5 WATT HT- VALUES IN ANODE
F1G. 359.—An Output Valve which is Mains Operated, and the Power CIRCUIT.— If the value
Rating of all Resistances which are included in the Circuit. of the load resistance is
sistance of a highly successful nature made too great, the drop in voltage
is the Loewe, which is a carbon deposit due to the passage of the standing
on a glass rod suspended in an ex¬ anode current will be very great, with
hausted glass tube. The resistance the result that the working anode
operates on the lines of a carbon lamp, voltage will be small, and the valve
except that it runs at " black " heat. will not be working under the most
Carborundum compounds, compressed favourable conditions.
at great pressure, are features of cer¬ For low-frequency amplification, the
tain other makes, which dissipate heat impedance of the external anode load
over their entire surfaces, and which should be from twice to about five
are rated according to their area. times the valve resistance, which will
It must be borne in mind that all give an over-all gain of from two-thirds
synthetic compounds, if overloaded, to five-sixths of the valve’s amplifica¬
not only disintegrate, but cause tion factor. Thus, if a valve has an

307
 RESISTANCE VALUES — SCRATCH FILTER

anode resistance of 50,000 ohms, the radiates waves of extremely short¬

resistance employed for a resistance¬ wave length. The rays are visible on
capacity circuit should be from 100,000 a fluorescent screen.
to 250,00a ohms. The higher the re¬ ROTARY CONVERTER. — A
sistance, within these limits, the larger direct-current dynamo capable of
the percentage of the valve’s ampli¬ generating alternating current.
fication factor which can be utilised. ROTARY TRANSFORMER. — A
RESISTIVITY.—Specific resistance. rotary converter.
RESISTOR.— Another name for a
fixed resistance. s
RESONANCE.— A state brought SAL-AMMONIAC. — Ammonium
about when the natural frequency of chloride which is used in Leclanché
a circuit is of equivalent value to the and dry cells.
frequency of the alternating (periodic) SATURATION.—That state of a
E.M.F. created in it, thus inductive magnetic substance when it is im¬
reactance will neutralise capacity re¬ possible further to intensify its mag¬
actance, and reactance will therefore netism. Saturated solution.
be at zero. Two circuits are in S.C.—Silk Covered.
resonance when they have the same SCANNING DISC.— See Television.
frequency. S.C.C.— Single cotton covered.
RESONANCE PEAK.— The point SCHNELL CIRCUIT.—A circuit
in the frequency scale at which a claimed to be extremely selective and
loudspeaker, pick-up, or other com¬ to bring in stations outside the range
ponent gives maximum response. This of a normal receiver.
point is frequently at the natural fre¬ SCOPHONY.— A method of tele¬
quency of the component. The name vision reception. Full details are not
‘ ' Resonance Peak ’ ' actually applies available at the moment of going to
to the graph upon which response press, but it is believed that a form
or amplification
is plotted against
7õGB~
frequency. SO OOO CWMS
REVERSED Var. /Pes/st.
CHARGE. — See
Accumulator. 7b Gr/o
R . F . — 002 Or Valve

Radio RCK-L/P
'MfO

frequency.
RHEO¬ SCRATCR p 1G 360—Circuit for Eliminating
STAT.—A S/LTER Scratch.
variable re-
sistance
connected in series to vary the amount of mirror-drum reception is employed,
of current flowing in a circuit. It with the mirror drum stationary in¬
differs from a potentiometer which is stead of rotating, as in the usual
connected in parallel with the voltage. method, and a single special lens or
RONTGEN RAYS.—Another name mirror runs round the drum.
for X-rays, named after their dis¬ SCRATCH FILTER.—A device in¬
coverer, Röntgen. The ray is really cluded in a gramophone amplifier
the electronic discharge from the for reducing surface noise. It may
cathode of a vacuum tube which is consist of a high resistance shunted
directed on to a platinoid plate which across the pick-up terminals, or a
308
 SCRATCH FILTER — S.G.
combination of resistance and con¬ SECOHM.— The henry—the unit of
denser employed with the low-fre¬ inductance.
quency transformer. The simplest SECONDARY CELL. — Another
method is to join a variable resist¬ name for an accumulator. (See also
ance of 100,000 ohms across the Accumulator.)
pick-up, and adjust this to give the SECONDARY CIRCUIT.— A cir¬
degree of noise reduction required. cuit whose current is supplied by the
By using this method radio reproduc¬ primary circuit. (See also Primary
tion is not affected. The suppression Circuit.)
of the surface noise also results in SELENIUM.— An element allied to
the suppression of the higher musical sulphur. It exists as a red powder
frequencies. soluble in carbon bisulphide, as a
SCREEN-GRID CHOKE.—Coil of crystalline grey solid which is insolu¬
wire connected in the anode lead of a ble, and as metallic selenium which
screen-grid valve to offer high im¬ is insoluble. The resistance of selen¬
pedance to H.F. current. (See also ium is reduced by light rays. (See
Chokes and High-frequency Chokes.) also Light-ray Control.)
SCREEN-GRID VALVE. — See SELF-CAPACITY.—A term used
Valve. in connection with coils to denote the
SCREWS : condenser effect of the turns of wire
BRITISH ASSOCIATION (B.A.) and their insulation.
.4 bsolute A pproxi- .4 pprox imate SEPARATE HETERODYNE.—A
Dimensions in mate Dimensions in component for generating oscillations
Millimetres Number I nches
of a frequency almost equal to those
No. Full of Full
Dia¬ Pitch Threads Dia¬ Pitch existing in the circuit in which it is
meter per Inch meter coupled. It is used to give a damp¬
25 0-25 0-070 362-8 o-oio 0-0028
0-29 o-o8o o-oi I 0-0031
ing effect.
24 317'5
23 0'33 0-09 282-2 0-013 00035 SELF-INDUCTANCE.— In a cir¬
22 o*37 o-io 2540 0-015 0-0039
21 0-42 o-ii 230-9 0-017 0-0043
cuit the inductance caused by the
20 0-48 0-12 211-6 0-019 0-0047 current flowing in it.
0-14 0-021 00055
19
18
0-54
0’62 015
181-4
0-024 00059
SELF-INDUCTION.—A back elec¬
1693
17 0-70 0-17 149-4 0-028 0-0067 tromotive force is caused when a
16 0-79 019 133'7 0-031 00075 current changes in a coil. This effect
15 0-90 0-21 121'0 0-035 0-0083
14 1*0 0-23 110-4 0-039 00091 is known as self-induction, and is
13 1*2 0-25 ioi-6 0047 0-0098 sometimes referred to as electro-mag¬
12 i'3 0-28 90-7 0-051 o-oi10
li 1'5 0-31 81-9 0-059 O-OI22 netic inertia.
10 i'7
1-9
O'35 72-6 0-067 O-OI38 SEPARATORS. — The substance
9 0'39 65-1 0075 O-OI54
8 2-2 0'43 59'1 0-087 0-0169 used to separate the positive and
7 2'5 0-48 52'9 0-098 0-0189 negative plates of accumulators. The
6 2-8 0-53 47'9 o-i 10 0-0209
5 3'2 0-59 43'0 0-126 0-0232 chief materials used are grooved
4 3'6 0-66 38'5 0-142 0-0260 wood, celluloid, and glass. (See also
3 4'1 0-73 34'8 o-i6i 0-0287
2 4'7 o-8i 31'4 0-185 0-0319 Accumulator.)
I 5'3 090 28-2 0-209 0-0354 SERIES.—A number of cells, coils,
0 6-0 1-00 25'4 0-2 36 0-0394 components, or instruments connected
The Committee recommend that for screws in such a manner that the current
less than pin. diameter British Association
Threads should be adopted. It was originally must pass through each unit of the
proposed by the British Association in 1884, and series successively.
finally adopted by them in 1904. It is, however,
not yet the usual practice in this country to use SERIES PARALLEL.—See Ac¬
the sizes ranging from No. 17 upwards. More¬ cumulator and Fig. 361.
over, makers of taps, dies, screwplates, etc.,
usually supply sizes only to No. 16. S.G.— Abbreviation for Specific
(See also Drills.) Gravity, also Screen Grid.
309
 SHELLAC — SHORT-WAVE B ROADCASTING STATIONS
SHELLAC.—A species of resin length. Owing to this "shooting
obtained from the sap of Indian trees. off” and "reflecting back," there are
It is soluble in methylated spirit certain areas in which the signals are
and alcohol, and it is an excellent inaudible, and this is known as the
insulator. Specific inductive capacity "skip-distance effect.” (For Short¬
is 3. wave Aerial Systems see pages 180
S.H.M.— Simple Harmonic Motion. and 181.)
SHORT CIRCUIT.—Any circuit SHORT-WAVE ADAPTOR.—A
having negligible resistance. To cut single-valve detector stage which,
out a component by connecting its connected to the L.F. stage of a
terminals together. broadcast set, enables short waves to
SHORT-WAVE CHOKE.—A coil be received. (See Circuit.)
of wire offering low resistance to the SHORT-WAVE COILS.—See Coil.
passage of D.C., and high impedance SHORT-WAVE CONVERTER.—
to H.F. current. (See also Chokes A unit for use with a broadcast re¬
and Higk-frequency Chokes.) ceiver which has H.F. amplification
SHORT WAVES.—All wavelengths which enables short waves to be re¬
below 100 metres are referred to as ceived. It converts the receiver to a
" short waves,” those below 10 superhet.
metres usually being referred to as SHUNT.—Another term for paral¬
ultra-short waves. These short waves, lel (which see).
instead of following the surface of S.I.C.— Specific Inductive Capacity.
the earth as with higher wavelengths, SIDE-BAND CUT-OFF.—The term
shoot off into the atmosphere, and applied to the suppression of the
are deflected back to earth by the upper and lower frequencies of a
Heaviside layer. The angle at which received signal. For good-quality
the signal shoots off varies accord¬ reception a receiver should be de¬
ing to the frequency of the trans¬ signed so that it receives a band of
mission, or in other words, the wave- at least 10 kc/s. This is the separa-
SHORT-WAVE BROADCASTING STATIONS
(150 metres and below, and as from March 1940.)
(See also British Broadcasting Stations, European Broadcasting Stations,
and International Call Signs.)
It is, unfortunately, impossible to include schedules of short-wave transmitters, which change almost
monthly, in this book.

Station Call Sign M etres Mc/s kW

Amateurs. 2-67 112'00

to to
250 120-00
Amateurs . 5600
5'35
to to
5 00 6000
Amateurs .. 10-71 2800
to to
10-00 3000
Bound Bro< k (N.J., U.S.A.). W3XAL 13-87 21-63 26
Daventry ......... GST 13-92 21-55 10-50
Pittsburgh (Pa., U.S.A.). W8XK 13-93 26
21-54
Daventry ....... GSJ 13-93 10-50
21-53
Philadelphia (U.S.A.) ....... W3XAU 13-94 21-52 10
Schenectady (N.Y., U.S.A.) ...... W2XAD 13-95 21-50 20-25
Daventry ........ GSH 13-97 21-47 10-50
Boston (Mass., U.S.A.) ...... WiXAL 13-99 21-46 20
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJS 13-99 21'45 5-4O
Radio Nations ........ HBH 16-23 18-48 20
Paris (Radio Mondial, Fr.) ...... TPB3 i6-8i 1785 25
BIO
 SHORT-WAVE BROADCASTING STATIONS

Station Call Sign Metres Mc/s kW

Athlone (Eire) ........ 16-82 17-84

Rome (Italy). I2RO8 1684 17-82 5-50
Daventry ......... GSV 1684 17-81 10-50
Chungking (China) ...... XGOX 1685 17-80 35
Daventry ......... GSG 16-86 17-79 10-50
Tokio (Japan) ....... ZXL 16-87 17-78 50
Bound Brook (N.J., U.S.A.) ..... W3XL 16-87 17-78 25
Huizen (Holland) ....... PHI 16-88 17-77 20
Zeesen (Germany). DJE 16-89 1776 5-40
Hicksville (U.S.A.). W2XGB 1733 17-31 10
Zeesen (Gennany) ....... DJR 19-56 1534 WO
Treasure Island (U.S.A.) ...... W6XVE 19-57 15-33 20
Schenectady (N.Y., U.S.A.) ...... W2XAD 19-57 15-33 20-25
Skamleback (Denmark) ...... OZH2 19-58 15-32 6
Daventry ......... GSP 19-6 15-31 10-50
Rome (Italy) ........ I2RO6- 19-61 1530 50
Delhi (India) ........ BUD4 19-62 15-29 10
Buenos Aires (Argentina) ...... LRU 19-62 15-28 7-5
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJQ 19-63 15-28 5-40
Philadelphia (U.S.A.). W3X.AU 19-65 15-27 10
Daventry ......... GSI 19-66 1526 10-50
Boston (Mass., U.S.A.) ...... WiXAL 19-67 1525 20
Paris (Radio Mondial, Ft.) . . • . TPA2 19-68 1524 12
Huizen (Holland). PC J 2 19-71 15-22 60
Lisbon (Portugal) ....... CSW4 19-72 15-21 10
Pittsburgh (Pa., U.S.A.) ...... W8XK 19-72 15-21 18
Ankara (Turkey) ....... TAQ 1974 15-20 20
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJB 19'74 15-20 5-40
Daventry .. GSO 19-76 15-18 10-50
Moscow (U.S.S.R.) ....... RW96 19-76 1518 100
Guatemala City ........ TGWA 19-78 I5-I7 10
Tokio (Japan) ........ JZK 19-79 15-16 50
Daventry ......... GSF 19-82 1514 10-50
Tokio (Japan) ........ JLU3 19-82 15-14 50
Paris (Radio Mondial, Fr.) ...... TPB6 19-83 1513 25
Boston (Mass., U.S.A.) ...... WiXAR 19-83 1513 20
Vatican City ........ HVJ 19-84 1512 25
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJL 19-85 15-11 5-40
Rome (Italy) I2RO1O 19-87 1510 50
Moscow (U.S.S.R.) ....... RKJ 19-89 15-08 25
Moscow (U.S.S.R.) ....... RZZ 2005 1496 15
Marapicu (Brazil) ....... PSE 2008 14-93 15
Radio Nations (Prangins, Switzerland) .... HVJ 20-64 14-54 20
Barcelona (Spain) ....... EAJi 21-35 1406
Reykjavic (Iceland) ....... TFJ 24-52 1223 7-5
Moscow (U.S.S.R.) ....... RNE 25 1200 20
Chungking (China) ....... XGOY 25-21 11-90 35
Rome (Italy) ........ 12RO13 25-21 11-90 50
Paris (Radio Mondial. Fr.) ...... TPA3 2524 11-88 12
Pittsburgh (Pa., U.S.A.) ...... W8XK 25 26 11-87 24
Madras (India) ........ VUM2 25 28 11-87 10
Daventry ......... GSE 25-29 11-86 10-50
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJP 25-31 11-85 5-40
Lisbon (Portugal). ( SW5 25-34 11-84 10
Wayne (N.J., U.S.A.).. W2XE 2536 11-83 10
Daventry ......... GSN 2538 11-82 10-50
Rome (Italy). I2RO4 25'4 ii-8i 25
Tokio (Japan) ........ JZJ 25-42 n-8o 50
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJO 25-42 n-8o 5-40
Vienna (Germany) ....... DJZ 25 42 11-80 50
Boston (Mass., U.S.A.) ...... WiXAL 25 45 11-79 20
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DID 25 49 11-77 5-40
Daventry ......... GSD 25-53 ri-75 10-50
Vatican City ........ HVJ 25 55 11-74 25
Oslo (Norway) ........ LKQ 25 56 11-73 5
Huizen (Holland) ....... PHI 25 58 Xi-73 20
Boston (Mass., U.S.A ) ...... WiXAL 25 58 11-73 20
Paris (Radio Mondial, Fr.). rPA ! 256 11-72 12
Tokio (Japan) ........ JLG3 2563 11-70 50
Mótala (Sweden) ....... SVP 2563 11-70 12
Moscow (U.S.S.R.) ....... RIA 2566 11-69 15
Radio Nations (Prang.ns ; Switzerland) .... HBO 26-31 11-40 20
Lisbon (Portugal) ....... CSW6 2717 11-04 10

3”
 SHORT-WAVE BROADCASTING STATIONS

Station Call Sign Metres Mc/s kW

Taihiku (Formosa, Japan). JIB 28-48 10-53 IQ

Buenos Aires (Argentina) ...... SLX 28-99 10-35 12
Ruysselede (Belgium) ....... ORK 2904 10-33 9
Marapicu (Brazil). PSH 29'35 10-22 IS
Darien (Kwantung, China) ...... JDY 3023 992 IO
Madrid (Spain) ........ EAQ 30-43 9-86 10
Lisbon (Portugal) ....... CSW7 30-8 974 10
Buenos Aires (Argentina) ...... LRAi 3096 969 10
Daventry ......... GRX 30-96 9-69 10-50
Guatemala City ........ TGWA 3098 9-68 10
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJX 31-02 9-67 5-40
Rome (Italy) ........ I2RO9 31-02 9-67 50
Bound Brook (N.J., U.S.A.) ..... W3XAL 31-02 9-67 25
Buenos Aires (Argentina) ...... LRX 31-06 9-66 7'5
Vatican City ........ HVJ 31-06 9-66 25
Wayne (N.J., U.S.A.). W2XE 31 09 965 10
Tokio (Japan) ........ JLT2 31X 9-64 50
Rome (Italy) ........ I2RO3 3115 963 25
Oslo (Norway) ........ LLG 31-22 9-61 5
Cape Town (South Africa) ...... XRL 3123 9-61 5
Moscow (U.S.S.R.). RAL 3125 9-60 20
Daventry ......... GRY 3125 9-60 10-50
Athlone (Eire) ........ 3127 9’59
Delhi (No. 2) (India) . BUD2 31-28 9*59 10
Philadelphia (U.S.A.). W3XAU 31-28 959 10
Huizen (Holland) PCJ 31-28 9'59 60
Sydney (Australia). VK2ME 31-28 959 20
Daventry ......... < ;s< 31-32 958 10-50
Millis (Mass., U.S.A.). WiXK 31-35 957 10
Lima (Peru) ........ OAX4T 31-37 956 10
Zeesen (Germany) DJA 3I-38 956 5-40
Bombay (India) ........ Bz 31-4 955 10
Schenectady (N.Y., U.S.A.) ...... W2XAD 3I-4 1 955 20-25
Vatican City ........ HVJ 31-41 955 25
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJN 31-45 954 5-40
Calcutta (India). VUC2 3I-48 953 10
Treasure Island (U.S.A.) ...... XW6BE 3148 953 20
Schenectady (N.Y., U.S.A.) ...... W2XAF 31-48 9'53 20-25
Skainleback (Denmark) ...... OZF 31-51 952 5
Moscow (U.S.S.R.). RW96 3151 952 100
Daventry ......... GSV 31-55 9-51 10-50
Melbourne (Australia) ....... VK3ME 31*55 9-51 5
Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) ...... PRF5 31-58 9-50 12
Mexico City (Mexico) ....... ZEWW 3158 9-50 10
Bangkok (Siam) ........ HS8PJ 3158 9-50 10
Madrid (Spain) ........ EAR 31-62 9'49 10
Ankara (Turkey) ....... TAP 31-7 9-46 20
Havana (Cuba) ........ COCH 31-79 9'44 5
Radio Nations (Switzerland) ..... HVL 3210 934 20
Radio Nations (Switzerland) ..... HVP 38-48 7-80 20
Tokio (Japan) ........ JVP 3995 7-51 50
Mexico City (Mexico). XECR 40-65 738 20
Tokio (Japan) ........ JLG 41-21 728 50
Paris (Radio Mondial, Fr.) ...... TPB7 41-21 7-28 25
Paris (Radio Mondial, Fr.) ...... TPA4 41-21 728 12
Rome (Italy) ........ I2RO11 41-55 722 50
Amateurs ......... 42-85 700
to to
41 09 7-30
Radio Nations (Switzerland) ..... HVQ 44 94 6-67 20
Vatican City ........ HVJ 48-47 619 25
Wayne (U.S.A.) .. W2XE 48-62 617 10
Pittsburgh (U.S.A.) ....... W8XK 48-86 614 28
Mexico City (Mexico) ....... XEUZ 4902 6-12 20
Wayne (U.S.A.) ........ W2XE 49-02 6-12 10
Daventry ......... GSL 4910 611 10-50
Bound Brook (U.S.A.) ...... W3XL 49-18 6-10 25
Lima (Peru) ........ OAX4Z 49-24 6 09 15
Zeesen (Germany) ....... 1 DJM 49’35 608 5-40
Vienna (Germany) ....... i djy 49-40 607 50
Mótala (Sweden) ....... SBO 49-46 6-o6 12
Philadelphia (U.S.A.) ....... W3XAU 49-50 606 10
Cincinnati (U.S.A.). 1 W8XAL 49-50 1 606 10

312
 SHORT-WAVE BROADCASTING STATIONS—SOFT VALVE

Station Call Sign Metres Mc/s kW

Daventry ......... GSA 49 59 6 05 10-50

Tandjong Priok (Java) ...... YDA 4967 6 04 10
Boston (Mass., U.S.A.) ...... WiXAL 4967 6-04 20
Vatican City ........ HPJ 49'75 603 25
Moscow (U.S.S.R.). RW96 49 75 6-03 IOO
Zeesen (Germany) ....... DJC 49-83 6-02 5-4O
Rangoon (Burma) ....... XYO 4994 601 IO
Pretoria (South Africa) ...... ZRH 49'94 6-01 7
Moscow (U.S.S.R.). RNE 5000 600 20
Moscow (U.S.S.R.). RIA 51-24 5-85 15
Delhi (No. 2) (India). VUD2 6049 496 10
Madras (India) ........ VUM2 4-92 10
Bombay (India) . . . . . ... VUB2 61-48 4-88- 10
Calcutta (India) ........ VUC2 61-98 4-84 10
Amateurs. 85-71 35a
to to
7500 4-00
Amateurs. 174 43 i-7i
to to
15000 2-OC

tion which is laid down by the SLIDER.—A moving contact for

European Broadcasting authorities an inductance, resistance, or any
(Berne). If a receiver accepts a similar wireless component which has
band of less than io kc/s., then side¬ to be tapped at various points. In
band cut-off is taking place. the older forms of inductance coil
SIDE BANDS. —An amplitude- the wire was wound round a cylinder
modulated wave can be considered and a brass rod was fixed on the
as a combination of several frequen¬ end supports of the coil.
cies. If it is assumed that the modu¬ SMOOTHING CHOKE.—A coil of
lation is due, say, to an orchestra, wire having an iron core, used in the
a large range of frequencies is ob¬ H.T. circuit to eliminate fluctuations
tained,'from about 50 to 10,000. We in current and current intensity. (See
can consider the wave as being built also Chokes and Low-frequency
up of many simple ones of frequen¬ Chokes.)
cies which vary between X —, say, SODIUM-— A monad metallic ele¬
12,000, and X + 12,000, where X ment recognised as a distinct sub¬
equals the carrier frequency and stance by Duhamel in 1736 and ob¬
10,000 the highest sound frequency tained in the metallic state by Davy
emitted. Hence is created a sort of in 1807. Symbol is Na. It occurs
band of frequencies extending above as chloride in sea water and salt
and below the carrier frequency. springs, and as nitrate in South
These waves are of audio frequency, America. It was first prepared by in¬
and are known as side bands. troducing an intimate mixture of 30
SKIP EFFECT.— See Short Waves. parts dry sodic carbonate, 13 parts
SLAB COIL.— An inductance coil coal, and 3 parts chalk into an iron
wound in the form of a flat slab. cylinder, heated in a reverberatory
Usually this consists of a length of furnace, the pure metal distilling
wire wound in the form of a spider’s over. It rapidly oxidises in the air,
web, but with adjacent turns touch¬ and (when dropped upon it) water
ing. Sometimes, however, the turns decomposes it, liberating hydrogen
are wound round spacing pins so which, if the water is previously
that the turns do not lie parallel heated, catches fire.
for their whole length. It has a SOFT VALVE.—A valve which is
lower capacity. (See also Coil.) not completely evacuated, or which
p.w.B.—l. 313
 SOFT VALVE SOLDERING
contains a gas. This type of valve the tin content the lower the melting-
is not used at the present day, but point. Some proprietary brands of
was previously used for detection solder consist of a hollow tube of the
purposes (cf. Hard Valve). When metal with a resinous preparation for
electrons are emitted from the fila¬ the core. This enables soldering to
ment of a valve they pass outwards be carried out easily, as it is “self¬
towards the anode. If gas is present fluxing.” In view of the fact that
in the bulb, then collisions take place heat is necessary to melt the solder,
between the electrons and gas atoms, oxidisation takes place very often on
with the result that the force of im¬ the surface of the pieces to be joined.
pact detaches electrons from the gas To avoid this a “ flux ” is employed.
atom. These electrons join in the (See also Flux.)
electronic filament stream, and by SOLDERING.—To become skilful
so doing increase the total anode cur¬ with the soldering bit get together the
rent. The softer the valve the greater
the chance of collisions and therefore
the greater the anode current. The
disadvantage of this process is that F1C. 361.—How to make a simple
angle joint.
the gas atoms which have been in col¬
lision are left positively charged, and
these are attracted to the filament,
and the attraction is so great that
they bombard the filament, even¬
tually breaking it. The soft valve
therefore gives a greater anode cur¬ Fig. 362.—A wire to be attached
rent for a given potential supply, at right angles to another should be
but has a shorter life. looped together as shown.

SOLDER.—A metal (or alloy) necessary equipment and try jointing

used to join metals. It must have up scraps of tinplate, brass, steel
a lower fusing point than the metals and copper wires in various forma¬
to be joined, and this entails that tions. You will soon be able to
various solders must be used for dif¬ judge the right heat for the iron, the
ferent classes of work. For wireless importance of working with a well-
work the principal soldering is for tinned bit, and also that main essen¬
the junction of copper or brass parts, tial, perfect cleanliness, in the work
and for this purpose what is known being operated upon.
as “Tinman’s” solder is most suit¬ Processes of Soft Soldering. To be
able. This consists of 50 parts of entirely successful in the process of
tin and 50 parts of lead. The greater soft soldering, there are many little
z>~c. devices, other than
■vJ) those that are to be
JT L purchased at a tool
Xlf dealer’s store, that
can be made up by
H \\ the amateur for his
own use. In addi¬
tion, there
are numerous
“ dodges ”
Fig. 365.—How to make known to
a permanent fixing for the
foot of the stand. the
made.
Sit
 SOLDERING
man which, if adapted to the job in the amalgamation of the solder and
hand, will not only speed up the the metal. The solder adheres be¬
work, but tend to produce very much cause the metal being soldered to¬
sounder, cleaner, and more work¬ gether forms a local alloy. This is
manlike joints. why metals which have a natural
The Weight of the Soldering Bit. affinity for the solder are joined to¬
The term “soft soldering” covers gether more strongly than otherwise.
all those lower temperature metal¬ Metals like aluminium are difficult
jointing processes in which the base to solder because their readiness to
oxidise prevents the soldering alloy
to be created. Special solders and
fluxes are therefore sold to get over
these difficulties, and it is also neces¬
sary in some cases to scrape the sur¬
face of the metal while it is being
soldered. Welding aluminium is,
FlC. 366.—Arrangement of ornamental strips. however, a much more satisfactory
process.
of the solder is a mixture of tin and
Fluid Flux. Paste fluxes (see also
lead. These solders are all fusible
Flux) can be recommended for some
by the stored heat in a ' ' soldering
iron.” A soldering iron is really a
copper bit, held on to an iron stalk,
which terminates in a wooden handle.
Copper is used because of its conduc¬
tivity and capat ity for holding heat,
and the bit is placed in a fire or over
a gas ring until it is hot enough to
melt solder. A certain weight of
copper is necessary, and for all aver¬
age work the most useful is a 12-oz.
bit. For very light work, a 6-oz.
copper head will do very well, but,
at the same time, it is very annoy¬
ing to find that the solder cannot be forms of electrical work so long as
melted because the bit has got cold. the job is cleaned of all flux after
CLAMPS it is completed. For steel, tin-plate,
brass and copper strips and sheets,
fluid flux is to be preferred. By
fluid fluxes are meant those which
have as their base ” killed spirits,”
viz. chloride of zinc, obtained by
putting scraps of zinc into strong
HELD IN POSITiON hydrochloric acid (spirits of salts).
BY PASTE FLUX.’
In making this flux always put in an
Fig. 367.—Strips held in position by spring Clamps.
excess of zinc to the mixture to make
just as you are engaged in an intri¬ sure that no acid remains. While
cate piece of work. any hydrochloric acid is there it will
Fluxes. The use. of a flux is to continue to attack the zinc and be¬
stop the formation of an oxide on the come converted to the new compound
surface of the metal and thus prevent chloride of zinc. If there is insuffi-

315
 SOLDERING
cient zinc, then free acid is present visable to reserve a special bench
in the mixture. in the workshop for soldering. If
The reaction should be performed this is impossible, do the work as
in an open earthenware jar and also far away as possible from the better
in the open air, as the fumes of hy¬ and finer workshop appliances.
drogen and acid which are given off Paste Fluxes. All fluxes should
are, to say the least of it. not very be applied to the work by a piece
pleasant gases to breathe in. of stick—a wooden meat skewer is
When the bubbling has ceased quite a handy tool, and paste fluxes
pour on about three times as much should be placed in heavy pots.
water as there is fluid in the jar, Much petty annoyance in working
picking out the larger lumps of re¬ is caused by not transferring a paste
maining zinc. Then strain off through flux from the light tin in which it
a piece of rag into another receptacle, is purchased to a more massive con-
and add a few crystals of sal-am¬
moniac. This is the common chemi¬
Work Being
cal used to replenish Leclanché elec¬ Soldered
tric batteries, and is easily obtainable.
The mixture may be bottled Mo,sr
(and, be it observed, properly Potato

labelled) for future use when Flame

diluted with a further equal
quantity of water.
Place Flux in Strong Con¬ Bunsen
tainer. A heavy, bulky pot— Burner
Work Previously
something like a small edition Soldered .»eld In Potato
of the old-fashioned earthen¬ Fig. 369.—A typical case where a potato comes in useful.
ware pickle jars or an old
marmalade jar made of the same tainer. If it is attempted to use
material—-should at all times be used the paste from the original tin, the
to hold a liquid flux, Something stuff is so sticky that just at the
that will stand knocking about and critical moment, when it may be
which cannot be easily overturned necessary to improve the flow of the
is essential to success. solder by a touch of flux, you will
Using a Soldering Bit. When the find that the dibber stick picks up
iron—as it is often called—is taken flux, tin and all. Therefore, keep
out of the fire or off the gas ring, the original tin as a store, and trans¬
as the case may be, and presuming fer enough for use to either a heavy
its working point is already properly pot or one that is fixed down to the
tinned, it should be dipped into the bench.
pot of flux—quite a quick dip—and Where it is advisable for the par¬
then poked into another jar of sal¬ ticular job in hand—say, wiring up
ammoniac. An experienced workman a wireless set—to employ a past flux,
will always for preference use a very do not use it for dipping the end
large lump of sal-ammoniac which of the soldering bit into. Always
will be laid on the bench and used in provide the jar of fluid flux and the
this way for "cleaning the iron.’’ sal-ammoniac already referred to for
The fumes accompanying soft sol¬ cleaning the " iron ” as it is re¬
dering and the danger of splashing moved from the fire.
flux are both so deleterious to ad¬ Soldering Small Work. For joint¬
jacent tools that it is always ad- ing or "sweating up” small objects
316
 SOLDE RING
which can be brought to the heat, the tinning, and prevents the job
soft soldering can be successfully being completed. The work must
done by a small Bunsen gas burner, never be brought to anything ap¬
methylated wick flame, cr a blow¬ proaching red heat. Even the dullest
lamp. red heat represents a temperature of
A mechanical attachment of the over 800° F., whereas the finest
two or more parts to be soldered is grade of soft solder melts at about
recommended in such cases, in addi- 44°°-
lion to the soldering. A wire to be A Stand for the Soldering Bit.
attached at right angles to another Where small work is being operated
upon, the end of the "iron” may
be used instead of the naked flame.
To facilitate work of this nature a
clip may be fitted on to the iron
stalk of the soldering bit, and to this
clip a triangular foot, made of strip
metal, is arranged as shown in Fig.
364. This may be fitted to almost any
iron. If it is thought that this foot
F1C. 370.—Coil of solder with a tin lid
underneath to catch the drips of solder. is better if made to fold down, the
clip should be provided with two
may be either looped round as shown holes, one to grip it to the stalk of
in the sketch (Fig. 361), or if it is an the bit and the other, as shown by
angle joint that is required, like that the sketch (Figs. 363 and 364) to
at the corner of a lampshade, the carry the bolt holding the foot.
wires may be flattened and wrapped There is no real need to either re¬
round each other, as in Fig. 362. move or to fold foot It may be a
After hammering or working in any permanent fixing, as shown in Fig.
way which may similarly introduce 365, and will then be found most
foreign matter into the surface
of the metal, the wires, or
metal being worked on, must be
cleaned and tinned. Even tinned
iron wire gets ‘ ‘ dirty ’ ’ if ham¬
mered, and refuses to solder
afterwards. To tin a wire
or other small object, clean
it with sand—or emery paper
-—a scraper or a file, coat it
with flux, preferably a fluid Fic . 371.—An easily-made Cowl that can be fitted over the
gas ring.
flux, heat up in the flame,
and reflux when it is hot with the useful in ordinary soldering. It is
stick of solder being used dipped often necessary to lay the " iron ”
into the flux. If there is any solder down for a moment. The foot saves
on the job reflux with the wooden the bench from being burned by the
' ‘ dibber, ” guiding the solder where hot copper bit.
it is wanted. Rubbing the solder up Where one or more pieces of metal
and down the job will scon coat it in close proximity have to be joined
so long as the right heat is preserved. on to a rather heavier part, the ordin¬
Burning a Joint. But don’t over¬ ary processes must be modified. Take,
heat it. This burns the solder and for example, the arrangement ol

317
 SOLDERING SOLENOID
ornamental strips on the surface of re-tin the bit the copper end must be
a plate shown in Fig. 366. The filed quite clean; finally, while it is
soldering iron is out of the question hot, immediately rub it on a piece
for such a job. The parts must be of tin (the inside of a fixed-down
sweated in position at one heat. tin lid) with solder and flux until
The surface of the plate should be the point is quite bright all over
cleaned tinned, any superfluous sol¬ with solder.
der being wiped off with a damp rag Always wipe a soldering iron as it
while the plate is hot. The strips is withdrawn from the fire on a piece
may be similarly tinned at the back, of old mat, or anything else of a
although, if they are quite clean, rough textile character, to remove
edges as well as back, they will sweat the soot. Then dip it in the flux
up quite satisfactorily if well fluxed. and sal-ammoniac as already recom¬
The positions of the strips are then mended.
marked out, and are held in position Don’t use "killed spirits" for sol¬
by spring clamps (see Fig. 367). dering zinc. A dilute solution of
These may be of strip brass of horse¬ the natural hydrochloric acid (spirits
shoe form, or like miniature cycle of salts) is required.
trouser clips, arranged as shown in Have a coil of soft solder with ex¬
the next picture. tended arm over the tinning lid (Fig.
The whole plate is then brought 370). The dribbles of solder then fall
up to required heat with a blowpipe or into the lid and are useful for future
over a gas flame, with little nodules tinning.
of solder laying up against the strips. Cowl for Gas Ring. Where an
A further supply of flux soon ordinary gas ring is used and the jets
makes the solder sweat into all the are apt to spread out to too great
crevices, and a neat job will result. an angle away from the copper bit,
It is easy to shake off superfluous a cowl can be made up out of sheet
solder and reheat and reflux, as occa¬ iron or tinplate to conserve the heat,
sion may require. The clamps save and at the same time provide a rest
all the trouble of drilling and rivet¬ for the "iron” in the heating pro¬
ing on the strips. cess (see Fig. 371). By adjusting the
Another form of clamp may be amount of flame it can, by using
made up out of strip metal and can such a cowl, be retained at just the
be employed to solder two separate right heat—neither too cool nor, how¬
parts which may require to be held ever long it remains over the stove,
firmly in a given position while they so hot that the tinning is burnt off
are being soldered. the end.
Don’ts. It is of no use attempting Electrical soldering irons are now
to solder work which is not clean superseding the ordinary iron.
where solder has to be applied. There SOLENOID.—A coil of wire either
is just ‘‘ordinary dirt” and the oxi¬ wound on a former or air-spaced and
disation due to burning on of pre¬ self-supporting. When a galvanic cur¬
vious solder, or of the tin coating rent is passed through a solenoid it
of tinplate, but the mere heating of becomes possessed of many of the pro¬
metal, in a more or less degree, forms perties of a magnet due to lines of force
a certain amount of oxide on the which surround the solenoid. Exam¬
surface, which prevents a successful ples of solenoids in a wireless receiver
jointing. are: tuning coils, chokes, telephone
Don’t overheat the bit, as this or loudspeaker windings; the speech
burns off the tinning at the end. To coil of a moving-coil loudspeaker.

318
 SOUND, SPEED OF — SPECIFIC GRAVITY
SOUND, SPEED OF. — Sound piece. The " click ” produced by the
waves travel 1.142 feet per second. armature hitting the pole piece (or
SOUND WAVES.—The vibrations back contact) corresponds with the
of the air produced by the motion key depressions of the transmitter,
of a body. An example is the beat¬ and in this way the signals are read.
ing of a large drum. If the skin of SPACE CHARGE.— Residual nega¬
the drum is driven inwards the air tive electrons which remain in prox¬
will follow the skin, producing a imity to the filament, and so prevent
slight rarefaction in that spot. As the full emission to be made use of.
the skin flies out it will tend to com¬ SPARK.— The electric discharge
press the air, and this rarefaction which takes place between two elec¬
and compression will travel through trodes when the voltage which is
the air, due to the motion being applied is sufficient to break down
transmitted from one molecule to an¬ the air resistance separating them.
other. When it reaches our ear it The spark consists of damped os¬
causes the drum of the ear to vibrate cillations, and these oscillations are
in sympathy with its motion, so re¬ transmitted through the surrounding
producing the sound originated by air. It is thus possible to receive the
the drum. Sound radiates, that is, oscillations from even a small spark,
distributes its effect equally in all such as an electric bell will produce,
directions, and not in a straight line provided the receiver is sufficiently
in one direction only. Consequently, sensitive. In wireless telegraphy cer¬
it diminishes in intensity in inverse tain transmitters (principally ships
proportion to the square of its dis¬ and ship stations) employ a spark
tance. It is possible to control sound transmitter instead of telephony. The
waves by means of reflection, in¬ transmitter employs oscillating con¬
flection, and refraction. In reflection denser spark discharges across an
we get “echo”; with inflection we air gap, and the sparks are obtained
get a bending; and with refraction by the depression of a key in the
we get a convergence. Sound waves circuit. In this manner the operator
are divided into two classes: (1) may send the dots and dashes of the
musical sounds, and (2) noises. A Morse code.
musical sound has a regular period SPARK COIL.—An induction coil
of vibration, and a noise has an un¬ employing a primary and secondary
even rate of vibration. Musical winding, and a vibrating armature.
sounds are felt if they are below 16 A battery connected across the pri¬
vibrations per second. That is to mary will induce a current into the
say, no musical note can be heard, secondary winding.
but there is a consciousness of sound. SPARK GAP.—The contacts across
Above 20,000 vibrations per second which the spark discharge takes place.
the consciousness of sound ceases. SPEAKERS.— See Loudspeakers.
SOUNDER.— A device used in SPECIFIC GRAVITY.—The rela¬
telegraphy for making audible the tive density of a substance, or the
transmitted telegraphic ãgnals. It weight of a body compared with the
consists of an electro magnet with weight of another body having the
a heavy armature spring suspended. same magnitude. The S.G. of a body
When a current passes through the is the ratio of its weight to the weight
magnet the armature is attracted to of water it displaces when immersed
the pole piece of the magnet, and as therein. The ratio of the weight of
soon as the current ceases the spring the material to the weight of the same
returns the armature to a contact volume of water.

319
 SPECIFIC RESISTANCE — STENODE
SPECIFIC RESISTANCE. — The SQUELCH.— Another name (of
resistance of a piece of material which American origin) for “Quiet A.V.C.”
is i cm. in length and i sq. cm. in (which see).
cross section. SQUIRREL-CAGE AERIAL.— An
SPECTRUM.—The term applied to aerial formed by using circular
the complete range of light frequen¬ spreaders at each end. Round the
cies (known as the “visible” spec¬ periphery of the spreaders many
trum) and the complete range of wires are disposed, so that the re¬
sound frequencies (known as the sult is a cylinder with the wires
“audible” spectrum). It is appre¬ running from end to end. Another
ciated, of course, that in each spec¬ name for this type of aerial is the
trum there are frequencies which are " sausage aerial.”
are not normally visible or audible. SQUIRREL-CAGE ROTOR. — A
The complete range of the spectrum rotor formed in the same manner as
may be found under Visible Spectrum the squirrel-cage aerial.
and Audible Spectrum. S.R.— Specific Resistance.
S.S.C.— An abbreviation for Single
SPEECH COIL.—The winding on a Silk Covered. A term applied to
cone loudspeaker which carries the wire which is insulated by being
speech currents. It is usually of low wrapped with a single layer of silk
resistance and is fed from the second¬ thread. This thread is wound round
ary of a transformer, the primary of and round the wire.
which is joined in the anode circuit of STABILISER.—See Neon.
the output valve. The speech coil is STAGE GAIN.— The amount of
sometimes wound on a cylindrical amplification which is provided by a
former of insulating material, but is complete valve and its couplings. It
often made self-supporting by being may be measured by connecting an
doped with some non-hygroscopic A.C. generator to the grid circuit of
material. a valve, and measuring the output
SPELTER.—A commercial name from the output end of the circuit.
for zinc. It is also an abbreviation (See Amplification.)
of the words ' ‘ spelter-solder, ’ ’ which STAINING.—See Polishing.
is a zinc substance for soldering brass. STALLOY.—An alloy of steel.
This is a proprietary name for a
SPREADER.— The rod or stick special preparation of steel used for
used for separating the wires of a the cores of transformers, etc.
two or more wire aerial. Where two STAND-BI.—A nautical term,
wires are employed the spreader signifying the position of the tuner
should be not less than 3 ft. long. where waves of different lengths are
SQUEGGER.—The term applied to received. The term is also employed
an effect which arises in a valve when to denote “wait.”
oscillation reaches such a point that STATIC. — Stationary electricity.
a form of saturation sets in. The It is the name also applied to atmo¬
valve then ceases to oscillate, and in spherics, and accumulations of elec¬
some circuits will commence again, tricity (atmospherics) on an aerial.
and so continue the cycle. The term STENODE.—A circuit arrange¬
is used to-day in super-heterodyne ment in which a piezo crystal is
practice when a low-pitched howl used to obtain selectivity. The vary¬
arises in such a receiver due to the ing resistance of the quartz crystal
oscillator valve being operated under is employed to vary the H.F. by¬
wrong conditions. passing effect, and it is claimed that
320
 STENODE — SWITCHES AND SWITCHING
this results in a degree of selectivity material around the periphery of
much higher than can be obtained which are arranged an equal number
even with a super het. of light and dark segments. When
STEP-DOWN TRANSFORMER.— illuminated by a source of light in¬
A transformer in which the secondary terrupted regularly (for instance, an
winding is smaller than the primary, ordinary A.C. supply) the disc will
with the result that if a voltage is appear to remain stationary at the
applied to the primary a smaller correct speed. The formula for de¬
voltage is obtained in the secondary. termining the number of segments is
STEP-UP TRANSFORMER. — A 120 x/, w here ji s t| le frequency of
transformer in which the secondary
winding is larger than the primary. the lighting supply and rthe number
If a voltage is applied to the primary, of revolutions per minute. A neon
therefore, a larger voltage will be ob¬ lamp gives a more definite image.
tained at the secondary terminals. SULPHATE OF COPPER.—Chal¬
STEREOPHONY.— A term applied canthite. The result of copper being
to the experiments which have taken acted upon by hot concentrated sul¬
place in an endeavour to obtain the phuric acid. The crystallised salt is
illusion of depth in broadcast recep¬ known as blue vitriol.
tion. As at present known, the SULPHATING.— The action of
sounds are picked up by a single the sulphuric acid upon the plates of
microphone, which, of course, de¬ the accumulator.
stroys all sense of “relief,” and are SUPER - HETERODYNE. — A
relayed from a single point in the method of obtaining high selectivity
room. Experiments in stereophony by converting a received signal into
have consisted of using two micro¬ a different, and lower, frequency and
phones arranged at each end of a then carrying out amplification of this
studio, and relaying the sounds picked new frequency. The signal is detected,
up by one from one station, and the frequency changed, amplified by
those from the other microphone two or more H.F. stages, again de¬
from a different station. At the re¬ tected, and passed to the L.F. stages.
ceiving end the two stations are re¬ (See also Intermediate-frequency
ceived on separate receivers and two Transformer and Coils.)
loudspeakers. Two loudspeakers SUPER-REGENERATIVE. — See
arranged in different places will also Circuit and Armstrong Circuit.
give an effect of stereophony. SUPERSONIC.— Above audibility.
STOPPERS.— Devices used to pre¬ Frequencies over 20,000 cycles per sec.
vent the flow of currents of some SUPPRESSOR GRID.—The extra
particular frequency. Thus, an anti¬ grid which is inserted between the
break-through choke (connected in anode and screening grid of a pentode
series with the aerial lead-in) is used valve. It is generally internally con¬
to ‘ ' stop ’ ' the passage of medium¬ nected to the cathode and acts as a
wave signals when the set is tuned to stabiliser by preventing the excessive
long waves. (See also Grid Stopper.) electrons which are shot back from
STRAYS. — Another term for the anode from interfering with the
“ Static,” which see. normal grid-anode electron stream.
STROBOSCOPE.—A device for de¬ S.W.G.— An abbreviation for Stan¬
termining the speed of rotation of a dard Wire Gauge.
disc, etc., by means of an interrupted SWITCHES AND SWITCHING—
light supply. In its simplest form it Devices for connecting one circuit
consists of a disc of paper or similar with another or for breaking a circuit.
p.w.E.—L 1 321
 SWITCHES AND SWITCHING
A switch often deals with more than lar circuit in which it is to be used.
one circuit, but nevertheless it serves Let us examine the different types
to show the primary function of the of switches likely to be met with in
component. A more complete defini¬ modern receivers, starting from the
tion will, no doubt, be formulated aerial and finishing at the loud¬
after a study of the ensuing pages. speaker. In this connection particu¬
Switches figure very prominently lar attention is directed to Fig. 372
in the circuits of all modern radio which shows a typical circuit with
receivers and transmitters. The num¬ illustrations of the switches used.
ber of different types is enormous, The illustration (Fig. 372 opposite)
ranging from the simple ‘‘on-off*’ shows a switch designed for use under
switch to the complicated mechanisms exacting conditions. It is called a
that are used in transmitters. knife switch, since the action of the
To explain the use of a switch take arm is like that of a knife. A similar
an elementary example : Fig. 390 switch, but with two arms, is shown
shows a lamp connected to an elec¬ *n I‘ig. 381. As this type of switch
tric battery. Suppose we wish to put is often used out of doors it must
out the lamp or to light it again. have robust non-rusting and non-cor¬
Obviously we could disconnect or roding contacts, and these must be
connect one of the wires each time. supported in a base which is a good
This crude method would hardly meet insulator at all times, that is to say,
with modern requirements. What one that will not allow a leakage of
we do, therefore, is to include a current between the contacts when
switch in the circuit. This is shown the switch is off. Such switches usu¬
in Fig. 390. There the switch takes ally have phosphor-bronze contacts
the form of a lever, the moving of (including the knife arm) mounted on
which "makes” or “breaks” the a rectangular base of porcelain. The
circuit. Of course, the same result phosphor-bronze stands up very well
can be achieved by other simple me¬ to the elements, and so long as the
chanical movements, such as pressing porcelain is cleaned occasionally to
the two wires in contact by means prevent leakage of current through
of a button ” or by turning a knob, any film of dirt, which may otherwise
but in any case the principle is the collect on the surface, it will retain
same, namely, that of connecting and its insulating properties indefinitely.
disconnecting two wires. This in fact T he switch is operated by swing¬
is the basis of all switches, however ing the " knife " over from one side
complicated they may be. With the to the other. The inset shows how
more elaborate types it simply means the knife enters the spring contacts.
that a number of such connections or In order to prevent current travel¬
disconnections, or both, are made ling through the operator’s hand an
with the one switch. insulated handle is fitted to the knife.
Single-circuit Types. If you look Switches for H.F. Circuits. The
at Figs. 372, 373, etc., you will switch shown in Fig. 376 is a popular
see that even the simple " make-and- type for use as a wave-change switch.
break " or "on-off” switch, as it It is used to short circuit some of the
is sometimes called, is made in turns of a tuning coil so as to alter
several patterns. Each pattern is de¬ its wavelength. This is shown in
signed primarily for use in some F>g. 377- It operates on the push-
specific place in a receiver—the de¬ pull principle. When the knob is
sign being evolved to meet the pushed in as shown the two springs
peculiar requirements of the particu¬ press against the insulated shank of

322
(J) Min switch @ tuple-hint @ uncle pole, chance Ofen switch
SINGLE ROLS. DOUBLE THRON SHORTING SNITCH CITHER TYRE 19 SWTAOLE

F1G. 372.—Various Switches and how to use them.

323
 SWITCHES AND SWITCHING

F1C. 373.—Theoretical and actual diagrams of a 3-point wave-change Switch.

the plunger, but when the knob is compound such as “ bakelite.” Low
pulled out the metal end of the capacity is a necessary property of
plunger comes between the springs all switch gear used in high-frequency
and so connects them together. The circuits, such as the aerial circuit of
qualifications of such a switch must a wireless receiver. It means that
be as follows : definite contact, finest the contacts must not be too near to¬
insulation, and low capacity. The gether or of too great an area, other¬
first is secured by employing strong wise they will tend to act as the
springs, and by nickel-plating both plates of a condenser and thus allow
springs and plunger to prevent cor¬ the H.F. currents to pass from one
rosion. Good insulation is obtained to the other. Such ‘ ‘ leakage ’ ’ is
by using a base made of ebonite (a quite distinct from that caused by
hard black substance made from bad insulation. It may also lead to
rubber and sulphur), or some similar the upsetting of the tuning or other

FlG. 374. Theoretical and actual diagrams of an on-off Switch.

324
 SWITCHES AND SWITCHING

Fig. 375.—Theoretical and actual diagrams of a plug-in Connector..

function of the circuit in which the is obvious that there would be no

switch is connected. very great difficulty in producing a
The question of losses due to self multiple switch of low self capacity
capacity only occurs in the design if size were of no account, but more
of switches used in high-frequency often than not such switches are re¬
circuits. With the switch under con¬ quired for portable sets and where
sideration the self capacity is kept space is restricted. A typical opera¬
low by keeping the springs fairly tion which has to be performed is
wide apart. A similar switch to this that of changing over the connections
one is illustrated at the top of Fig. from one winding on a frame aerial
372. Here three contacts are em- to the other, and also at the same
ployed, the plunger itself forming the time switching on and off the current
third. The ase of this switch is supplying the valves. Figs. 380 and
clearly shown in the circuit diagram 382 show two efficient switches of
in the centre of the plate. It will be the anti-capacity tvpe suitable for
seen that it is used to short circuit such operations, and Fig. 384 shows
the tuning coils with one movement. the connections to the frame aerial
It thus replaces two of the single type and filament circuit of one of these
of switch. It is generally designated “ long wave - off - medium - wave ”
“ a three-point shorting switch. switches.
Other varieties of the same type do Ganged Switches. In many re¬
not use the ¡hunger as the third ceivers the operation of wave chang¬
contact, but employ three separate ing where several circuits are con¬
cerned is carried out by separate
springs.
Multiple Types. Much ingenuity switches which are “ganged.” This
has been used in designing switches means that they are linked together
for more complicated operations in by means of some such mechanical
the H.F. circuits of a receiver. It devices as rods or levers, so that they
is here that the problem of self may all be operated by one control.
capacity becomes really vital, and a A very common method is to make
compromise often has to be made be¬ up the tuning coils and switches in
tween efficiency and compactness. It one unit, as in Fig. 389. In this

325
 SWITCHES AND SWITCHING
case three shielded tuning coils are the dial has been tuned through 180°
mounted in line, the switches being instead of coming against a stop, as
contained in the base of each. A rod with the ordinary variable condenser,
passes through the whole unit and it operates the switch and continues
controls each switch. Usually the its rotation through another 180°.
rod has to This time of course it tunes to a dif¬
be turned to ferent wave band.
right or left Rotary Switches. Proceeding now
by means of to the low-frequency stages of the
the knob, typical receiver we are here catered
but some for with an almost endless variety of
types work switches of all types capable of per¬
by the forming many different operations.
push - pull The choice is so extensive, partly be¬
method. cause nearly all the H.F. types are
Another also available. With one or two ex¬
method is to ceptions a H.F. switch is always
gang the suitable for L.F. or direct-current cir-
switches cuits, although
with the one intended for
Fig. 376.—On-off Switch. tuning con¬ L.F. or D.C. work
densers. The is not necessarily
switches are somewhat similar to the adaptable to H.F.
rotary type in Fig. 387, and are made circuits. The illus¬
integral with the condensers : the tration, Fig. 390,
shows a H.F. type
of single - pole
change-over switch
which may well be
Fic. 378.—
used in the grid Snap Switch.
circuit of the de-
tector valve for changing over from
radio to gramophone or vice versa.
The other switch shown is designed
purely for this operation, and might
not be equally suitable for H.F. use.
It is of the rotary type, the opera¬
tion being performed by turning the
knob left or right.
Small rotary switches of this type
have recently come into great favour
for radio to gramo, switching and
similar purposes. Apart from the
fact that the knob works with a
rotary action there is often very little
F1C. 377.—On-off Switch used for wave changing. similarity between one make and an¬
other. Fig. 387 shows the back of
complete unit, comprising variable one type in which flat springs are
condenser and switch, is called an used. The disc “ D,” which rotates
extenser. The condenser is operated under the springs, is shaped on its
in the usual way, except that when face in such a way that its rotation
326
 TOGB-
Fig. 379—Various methods of Switching by means of Plugs and Jacks.

327
 SWITCHES AND SWITCHING
forces t Ii e Actually it is harder than appears at
pairs of first sight. The difficulty here is not
springs to obtain low self capacity, adequate
in contact, or insulation, or large current-carrying
allows them capacity, but to get perfect contact,
t o separate not only at first, but after the switch
according to has been in use for years. The fact
its position. that most battery valves only require
It thus makes 2 volts causes the trouble. A slight
and breaks piece of grit or a few tiny flakes of
the circuit. metal from the contacts is sufficient
The example to raise the resistance of the switch.
shown has There is usually, of course, only a
two sets of slight increase, but as the voltage
contacts
so that two
circuits are
dealt with at
once.
Another
rotary switch
is shown in
Fig-391. This
has a metal rotor shaped something
like the blades of an electric fan. The
contacts are in the form of springs,
which touch the “blades” as the
rotor is revolved. In the “off”
position the springs occupy the
spaces between the vanes.
Filament Switches. Probably there
are more filament switches sold to the
radio public than any other type,
and yet it is also probable that they
give more trouble than all the others
put together. One would think that,, applied is so low this small resistance
with the experience the manufac¬ has a comparatively large effect, and
turers have at the back of them, the reduces the current sufficiently to im¬
construction of such simple com¬ pair reception. What it means there¬
ponents would be mere child's play. fore is that the contacts must be of
generous size,
plated to prevent
corrosion, and with
springs just suffi¬
ciently strong to
give a firm grip,
but not so hard as
to cause a scrap¬
ing away of the
contacts.
Two of the
 21.—A port¬
able set may be
quickly attached
to an outside
aerial by using
a Plug and Jack,
Inset : details of
the Jack.

To AER iA L To Earth

20.—How to modify 18 when using

mains valves.

GPID
LEAK
X 3/AS
F1G. 383.—Other methods of RESISTANCE
switching by Plugs and Jacks. DECOUPLING

3
29
 SWITCHES AND SWITCHING
the plug causes the springs
to bend. In this way a
number of circuits can be
operated, the bending of the
springs causing the break¬
ing and making of the
contacts. Fig. 385 shows
a multi circuit jack and
what happens when the plug
is inserted. In the centre
of Fig. 372, a single-cir-
cuit jack is used to enable
the pick-up which is at-
tached to the plug to be
plugged in to the set or
removed at will.
Jacks can be obtained
which will solve many diffi¬
cult -switching problems,
such as cutting out a stage
of low-frequency amplifica¬
tion in a multi-valve re¬
ceiver. The plug is at¬
tached to the loudspeaker,
and jacks are fitted in the
various L. F. stages of the
a receiver. The speaker is
COND ■ then plugged into the one
Fie. 384.—Three-pole change-over Switch usee for wave changing giving the required degree
with Frame Aerials.
of amplification.
many types of on-off filament Unfortunately, owing to the nature
switch are given in Figs. 374 and of their construction, most types of
378, while Fig. 386 shows how such jacks are unsuitable for inclusion in
a switch is connected. high-frequency circuits as the plac¬
Jack Switching. A very handy ing of the springs so close together
method of switching is provided by gives them high self capacity.
plugs and jacks. The plug, a typical Besides the ordinary jacks and
example of which is shown in Fig. plugs there are also what is known
385 below, consists of a bakelite as jack switches which embody the
handle holding a metal stem which same principles. One type is similar
has a small metal ball at one end. to the jack in the middle of the
The stem is insulated Iiom the ball. bottom row of switches in Fig. 372,
The jack is really
a socket into which
the plug fits. It
has one or more
springs which make
contact with the
ball or stem when
the plug is inserted.
The insertion of Fic. 385.—Typical Plug and Jack.
330
 SWITCHES AND SWITCHING
but a plunger takes
the place of the
plug. The switch
is operated by
moving the plunger
in or out.
Mains Switches.
With the advent
of mains - operated
receivers, the pro¬
vision of miniature
power switches
becomes necessary.
Obviously an or¬
dinary house-light¬
ing tumbler switch,
although quite ex¬
cellent for the purpose for which it burn them. If, however, the con¬
is designed, is entirely out of place tacts snap apart quickly the spark
on a radio receiver. is of such short duration as to do no
damage.
A very popular Q.M.B. (quick
make and break) switch is that
shown in Fig. 372, number 5. The
lower sketch is a sectional view
showing how it works. It is shown
in the "off" position. On moving
the pivoted toggle arm over to
"on," the other end of it which is
inside the switch moves over to
the right, compressing the spring.
F1C. 387.—Rotary Switch. When about half-way across the
spring is fully compressed. Any
further movement then makes its
However, smaller editions work¬ lower end, which is attached to a
ing on the tumbler principle have roller, jump from the right side to
been designed. An example is the left, so that the positions in¬
shown in Fig. 378. The essential side the switch are exactly reversed.
requirement of a mains switch is This means that the roller is now
that it will make and break the
circuit very quickly. This is be¬
cause with the power it is required INSULATED PEG
to handle there is a strong tendency
towards "arcing." This is the fat
flaming spark which occurs when a
power circuit is broken. If the two
contacts of the switch were parted
very slowly this spark would con¬
tinue to bridge the gap until they
were some small distance apart, CONNECTING LUGS
and during that time would badly Flc. 388.—Contact points of a Jack.

SSI
 SWITCHES AND SWITCHING — TANTALUM

SYNTHESIS. — The
building up of bodies by
the direct union of their
elements.
SYNTONY.— Two
tuned circuits are
said to be in syntony
ROTOR
when they are tuned
to the same fre¬
CONTACTS quency. Thus a
transmitter and receiver
are in syntony when the
ric. 389. Three-gang Tuning Coil with self-contained Switch. latter is correctly tuned
to the former. The
touching the shaped metal contact on word is also used to denote a balance
the left. Actually there are two of of tone in respect to loudspeaker re¬
these, and as the roller touches both production. (See also Resonance.)
they are therefore shorted, and so the SYSTO-
circuit is "made.” Returning the FLEX.— An
toggle arm to the right again makes the insulated
spring and roller jump back to their tubing used
former positions. (See also Plug.)
SYLVANITE.— An ore of
tellurium.
SYMBOLS. — The signs
which are used in electrical
and wireless practice for cer¬
tain units and terms.
SYNCHRONOUS.— In step; occur¬
ring at the same time; simultaneous. Fic. 391.—
Another form of
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR.— Speed Rotary Switch.

of Rotor= R.P.M. = where f=

n for carrying wires in a wireless re-
frequency, n = no. oí teeth on rotor.
ceiver. It consists of a plaited cotton
fabric which is insulated.
LAMP

T CODE.— See abbreviations,

p. vii.
T AERIAL.— An aerial in which
the leading-in wire is taken from
SWITCH
the centre of the horizontal por¬
tion. It is essential that the lead-
in is joined to the electrical centre
if full efficiency is to be obtained.
TANK.— The term applied to the
BATTE RY BATTERY band-setting condenser used in a
short-wave tuner in which band-
spread tuning is employed.
Fig. 390. How the on-off Switch functions. TANTALUM.— A pentad metal-
332
 TANTALUM TAPE MACHINE
lie element. Symbol—Ta. The metal discs of sheet metal 2 in. in diameter.
is obtained by heating the fluotanta- One disc is fixed to a wooden centre,
late of potassium or sodium with i in. in diameter and J in. thick.
metallic sodium in a covered iron Two brackets, 2J x J in., are cut from
crucible. When cool it is washed mild steel, drilled to take a j-in. wire
out with water. It is a black powder, axle and fixed on the base with ^-in.
insoluble in sulphuric, nitric, hy¬ wood screws. Each piece of the reel
drochloric or even nitrohydrochloric is now drilled to take the axle and
acids, but is slowly dissolved in warm mounted between the brackets. A
aqueous hydrofluoric acid. It
is dissolved very rapidly when
nitric acid is present.
TAPE MACHINE FOR RE¬
CORDING MORSE.—This ma¬
chine is interesting to use and
make ; also, it is a great help
to the Morse-code learner, for
by its aid one is able to send
messages and then correct
them from the tape. A motor,
either clockwork or electric, is
required to draw the paper past the roll of tape is mounted by removing
brush (see Fig. 393). This can be the reel, slipping the paper on to it and
taken from an old alarm clock, and replacing; the paper is then threaded
will serve the purpose admirably. through the two tubes and between
The balance wheel and escapement the gears.
should be removed, and the paper The Coils. Obtain two 1 x ¿-in.
threaded between the teeth of the carriage bolts and file the heads flat.
second and third gears. This gives Cut two discs of cardboard 1 in. in
a fairly good speed—the motor run¬ diameter, put one on each bolt, and
ning from four to five minutes with press it close up to the head (see
one wind. Fig. 395)- For a yoke cut a piece of
The Base. Commence the
construction by cutting a base
Jix5xf in., and mounting
the motor, by means of
brackets, as shown in Figs. 392
and 393. The guide tubes
through which the tape passes
are made by cutting two pieces
Fla. 393.—Side view.
of sheet zinc, and folding
them to the given shape (see Fig. mild steel 1 x 2J in., and drill two
394). The first piece is mounted so holes to take the bolts i| in. apart.
that the paper passes from it and im¬ Slip this on to the bolts, screw on the
mediately between the teeth of the nuts, and wind the bolts with 24
gears. The second is fixed before the D.C.C. wire. The coils should be
brush and in line with the first. The wound in opposite directions, leaving
paper tapes used are carnival about 3 in. of wire at each end for
streamers, twenty of which may be connections. Mount the magnets by
obtained for twopence. A reel to means of j-in. nails through the
hold the tape is made by cutting two corners of the yoke, cutting a hole
333
 TAPE MACHINE
in the base for the nuts (see Fig. key and see that the brush just
396). Connect the ends of the coils touches the paper. Ink the brush by
to two terminals on the base. The transferring ink to it by means of a
armature is a strip of mild steel larger and thicker brush. Wind up
4J X $ in., drilled at each end to take the motor and tap out a message,
J-in. wood screws. The brush holder which should come through the ma¬
chine as a series of long and short
marks on the tape. A relay must be
used when the wiring exceeds 20 yds.
in all; that is, both return and line
wire. Fig. 399 shows the connections
without a relay. Only one station is
shown, as the other is exactly simi¬
lar.
The relay, shown in Figs. 400 and
401, is an instrument by means of
which local circuits may be closed
from a distance. If the relay de-

F1C. 394.—Details of the Guide Tubes through which F1C. 396.—The method oí F1C. 397—The
the Tape passes. mounting the Magnets. Brush Holder.

(see Fig. 397) is a piece of wood scribed here is carefully made, it

2J X J X J in., fixed on the steel strip. will be sensitive to currents of the
The brush is held in position by order of 20 milliamperes.
means of a ¿-in. round-headed wood The Magnet. The magnet is a
screw. The armature is bent as shown carriage bolt mounted on a 3I x 5 j x
in Figs. 392 and 393, and mounted on ¿-in. base, as in the tape machine.
the base so that the hole in the brush The top disc of cardboard is ij in.
holder comes above the paper strip. in diameter and the bottom metal
The brush, an ordinary water-colour plate 2¿xiJ in. The magnet is
one with the handle cut off, is fixed wound with No. 32 S.W.G. wire, the
in the holder so that, when the arma¬ ends of which are connected to two
ture is pressed down on to the mag- terminals on the base. The armature
is a strip of metal, cut from a cocoa
tin 4I x § in., with a |-in. hole drilled
in each end. A small nut is soldered
over one hole, so that a bolt will
easily screw through it. The strip is
bent, as shown, and fixed to the base
FlC. 395.—Showing how the Magnets are wound. with a small nail and a screw eye
to act as a terminal. The bridge
nets, it just touches the paper. Now which carries the screw to adjust the
make the tapper key, as shown in tension of the armature is a 4 x f-in.
Fig. 398. strip of mild steel fixed on the base
Testing the Instrument. To test with small wood screws (see Fig. 402).
the instrument connect it up to two The tension screw is a 1 x J-in. bolt,
dry cells and a tapper key. Press the which screws through a nut soldered
334
 TAPE MACHINE — TAPPING
in the centre of the bridge. The and the previous constructional notes,
armature is one terminal of the local control relays to suit any particular
circuit and the magnet the other. piece of apparatus he has in mind.
The bottom plate of the magnet is Relays, as stated before, are actu¬
connected to a terminal on the base. ated by a weak electric current, and
The Line Current. When a current can be used to operate a switch in a
flows through the magnet coil of the local battery.
TAPPER.—The key used for trans¬
mitting Morse signals by completing
the circuit. Usually consists of a solid
brass bar furnished with a substan¬
Fig. 398.—The Tapper Key. tial ebonite knob. It is pivoted to¬
wards the centre, and the rear is held
relay, the armature is drawn down down by an adjustable spring. A
until the bolt in the end comes into
contact with the magnet. This closes
the local circuit.
The relay is connected as in Fig.
403, only one action being shown, as
the other is exactly similar. Two
dry cells should be used in the line Fig. 400-—Side view of the Relay Instru-
ment.
circuit, and two more to operate the
tape machine. The tapper key con¬ contact is fitted below the knob,
sists of a 4 X |-in strip of springy and upon depressing the knob the
brass mounted on a 5 x 2-in. base. circuit is completed, or if desired, the
circuit may be continuous, and
the depression of the knob may
break the circuit. The spring
pulls the arm up when pressure is
removed, and by this means the
dots and dashes of the Morse code
may be transmitted, a sharp thrust
downwards producing a dot, and
a slightly sustained pressure pro¬
ducing the dash.
TAPPING.—The introduction of
a lead into a coil, resistance, etc.
Wherever a current is flowing, and
A bridge is fixed over the key, so that
when it is not in use the two make
good contact. The end of the key is
always connected to the line wire,
while the bridge is connected to the
instrument, and the lower contact to
the battery.
It is possible, by means of remote
control relays such as those described a lead is introduced to provide an
elsewhere, to control electrical ap¬ alternative path, a tapping is made.
paratus from a distance, and the Examples are in the introduction of
reader will no doubt be able to de¬ the aerial lead into a tuning coil;
vise, from the information in this insertion of plugs into a battery

335
 TAPPING — TELEPHONE TRANSFORMER

TELELOGOSCOPY.— The trans¬

mission, by television, of writing or
written lines.

TELEPHONE.—A device for trans¬

mitting sounds over a distance.
Fic. 402.—The Bridge which carries the Screw to
adjust the tension oí the Armature. (From the Greek tele = afar; and
phone = a. sound.) The simplest
form of telephone consists of two
small tin tubes provided with a
membrane stretched across one
end. The membrane may con¬
sist of paper, skin, etc. From
the centre of the membrane a
string stretches to a similar ap¬
paratus. Any sounds made at
the mouth of one of these tins
will be conveyed, via the string,
to the other tin, and thus speech
may be carried on over the string.
Flc. 403.—The Wiring Circuit showing how the Relay is For best results the string must
connected. bestretched tightly. The electrical
telephone consists of an electro
which is provided with sockets at magnet, with a disc of soft iron fixed
different points; the moving arm of just in front of the pole piece of the
a filament resistance or potentio¬ magnet. The speech is uttered close
meter; the centre-point of a push- to the iron disc (which is known as
pull transformer. a “diaphragm”); it vibrates, and so
TELEFUNKEN.—The abbrevia¬ produces variations in the magnetic
tion or trade name of the large Ger¬ field. These variations may be con¬
man wireless concern, the full name veyed along a wire and passed
of which is Gesellschaft für drahtlose through a similar electro magnet at
Telegraphie m.b.H. The name is com¬ the other end. The variations in the
posed of the words "Funken,” which magnetic field at this end will vibrate
is the German plural of "Funk,” a the diaphragm, and in so doing will
spark, and "Tele,” which has the reproduce the sound. Philip Reis
same meaning as the English, namely was undoubtedly the first inventor of
"atar” (from the Greek tele). the electric telephone (1861). Graham
TELEGRAPH.—Any method of Bell perfected the device. A modern
communicating intelligence to a dis¬ form of telephone employs, instead
tance. (From the Greek tele = afar; of the electro magnet, a carbon-
grapho = to write.) The methods of granule microphone, in which granules
so communicating a message may be of carbon are caused to vibrate by
divided into three classes—audible, the speech sounds. The resistance
visible, and tangible. The electric of the circuit is varied as the pressure
telegraph may be audible or visible. upon the granules varies, and so the
In the first category we may employ variations may be carried along a
a sounder or buzzer (which see), or wire in the same manner as in the
other device; and in the second cate¬ previous example.
gory one may employ a lamp or simi¬ TELEPHONE TRANSFORMER.
lar device. —A transformer included in the
336
 TELEPHONE TRANSFORMER — TESTING A RECEIVER

FlC. 404.—Theoretical illustration oí Headphones and method of using phones with » mains set.

anode circuit of an output valve for tions as a transmitter, its operation

matching the impedance of the tele¬ being practically the reverse of that
phones. The ratio is designed so that of the normal cathode-ray tube.
normally high-reástance phones may The Iconoscope is the invention of
be employed. Dr. V. K. Zworykin, and is frequently
TELETRON.— Another name for a described as the “electric eye” due
cathode-ray tube. to the fact that it automatically con¬
TELEVISION.—The process of be¬ verts a light scene into its electrical
ing able to see (through the medium equivalent, thereby providing a sys¬
of electrical methods of transmission) tem of television transmission which
the reproduction of images of mov¬ is independent in any way upon me¬
ing, living, or stationary objects. chanical devices. It is the basis of
For fuller explanations of the high- the Emitron camera.
definition systems see Newnes Tele¬ TELLURIUM.— An element of
vision and Short-wave. Handbook rare occurrence found in a few
(uniform in style with the present minerals in association with gold,
volume), which also contains a sum¬ silver, and bismuth. Symbol—Te.
mary of the Television Committee's It possesses many of the characteris¬
Report. The television programmes tics of a metal, but bears so close a
are now transmitted on ultra-short resemblance to selenium in its chemi¬
waves of between 6 and 7 metres for cal properties that it is generally
both sound and vision, and of a de¬ placed in the sulphur group.
finition of 405 lines interlaced, 50 TESTING A RECEIVER.— Assume
frames per second. The following that the receiver gives out no signals
briefly explains modern high-defini- and both H.T. and L T. batteries
tion and low-definition systems. are O.K.
The Iconoscope. An instrument Disconnect the wire which is joined
very similar in construction and prin¬ to the detector valve-holder terminal
ciple to a cathode-ray tube. In place lettered " A ” or “ P.” Connect one
of the normal fluorescent screen, how¬ lead of a pair of headphones to the
ever, the end of the tube is covered terminal, and take the other lead
with a mosaic of minute photo-electric straight to H.T. positive 60. Switch
cells, each of which charges and dis¬ on the set and see if signals come
charges under the effect of light so through. If you can hear nothing
that the electron beam inside the tube at all tap the glass bulb of
is “modulated.” It will be seen the valve lightly with the tip of
from this that the Iconoscope func¬ your finger. If no noise is heard the
337
 TESTING A RECEIVER
valve is broken. To ascertain this tuning coil, and also the lead from
simply remove the valve and plug the tuning coil and/or condenser to
one of the other valves from the set the grid condenser. Join the aerial
in its place. Supposing that no terminal to the grid condenser, and
matter which valve you plug in you again observe whether signals come
can still hear nothing. Remove the in. If they do, then the tuning coil
wires which are joined to the “ F " is at fault. Supposing you hear
terminals of the valve holder, and nothing with this simple coil. Then
get two new pieces of wire and attach the grid condenser is broken inside.
them to the "F" terminals, and The reaction circuit consists of
straight on to the accumulator. If only a reaction condenser and coil,
the valve now works, then the fila¬ so that one can soon find any fault
ment wiring in the set or the leads arising here, and the absence of re¬
from the terminal strip down to the action, when the maximum H.T. is
accumulator are at fault. applied to the valve, will show that
With all leads of the flexible variety the reaction circuit is faulty.
having clamped-on spade connectors Now pass on to the first L.F. stage.
or similar devices, it often happens If, when one attached the phones to
that the wire gets broken, but the the anode terminal of the detector
connector is held in position by the valve, signals were heard quite O.K.,
cotton covering. then proceed as follows :
Now that leads have been checked Remove the lead joining the anode
over and found O.K., therefore terminal of the second valve, and
there only remain the connections join the phones to this as before
from the L.T. terminals on the set to described, taking one side of the
the valve holder and the terminals on phones direct to the H.T. battery in
the valve holder itself. order to eliminate any decoupling
Supposing when joining the ac¬ resistances or other parts included in
cumulator direct to the valve holder the anode circuit of the valve. If
nothing is heard in the phones. The signals are still quite in order pass
only lead left which can cause this on to the following valve, and so on.
trouble is the H.T. negative lead, If, however, nothing can be heard,
and if this is joined on the set to the first thing to do is to test the
one side of a fuse only, look at the valve. If it is O.K., then the only
fuse. If this is all right, remove the components used to couple the de¬
H.T. negative lead from the terminal tector valve to this one are the L.F.
strip and join it to the L.T. negative transformer or an R.C.C. unit. Sub¬
terminal. stituting another one is the easiest
Now take the case where on con¬ way of finding out what is wrong.
necting the phones no signals can If one cannot obtain substitutes, the
be heard, but the valve “ pings ” on primary and secondary windings of
tapping it. This shows that filament the L.F. transformer may be tested
and anode circuits are O.K. and the for breaks in the following way. Dis¬
trouble must lie in the tuning ar¬ connect all leads from the transformer
rangements. Try a different coil, or first of all, and then join one primary
if some complicated switching ar¬ terminal to the positive socket of a
rangement is used in the set, wind grid bias or pocket-lamp battery. To
or obtain a simple 6o-turn coil and the other primary terminal join one
connect one side of it to aerial and side of the phones. Now join the
one side to earth. Disconnect the other lead of the phones to one side
lead from the aerial terminal to the of a high resistance—such as a grid
338
 TESTING A RECEIVER — TONE CONTROL
leak—and the other side of the re¬ need some form of tone correction in
sistance should be carefully touched order to give a pleasing tone to the
to the ij-volt socket. If a scratching reproduction. Dealing first with the
sound can be heard in the phones then pentode, it may be stated that this
the primary is unbroken. If, however, gives over-emphasis to the higher
nothing can be heard, try the 3-volt notes, with the result that the tone
socket and gradually work upwards. sounds too shrill. Consequently we
Do not omit the resistance, and do not need a high-note cut-off to balance
apply too high a voltage. If nothing the reproduction, but as certain types
can be heard at 12 volts or so, then of orchestral music need more cut-off
the primary is broken. Test the than speech, for instance, the control
secondary similarly. should be variable so that it may be
TETRODE.—A 4-electrode valve. adjusted according to the item being
The screen-grid valve is a tetrode, received. The usual tone control for
having filament, screening grid, con¬ this type of valve is shown in Fig. A
trol grid, and anode. (p. 340), and it will be seen to con¬
THEREMIN PRINCIPLE.— This sist merely of a fixed condenser in
is the principle upon which the pro¬ series with a variable resistance, both
duction of electronic music is based. being joined across the output circuit.
This name is derived from the musician In this connection it should be re¬
Theremin. (See also Electronic Music.) membered that the H.T. positive side
THERMION.— Another name for of the speaker or output transformer
Electron (which see). (Also see Valve.) is at earth potential in relation to the
THREE-ELECTRODE VALVE.— anode, and accordingly it is quite in
See Valves Explained. order to join the tone control com¬
THYRATRON.—A gas-filled triode, ponents between the anode and earth
used for rectification, and in connec¬ as shown in Fig. B (p. 340).
tion with television time-based genera¬ The Q.P.P. arrangement utilises
tors. It is a registered trade-name either a double pentode or two
owned by the B.T.-H. Co. Ltd. separate pentodes in a push-pull cir¬
TIME BASE.—A circuit which em¬ cuit and accordingly a similar type of
ploys valves as a means of providing tone corrector may be employed. This
a periodic voltage across a pair of de¬ should be joined across the two
flector plates in a cathode-ray tube. anodes, which is, of course, across the
TIME SIGNAL.—The official Time output circuit, as shown in Fig C
Signal is that which is received from (p. 340). The resistor may be fixed
Greenwich Observatory. This is ac¬ or variable. In some cases it may be
curate to J^th sec., and Greenwich found that it is desirable to connect a
Mean Time is denoted by the last of fixed condenser permanently across
the six pips. With the Big Ben time this type of output stage and use the
signal, the first of the strokes indicates tone control arrangement already re¬
the hour. ferred to as an addition. In Fig. D
TONE CONTROL. — Practically (p. 340), therefore, 1 show this
every modern receiver contains a tone arrangement, and values suitable for
control, and apart from the value of the pentode tone corrector may be
this device to modify the balance of stated to be as follows. For the fixed
reproduction it often proves of use in condenser some value between -ooi
removing background noises when a and 05 mfd. is generally suitable,
long-distance station is being received. and for the resistor from 20,000 to
The pentode output valve, the Class B; 100,000 ohms. The shunt condenser
stage, and the Q P P. arrangement all in Fig. D (p. 340) should not gener-

339
ally be greater than -ooi mid. joined between the anode of the L.F.
In the Class B circuit such a com¬ valve and earth. The general principle
prehensive tone control is not needed, is shown in Fig. F (above), where it
and generally the tone is sufficiently is used in conjunction with the
well balanced if a fixed condenser standard resistance-capacity circuit.
shunts each anode. A value of -ooi Suitable values will depend upon the
mfd. up to 005 mid. will generally valve and the R.C. components, and
be found satisfactory, and they should again, up to -05 mfd. and up to
be placed as shown in Fig. E (above). 100,000 ohms are generally suitable.
The use of resistors on the input side A more comprehensive arrangement
is sometimes recommended with the for use in this stage is seen in Fig. G
Class B arrangement, but, generally (above), where, in addition to the
speaking, if the L.F. circuits are usual resistance and condenser a fixed
properly designed, a condenser filter condenser is permanently joined be¬
alone is adequate. tween anode and earth. This follows
Many modern receivers are being on the lines of Fig. D (above), and
provided with a tone control across a suitable value for the additional
the first L.F. stage. This usually condenser is 005 mfd.
takes the form of a condenser and All of the circuits so far described
resistance arrangement (similar to merely control the high notes, or, in
that used in the pentode circuit). other words, the brilliance, but a cir-
340
 TONE CONTROL — TRANSFORMER
cuit of great interest is seen in Fig. H Capacity. Frequency.
Mfd. Cycles
(p. 340), which is the arrangement o*i 500
employed in an H.M.V. receiver. In 0-07 600
0052 700
this, provision is made for bass at¬ 0-04 800
tenuation, brilliance attenuation and, 0-031 900
0025 1,000
in addition, a fixed tone corrector is o-on 1,500
employed. As will be seen, the bass 0-0063 2,000
00041 2,500
attenuator consists of a fixed resistor 0-0028 3,000
and condenser in series between the 0-0021 3,500
o-oo 16 4,000
anode of the penultimate stage and 000125 4,500
earth, and shunted across these two 0001 5,000
components is a variable resistor. The when it is in series with the choke
brilliance attenuation is effected by a the circuit is of the acceptor type.
fixed condenser and resistor across For the benefit of those to whom these
the grid circuit of the output valve, terms are not clear it may be ex¬
and the resistor is of the variable type plained that a rejector circuit pro¬
to effect the degree of brilliance at¬ vides maximum voltage at the reson¬
tenuation desired. ant frequency, whilst the acceptor
The fixed tone corrector in this cir¬ gives minimum voltage at the resonant
cuit is a fixed condenser and resistor frequency. Thus to eliminate needle
coupled between the grid and anode scratch, for instance, an acceptor cir¬
of the output valve. The separate cuit would be needed, and 4,000 cycles
circuits are indicated by varying line is generally regarded as the frequency
thickness in Fig. H (p. 340), and the of needle and surface noise, which
values used by H.M.V. are given. means that an acceptor circuit made
In addition to the usual arrange¬ up from the complete choke winding
ments shown, it is possible to employ and a -0016 mfd. condenser would
chokes and other components in be needed.
special circuits, and in this connection TONIC TRAIN.— A process of sig¬
it should be remembered that there is nalling in which interrupted continu¬
a special tone control choke consist¬ ous waves are employed. The inter¬
ing of a tapped winding with a total ruptions are generally provided by
inductance of 3 henries. This in¬ using a valve fed with an interrupted
ductance naturally varies according to source of high tension. Obsolete.
the current flowing through it, and TRANSCEIVER. — A combined
to preserve the maximum value it transmitter and receiver.
should be so arranged in circuit that TRANSFORMER.— A combination
no D.C. flows. This may easily be of two inductances so arranged that
done by using the normal filter circuit A.C. currents in one winding will in¬
arrangement. In this choke tappings duce currents in the other winding.
have been provided to give inductance There are three principal types of
values of 0'5, 1, 15, 2, and 25 henries, transformer employed in wireless re¬
and the resonant frequency of the ceivers: high-frequency transformers,
choke with various values of con¬ low-frequency transformers, and mains
denser are shown in the accompany¬ transformers. High-frequency trans¬
ing table. formers consist simply of coils of wire,
Suitable circuit arrangements are of which either the primary or the
shown in Figs. J and K (p. 340), secondary may be tuned. The coup¬
and it should be noted that when the ling is so tight that the effect of
condenser is in parallel with the choke tuning one circuit is the same as
the circuit is of the rejector type, and tuning both. The relation between the
341
 TRANSFORMER — TRANSFORMER WINDINGS
windings, or, in other words, the ratio, transformation ratio of 100 to 1,000
is governed by the type of valve with or i to 10.
which it is used. The low-frequency Primary turns Primary E.M.F.
transformer consists of a similar ar¬ Secondary turns — SecondaryElMJL
rangement, with the inclusion of a T ransformation
core of iron to increase the inductance.
Ratio
The two windings may be wound one
(See also Low-frequency Couplings.)
on top of the other or side by side.
TRANSFORMER WINDINGS.—
The mains transformer consists of a
It is particularly when two low-
similar arrangement, except that the
frequency stages are employed that
primary is wound for inclusion in the
it is necessary to limit the gain in
A.C. mains circuit, and in place of
individual stages to avoid overload¬
one secondary, several secondaries are
ing the next valve. The type of out¬
employed, to give voltage supplies
put valve employed is another im¬
for heating the heaters of indirectly
portant factor. If the output valve
heated valves. One secondary wind¬
is a small-power valve, or a small
ing is provided for the purpose of
pentode, both of which are intended
giving the H.T. supply. L.F. trans¬
to give the greatest output reason¬
formers generally have a step-up ratio
ably possible from comparatively
of from i to i to i to 8; the most
small grid inputs, the previous stage
usual ratio is r to 5. Particulars of
or stages of amplification must be
an L.F. transformer having a ratio of
kept within bounds. Generally speak¬
i to 5 are as follow:
ing, a modern detector stage followed
Primary winding—3,500 turns of 40
by a 3} to 1 transformer is quite
S.W.G. S.S.C. copper wire (1 oz.).
adequate to load fully the average
Secondary winding—17,500 turns
small power or pentode valve. If
of 47 S.W.G. enamelled copper wire
the detector is preceded by one or
(1J oz.). (See Fig. 226c.)
more high-frequency stages, it will
Bobbin—J in. external diameter
probably also be able to load a super¬
tube; ’ in. internal diameter; i$ in.
power valve, if coupled by a 3} to 1
long; flanges i| in. diameter, j in.
transformer. If no high-frequency
thick.
stage is employed, the detector can
The iron core should be built up of
be coupled to a super-power valve
narrow strips or laminations of stalloy
through a high-ratio transformer, or
iron. The magnetic circuit is closed
a further low-frequency stage may be
by similar strips on either side of the
interposed between the detector and
windings, parallel to the core. These
the super-power valve, the coupling
two strips are yoked together by
in each case being a low-ratio trans¬
shorter strips at right angles. Each
former.
strip should be enamelled. Fifteen
In the case of an output valve,
strips will be required for the core,
it is not merely a voltage drop
eight strips each for the two sides,
in the anode circuit which is re¬
and 16 yoke strips, Ain. wide.
quired, but an appreciable amount
TRANSFORMER COUPLING.— of power which can be used to operate
See Low-frequency Couplings. the loudspeaker. This amount of
TRANSFORMER RATIOS.— The power can be measured by multiply¬
usual ratio of primary turns to ing the alternating voltage drop across
secondary turns is spoken of as the the load by the alternating component
transformation ratio; thus a trans¬ of the anode current. The load in
former with 100 primary turns and this case is, of course, the speaker
1,000 secondary turns would have a winding, or the primary winding of
342
 TRANSFORMER WINDINGS TRANSMISSION

the output transformer, if one is used, there is a danger of overloading the

or by the combined circuit provided first L.F. valve.
by the output choke and the speaker The usual markings of the ter¬
winding in a choke output circuit. minals of L.F. transformers now are
As the result of numerous careful P, HT, -G, and GB. These should
calculations, confirmed by actual mea¬ be connected respectively to the plate,
surements, it has been established high tension, grid, and grid bias. If
that, for most three-eleetrode output one of the older types of transformer
valves of the types chiefly used by is used this will be marked IP, OP,
amateur listeners, the optimum (or IS, and OS. These correspond re¬
best) value of the load impedance is spectively to plate, H.T., G.B., and
of the order of twice the valve resist¬ grid.
ance. The value is not very critical, Where it is thought desirable to
and the usual range of speaker im¬ avoid the direct current flowing
pedances covers most practical re¬ through the primary of the trans¬
quirements. An exception must be former, it should be parallel fed.
made in the case of pentode-output This means that the terminal marked
valves, the optimum loads for which H.T. should be joined to earth. The
are usually considerably higher than terminal marked P fed via a fixed
those for triodes of equivalent out¬ condenser of up to 2 mfds. to the
put. For most types, loads of plate of the valve, and the high
approximately 8,000 ohms are recom¬ tension applied to the plate through
mended, but some of the new low- an anode resistance of a value about
consumption pentodes work economic¬ four times the impedance of the
ally with still bigger load impedances, valve. (See also Low-frequency Coup-
of the order of 15,000 ohms. lin °s .)
Some of the larger " high-voltage ” TRANSIENTS.— Sudden climaxes
output valves, also, give their best in music exemplified by cymbal
performance with loads very much clashes, final chords, etc. Other effects
greater than twice the valve resistance. heard on the radio which come with¬
in the description of transients are
TRANSFORMING A.C.—See Ac¬
pistol shots, slamming doors, etc.
cumulator.
Sudden effects such as these require
TRANSFORMERS, LOW - FRE¬ that the grid circuits of the broad¬
QUENCY.—The ratio of the trans¬ cast receiver shall be designed to en¬
former should be chosen according to able the sudden current change to be
the position it occupies in the re¬ reproduced, and therefore, generally
ceiver. If only one stage of L.F. is speaking, a condenser should not be
employed this may conveniently be included in this part of the circuit if
one of the high-ratio transformers, maximum response on transients is
say 7 to 1. If, however, a pentode required.
is used and you are situated near to TRANSMISSION.—The act of
a powerful broadcasting station, this generating high-frequency oscillations
will result in overloading the pentode, and feeding them into an aerial cir¬
so in this case do not use a higher cuit so that the currents flowing in
ratio than 5 to 1. the aerial will set up similar impulses
If more than one L.F'. stage is used, in the ether. The method of generat¬
the first transformer should be of ing oscillations is exactly the same
medium ratio, say 3 to 1, and the as tightening up the reaction control,
second of 4 or 5 to 1. If you place and Fig. 427 illustrates a simple one-
the transformers the other way round valve set employing two coils for
343
 TRANSMISSION TRANSMISSION UNIT
aerial tuning and reaction. When a microphone transformer are the
the two coils are brought close to¬ essentials required, and the secondary
gether oscillation occurs due to the of the transformer (which should have
feeding back of the energy from the a step-up ratio) is joined in the grid
anode circuit to the grid circuit. To circuit at the point marked Y. The
employ this energy for transmitting microphone is joined in series with
purposes it is necessary to ensure that the primary of the transformer, and
it shall be passed into the aerial, and to complete this part of the circuit a
therefore the aerial and earth con¬ battery is necessary.
nections are changed round. Fig. 427 shows how this microphone
Fig. 427 shows practically the circuit may be completed by using
same circuit arrangements, with the the accumulator which supplies the
exception that the aerial is now filament of the valve, and also the
joined to the anode instead of to the method of including the secondary
grid, and the earth connection is in the grid circuit. The value of the
taken from the other end of the re¬ condenser across the secondary must
action coil. (The phones are natur¬ be fairly carefully chosen in conjunc¬
ally removed.) This method of tion with the secondary winding and
connection ensures that the maxi¬ the frequencies which it is desired to
mum current which the valve is transmit. It is also advisable to
capable of generating is fed into the shunt the H.T. supply with a large
aerial circuit, and if a milliammeter condenser. This method of employ¬
is inserted in series with the anode ing a microphone is not efficient,
coil a reading of the anode current although it is the simplest method,
is obtained. If this current (ex¬ and in actual modern practice a
pressed as a decimal fraction of an separate valve is used for the micro¬
amp.) is multiplied by the voltage phone, and this is wired up to form
of the high-tension battery, the figure what is known as the "Modulator”
obtained will express the power of circuit. It is arranged so that part
the transmitter in watts. of the aerial energy is absorbed ac¬
This circuit is the basic arrange¬ cording to the speech currents in the
ment of all transmitters, and it is grid circuit of the modulator valve.
only necessary now to insert a key The first valve generates the oscilla¬
for the transmission of Morse signals, tions (known as the " Carrier Wave "),
or a microphone for the transmission and the second valve modulates these
of speech or music. The most effi¬ oscillations.
cient way of breaking the circuit is It should be pointed out here that
to disconnect the wire linking the on no account must any experiments
batteries, and therefore a tapping key in transmission be carried out without
should be inserted at the point the sanction of the Postmaster-
marked X. When the key is de¬ General, and a transmitting licence
pressed the circuit is completed and must be obtained before any attempts
oscillations will be present in the at transmission are undertaken.
aerial circuit. As soon as the key TRANSMISSION UNIT.—A mea¬
is released the oscillations will cease. sure of strength of sound evolved by
The signals of the Morse code may telephone engineers. The unit is now
therefore be easily transmitted. For used in radio and talkie work to
speech, the oscillations must be con¬ indicate the strength of loudspeaker
tinuous in the aerial circuit, and the outputs. The transmission unit is
speech currents superimposed upon usually expressed as T.U. or Db,
those oscillations. A microphone and which is the abbreviation of Decibel,
344
Figs. 426 and 427.—A l-Valve Transmitter, with circuit showing how it differs from a I »Valve Receiver*
P.W.E.—M 345
 TRANSMITTER — TRICKLE CHARGER
another name for it. (See also country many localities where elec¬
Decibel.) trical energy from the mains is avail¬
TRANSMITTER.—The sending able only in the form of direct current,
station. This may employ spark, and quite a large number of listeners
tonic train, or speech as the method therefore will be interested in the
of communication. Whatever method details given here for a useful home¬
of communication is used, the prin¬ charging station for low-tension ac¬
ciple is the same, namely, oscillating cumulators. Remember, the trickle
currents are introduced into the aerial charger described in this section is
circuit of the transmitter. suitable for use on direct-current
TRANSPORTABLE SETS.— This mains only. Now, anyone using an
term is applied to receivers which accumulator knows, or should know.
that to attain the maximum
F1C. 428.—Theoretical Grcuit show- —
ing arrangement oí Charger. At the useful life an accumulator
bottom of the diagram are the two pairs , , should never be fully dis¬
oí terminals for connection to the re¬
ceiver and the accumulator. From these charged (or run "right
terminals connections are down”), and that recharg¬
made to the centre and one
side oí a double-pole double- ing must be carried out
throw switch. From the y \ regularly and at the correct
rate. These, then, being
the essentials to the attain¬
ment of a healthy old age
in an accumulator, those
contemplating recharging at
home should consider the
advantages of the trickle
charger herein described,
namely : (a) the accumulator
is never "run down,” but
is always in a fully charged
condition ; (b) the recharg¬
ing process is carried out
regularly and automatically ;
(c) the charging rate is ad¬
RECEIVER ACCUMULATOR. justable to suit the condi¬
other side of the switch connection is made with the mains tions under which the ac¬
fllug by meaos oí a flex lead, in the positive leg of which the
amp L is inserted. cumulator is being oper¬
ated.
are self-contained, but which are too Further, the actual constructional
large to be really "portable.” They cost is negligible. Now, look at the
usually contain all batteries, or mains theoretical diagram (Fig. 428), and
apparatus, in addition to the loud¬ it will be seen how extremely simple
speaker and aerial. They are very the device actually is. It is, more¬
convenient for carrying from room to over, absolutely foolproof in use.
room, or, in the case of battery- A Lamp Resistance. —Current is
operated receivers, for taking out in taken from the mains, a resistance
the country in a car. being inserted in the positive lead
TREMBLER.—The vibrating reed which regulates the rate of the
of a sounder (which see). charge. This resistance is conveni¬
TRICKLE CHARGER FOR D.C. ently obtainable by the use of a suit¬
MAINS.— There still remain in this ably sized electric lamp. (The actual
346
 TRICKLE CHARGER FOR D.C. MAINS
size of lamp required will be dealt (3) decide how many hours each night
with later.) The charging current is the charger shall have in which to do
applied through a double-pole change- its work. Now multiply the first
over switch to a pair of terminals figure by the second figure, and the
marked “accumulator.” and these result is the number of ampere-hours
are capable of connection via the taken from the accumulator in one
opposite side of the switch to another day. Divide this result by the third
pair of terminals marked “receiver." figure, and it will give the amount of
The “accumulator” terminals are current needed to replace the full
for connection to the accumulator, charge in the accumulator in one
and the ' 1 receiver ’ ’ terminals are night. This last figure is now multi¬
joined to the
L.T. terminals
on the set.
Itnsquiteclear
then that with
the change-over
switch in one
position the
accumulator is
receiving the
charging c u r -
rent, and with
the switch in the
reverse position
the accumula¬
tor is connected
F1C. 429.—The Baseboard
to your set for and Lamp-holder support. Cut
ordinary s e r - these from wood Lin. thick to
the dimensions given in the diagram. The position of the lamp-bold, r is shown at A.
vice. Once these
connections have been made nothing plied by the voltage of the mains,
has to be disconnected again in use, and a figure representing the size of
all that it is necessary to do being the lamp in watts is obtained.
to operate the switch before retiring Example:
at night and reversing it again in the (1) Total current consumed by
morning, the charging of the accumu¬ valves = 3 amp.
lator having been properly carried out
(2) Number of hours set is used per
during the night. day = 6.
Finding the Resistance. Now one
•3x6 = 1-8 amp. hr.
will want to know what resistance—
in this case the actual size of electric (3) Number of hours charger is used
lamp—will be necessary to obtain the in one night = 9.
correct rate of charge to suit the con¬ 1-8 -~ 9 = 2 amp.
ditions under which one’s own ac¬ Voltage of supply mains = 200.
•2 X 200 = 40 watts.
cumulator is used.
This is quite easily arrived at in If the figures applicable to a listener’s
the following way: (1) make sure own case give a result of an odd
of the total filament current con¬ nature, such as 28 watts for example,
sumed by the valves in the set ; a lamp of the next larger size avail¬
(2) decide approximately how many able (30 watts) should be used.
hours each day the set is in use ; The Components Required. One
347
 TRICKLE CHARGER FOR D.C. MAINS
double - pole double - throw mains support as at B in Fig. 430, to allow
switch, 4 terminals (2 marked —, clearance for the connecting wires to
2 marked +), 1 batten-type electric go behind the holder.
lamp holder. The lamp holder can now be
It is essential that the switch be a fixed, so screw the support firmly
good one suitable for mains use, and to the base in the recess allowed for
as the cost of the charger is so it. Extra rigidity is ensured by fix¬
moderate a good quality lamp holder ing in a small angle block, when the
and terminals of the standard in¬ assembly will appear as in Fig. 430.
sulated type should be used. Next prepare the two ebonite
In addition two panels. They can be cut out
small pieces of of a panel 7x6 in. The neces¬
ebonite, some ply¬ sary holes for mounting the
wood or hardwood switch will depend upon the par¬
J in. thick, and suf¬ ticular make of component
ficient sheet metal purchased. Apart from this, all
to make a cover for the dimensions will be found in
the unit will be Fig- 4^9-
Mount the switch and ter¬
minals on their panel, and screw
both pieces of ebonite
into their recesses in the
base. Proceed with the
wiring by reference to
Fig- 431. Connections
from the terminals to the
Fie. 430.— switch are easily made
The Base and with the usual kind of
Lamp Bracket as¬
sembled. The groove insulated connecting
allows the necessary clearance for wire, soldered joints be¬
the Hex leads to the back of the lamp-holder.
ing the best if one is
required. Some insulated connecting "happy” with the soldering iron.
wire and a length of flex to connect Now make the connection from one
with the mains plug one probably contact of the lamp holder to the
has already. Proceed with the con¬ appropriate point on the switch.
struction by cutting the base and This is more easily done with a single
lamp-holder support from j-in. thick piece of well-insulated flex. Now
wood to the dimensions given in join up the long length of flex, one
Fig. 429. If desired, there is no lead to the remaining point on the
reason why one should not depart switch and the other lead to the un¬
from these dimensions, but be sure used contact of the lamp holder.
to allow sufficient room for the lamp The other end of the flex is passed
being used. The sizes given in the through the hole in the middle of
diagram allow for any size lamp the smaller ebonite panel and con¬
up to 60 watts, and, although nected with the mains plug or
one may not have to use such a big adapter.
lamp, it is wise to allow for it. There now remains to be made the
One may have a larger receiver metal cover, which is a protection
later, and would then need to use a and gives the unit that well-finished
bigger lamp. appearance the majority desire
Cut a groove across the lamp-holder these days. The material used to
348
 TRICKLE CHARGER FOR D.C. MAINS

Fig. 431.—Tie Iwo smalt Ebonite Panels. Cut from a 7 X 6-in. panel and dril'- asshown, the four
holes in the lar ser piece being of suitable size for large insulated terminals. In addition the neces¬
sary mounting holes for the switch must be made on the centre line shown on the panel.

construct the cover can

be of one’s own choice,
tinned iron sheet being
about the least expen¬
sive.
If the given dimensions
have been followed up
to this point, do so again
for the cover as shown
in Fig. 433. Mark out
on the metal sheet very 0
carefully as shown and
drill all the holes. The 0
large holes are for the
purpose of coaling and $
are therefore essential.
% 0 $
After cutting out with <0
shears and tr-mming up Fig. 432.—The fin¬
as neatly as possible, ished cover. Solder
along the joints X at
the bends, indicated by dotted lines each end.
in Fig. 433, are made, and the joints
349
 W +
oooo OOOO
oooo
IW

^OOOOOOO oooo
oooo
6ií
oooo OOOOOOO
OOOOOOO
OOOOOOO holes! Vf OIA 4
OOOOOOG ! CENTRES SPACED %'

oooo
35°

OOOOOOO
oooo 9000000 . oooé
H*-
ooo^i j—©000

SCREW HOLES
W DIA

Fig. 433. The Sheet-metal Cover. Cut out and drill as shown then bend along the dotted lines.
 TRICKLE CHARGER — TUNING COILS

of the three flaps forming the op¬ parallel. This method gives the
posite sides of the cover soldered. greatest amplification, but unfortun¬
These joints are marked " X " in Fig. ately usually results in instability.
432, which shows the finished cover. To overcome this, the coil is usually
Do not connect up the accumulator tapped at the electrical centre, and
yet, as the charger is not ready for this tapping is joined to the H.T.
use until the polarity of the mains source, whilst the low potential end
has been arranged to correspond with of the coil is connected back to the
that given in Fig. 428. grid of the valve via a small con¬
To do this put the charger switch denser. This is known as a Neutral¬
in the "charge” position and plug ised, or Centre-tapped, Tuned Anode
into the mains and switch the cur¬ arrangement. (See also Neutrodyne.)
rent on. The pair of terminais TUNED-GRID COUPLING. — A
marked "accumulator” must now be method of H.F. coupling character¬
tested with pole-finding paper. ised by including a H.F. choke in
Having discovered the polarity of the anode of the valve, and feeding
these terminals, if it happens to cor¬ the anode via a small fixed condenser
respond with the markings on them to one side of a tuned circuit. This
all is well and good. If the polarity side of the circuit is also joined,
differs, however, the matter must be through the appropriate condenser,
put right by reversing the mains plug. to the grid of the fallowing valve.
This done, switch off and connect The other end of the tuned circuit
the accumulator and receiver. is joined to earth. This is sometimes
TRIMMERS.— Small pre-set con¬ also called " Parallel Tuned Anode."
densers fitted to ganged variable con¬ TUNED-PLATE CIRCUIT.—The
densers and wired in parallel with each same as tuned anode circuit, anode
section. They are used to balance out and plate being the same thing.
the uneven capacities formed between TUNER.—The term applied to a
the connecting wires. closed oscillatory circuit. The coil
TRIODE.— The'3-electrode valve. with its parallel condenser which is
TRIODE-PENTODE.—This is a included in a receiver for tuning.
frequency changer consisting of a tri¬ TUNGAR RECTIFIER.—See Ac¬
ode and a pentode the pentode sec¬ cumulator.
tion operating as a first detector and TUNING COIL.— An inductance
the triode as an oscillator. External coil used in conjunction with a vari¬
mixing arrangements must be pro¬ able condenser for bringing a circuit
vided when this valve is used, as in in resonance with a frequency which
the case of two separate valves. it is desired to receive. (See also
TRITET.—Term used to describe a Coil, Iron-core Tuning Coils, Band¬
popular transmitting circuit employing pass Tuning, and Permeability Tun¬
a pentode valve, sc connected to pro¬ ing)
vide a triode-tetrode combination. TUNING COILS. — When the
T.S.F.— The French abbreviation honeycomb or basket type of plug-in
for wireless. The three words are coil was in popular use. practically
"Télégraphie sans Fils” (telegraphy every experimenter made his own set
without wires). of coils. Such coils often required
TUNED-ANODE COUPLING.—A special formers for their construction,
method of coupling high-frequency and not a little patience was required
valves characterised by including in in winding them These facts are
the anode circuit of the valve a coil mentioned to show a contrast with
with a tuning condenser joined in present practice, for now almost every
351
 TUNING COILS
constructor buys a ready-made tuner factors as the number of turns, gauge
without thinking twice about it. Good of wire required, and so on, let us
tuners can now be purchased very consider the primary requirements of
cheaply, but even so it costs still less tuners for different purposes. In de¬
to make them. Besides, the making of signing a tuner for a simple non-S.G.
a tuner provides a fascinating addition receiver of the Det.-L.F. class, the
to the usual process of mere com¬ size of the complete unit is not of
ponent assembly, and gives a deeper great consequence, but in a set hav¬
insight into the working of the set. It ing one or more screened-grid stages,
is true that anything which tends to it is very desirable to keep each
drive home in a practical manner the tuning unit to the smallest dimen¬
principles upon which one’s receiver sions compatible with efficiency. The
works is particularly stimulating to reason for keeping down dimensions

F1C. 434.—Constructional details of a Tuner made on an eight-ribbed 21-in, diameter Ebonite Former. All
turns are wound in the same direction.

one’s interest in radio, the finest of action and feed-back between the
all hobbies. But that is not all, for various tuning circuits. As many con¬
after making one tuner one is sure structors are aware, the magnetic field
to make another; comparison is the created by a coil can easily extend
next step, and the reason for the to six times the size of the coil
superiority of one leads on to a spirit itself. And it will be clear that when
of inquiry. That soon causes the the ‘ ' fields " of two coils overlap
active mind to draw conclusions and each other there will be a feed-back
to develop ideas, and no one can say or reaction effect between the coils
to what goal those ideas will event¬ concerned. The reaction might not
ually lead. They cannot do other in all cases be harmful, but in many
than achieve some successful results, it will cause uncontrollable oscilla¬
and it may be that an entirely orig¬ tion; at any rate, it will not be under
inal system of tuning might be the direct control, and should therefore
outcome. be avoided. Of course, we can pre¬
The First Essentials of Coil Design. vent the magnetic field from ” run¬
Before deciding upon such vital ning wild," as it were, by enclosing
352
 TUNING COILS

Fie. 435.—Three methods of connecting the Tuner shown in Tig. 434 into a Detector Circuit.

the coil within a metal screening com¬ tion, which will result in instability.
partment, but even then the small A Tuner for Det.-L.F. Sets. As
coil has the advantage ol enabling explained above, there is no need
the receiver to be made more com¬ to restrict the dimensions of a tuner
pact. It might be argued that a required for a non-S.G. receiver. In
larger coil is more efficient, since it general, it will be found most con¬
can be wound with heavier gauge venient to employ a former from
wire having a low resistance. Whilst 2 in. to 3 in. in diameter by some 4
this is true of a coil to be used in, in. long. The former may consist of
say, a crystal set where reaction can¬ well-shellacked cardboard, paxolin, or
not be applied, it is not so in any ebonite, but the latter is usually to
other case. be preferred. Fig. 434 gives all con¬
The application of reaction (by which structional details of an excellent
is meant legitimate reaction which is tuner made on an eight-ribbed
fully under control) gives to a coil a ebonite former in. in diameter by
result equivalent to ' ‘ negative re¬ 3| in. long; a number of J-in. deep
sistance,” and so when reaction is slots are made in it, as can be seen.
employed a comparatively high initial The slots are most easfly made in a
resistance is of little consequence. lathe, but where such a machine is
When a coil is screened its measured not available a small warding file
efficiency is reduced, but, as has been can be used. In the latter case it
already seen, screening is often a will be found very helpful to bind
practical essential. Even this factor a piece of wire round the former to
does not cause one to experience any act as a guide in keeping all slots in
qualms, because the loss can again line. The winding process is not diffi¬
be restored by the use of reaction if cult, but care should be taken in
necessary. This is not always neces¬ putting on the single layer winding to
sary, however, because one does not keep a good tension on the wire. To
generally want a coil which is “ too ” anchor the ends of the winding, a
efficient, paradoxical as this may pair of i^-in. holes should be drilled,
seem. One which is too efficient, if and the wire threaded through.
used in a highly efficient S.G. circuit, The numbers of turns indicated in
will provide too great an amplifica¬ the drawing assume the use ol
P.W.E.— M' 353
 TUNING COILS
enamelled or single silk-covered wire, (the medium-wave centre tap), and a
which is thinner than, other kinds. simple on-off switch serves for wave
It will be noticed that both long¬ changing by short circuiting the long¬
wave and medium-wave windings are wave winding. The other centre tap¬
centre tapped by making a loop in ping, c.t.2, is not used at all, being
the wire and passing it through a hole left disconnected. Reaction is ob¬
in the former. Connections from the tained by means of a -oooj-mfd. re¬
various fapping points can be made action condenser wired between one
in two or three ways. One way end of the reaction coil and earth. A
is to attach terminals round one H.F. choke of sound design is neces¬
end of the former and another is to sary in the detector anode circuit.
bring them out to valve pins on a This particular circuit gives good
six-pin base. Yet another is to bring selectivity on the lower waveband,
some of the connections out to ter¬ but only moderate selectivity on long
minals and take the others to the waves. The latter is compensated
terminals of a suitable wave-change for by slightly higher long-wave effi¬
switch mounted on an ebonite end¬ ciency, and the arrangement is thus
plate secured to the former by means most suitable vhen extra volume is
required from a
long-wave station.
The circuit given
at (b) provides equal
selectivity on either
waveband, because
the aerial is trans-
. f e r r e d from one
centre tap to the
other by the wave¬
change switch, which
must be of the
double-pole double¬
throw variety. Re¬
action connections
of small angle brackets. The latter are not shown, but are exactly as for
method makes the tuner suitable for circuit (a). Circuit (c) gives exactly
single-hole panel mounting, the switch the same effect as (6), but requires
bush being used for mounting pur¬ only an ordinary three-point wave¬
poses. Where it is preferred to use change switch. The looped centre tap
a cardboard or paxolin former, the of the medium-wave winding (c.t.i)
same numbers of turns will be ap¬ is broken to provide the same effect
proximately correct and the same as two separate windings. The long¬
spacing between the ends of separate wave winding is connected between
windings should be allowed. As, the two portions of the medium-wave
however, all three windings will have one, and is short circuited by the
to be wound as single layers, the switch when medium-wave reception
length of former must be increased. is wanted. On long waves the aerial
Alternative Tuning Circuits. Fig. goes to c.t.2.
435 shows three entirely different A Tuner for S.G. Receivers. It has
methods of connecting the tuner just been pointed out that it is desirable
described in a detector circuit. At to employ a smaller tuner (physically
(a) the aerial lead is joined to c.t.i smaller, that is) for a set having two
354
 TUNING COILS
or more tuning stages, and a i|-in. aluminium screen somewhere between
diameter six-ribbed ebonite tube them.
will be found to make an excellent Hand-puss Circuits. Either of the
former. The former should be the tuners described may be used in
same length as that shown diagram- matched pairs for band-pass tuning.
matically in Fig. 434, and should have The circuit of Fig. 437(a) employs two
similarly placed slots. All windings
should consist of 36-gauge enamelled
wire, the correct number of turns
being as follows :
Medium wave : So turns.
Reaction : 84 turns, with centre tap.
Long wave : 220 turns.
In this case it will be seen that
the tuned windings are not centre
tapped, although the reaction is. The
reason will be made clear later in this
section. This tuner, which is very
similar to that which has just been de¬
scribed, will cever the same tuning
ranges as the larger one described
above.
Tuner Connections for S.G. Sets.
Fig. 436 (a) shows a tuner of the latter
type connected m the aerial circuit
of a S.G. valve. The numbered con¬
nections correspond with those of Fig.
435, and c.t.3 is the centre tapping
of the " reaction " winding. Actually
this winding is not used for reaction
in this instance, but acts as an
aperiodic aerial coil. A three-point
wave-change switch short circuits the
long-wave winding and half the
aperiodic winding for medium-wave
reception. The circuit of Fig. 436 (a)
provides a very selective arrange¬
ment, and may be followed by an¬
other similar tuner used for tuned-
grid coupling as at (6) in the same
diagram. The centre tapping is not
F1C. 437.—Band-pass-tuned Circuit, including a pair
used at (b), and the reaction winding of small Tuners.
is employed for its legitimate pur¬
pose. Provided care is exercised in of the larger coils for B.P. tuning in
making both tuners identical, con¬ a Det.-L.F. receiver The two coils
densers C.i and C.2 may be ganged are coupled together by a small¬
together with every satisfaction. In capacity pre-set condenser, which can
making a set to the circuit of Fig. be adjusted to provide an optimum
436 care should be tafeen to arrange band width. A screen should be
both tuners with their axes at right erected between the coils, and it is
angles to each other and to erect an preferable to include a small con
355
 TUNING COILS
denser in series with the aerial lead any circuit in current practice. As
to prevent the aerial capacity influenc¬ a guide to those constructors who
ing the first tuner unduly. Reaction wish to employ formers of other dia¬
is applied to the second tuner as in meters than those dealt with, the
Fig. 436 (a), but the reaction winding table below is given.
of the first tuner is not used at all. The fundamental purpose of the
A three-point wave-change switch tuning circuit is to separate one wave¬
acts on both tuners. Tuning may be length from another without affecting
accomplished by means of two quality or permitting jamming from
separate 0005-mfd. condensers or by a station working on a nearby wave¬
a two-gang condenser; the former length. This perfect state is impos¬
method is safer, because this circuit sible, as to-day stations are working
does not always tune too accurately. so close together that their top notes
Fig. 437(6) shows a band-pass circuit overlap. When a station is said to be
consisting of a pair of the smaller on some particular wavelength—say,
tuners. The arrangement is suitable 300 metres—it does not imply that it
for either S.G. or non-S.G. receivers; is entirely confined to this band, as
the reaction coil in the second tuner if a really razor-sharp tuned circui*
will only be used in sets of the latter is used, there is a most noticeable

COIL-WINDING DATA

Diameter Medium-wave Winding. Long-wave Winding. Reaction 36’s

of Former. Number of Turns 36’s gauge
Gauge of Number gauge Enamelled Wire. Enamelled
Enamelled Wire. of Turns. Wire.

3 in. 28 40 130 45
2i » 28 50 150 60
2 ,, 30 58 174 75
li „ 36 80 220 84
li „ 36 86 240 90

type. The band-pass coupling con¬ absence of top notes; the reason for
denser B.C. should be a non-inductive this is that the imposed signal will
one of '05 mid. Here again a screen¬ slightly vary the carrier wave, the
ing plate should be fitted between the higher the note imposed by the per¬
two tuners. This circuit gives very formance being broadcast the greater
accurate tuning, and it is quite safe will be the deviation. Obviously,
to employ a ganged condenser for then, it is possible for the top notes
tuning simultaneously the two cir¬ of two stations to overlap while the
cuits. When used in a S.G. receiver, quoted wavelengths do not. If such
this band pass arrangement might a state exists they can only be separ¬
well be followed by a tuned-grid ated if the top notes are cut off.
coupling as in Fig. 436 (6). In that In the earliest days of broadcasting
case tuning could be controlled by a (some ten years ago), selectivity was
three-gang condenser. not an urgent problem, as stations
Other Circuits. It is not possible were few and low in power; in ad¬
here to give particulars of every cir¬ dition, nobody expected really good
cuit for which the tuners described quality and consequently no one was
may be used, but the circuits that disappointed. In any case, it is
have been suggested will give suffi¬ doubtful if the loss of quality caused
cient information to enable any ex¬ by the tuning would be apparent
perimenter to adapt them to almost above the general distortion of the
356
Fig. 438.—The Circuit arrangement of
FlG. 441.—Simple Band¬
the Band-pass Scheme.
pass Circuit arrangement.

Fig. 439.—The Circuit of the “ Link

Coupled Band-pass Tuner.

FlG. 440.—A simple method of fitting a Fig. 443.—A simplified method of

Switch for wave-changing. Switching without loss of efficiency.

357
 TUNING COILS
1922 loudspeakers and transformers. years was considered to be the last
Looking backwards during the last word in design, but these coils still
seven years, it seems probable that had the disadvantage that they had
the tuning coil has gone through to be changed for long and short
more evolution of shape than any wavelengths and the multiplicity of
other component. For many years pins often resulted in a momentary
the two-pin coil with standard base wrong connection, with occasional
held sway. At the beginning of disastrous results. This juncture
broadcasting, the only characteristic marked the beginning of the dual¬
possessed by a coil was its ability to range coil, which, although used al¬
tune to the wavelength required, and most exclusively to-day, was far from
the question of heavy losses was en¬ popular, as the small permissible am¬
tirely forgotten; but this was to some plification of an ordinary 3-electrode
extent beneficial, as it compensated valve was such that the losses thus
for the unsuitability of the ordinary introduced by the dual-range switch
3-electrode valve as a H.F. ampli¬ and unused winding could not be
fier. A little later several types of tolerated. The neutrodyne circuit be¬
tuning coils made their appearance came very popular and necessitated a
that were definitely designed to over¬ special type of coil. The reason for
come some of the disadvantages of the introduction of this circuit was
the previous models, among which that valves had reached the stage of
was the honeycomb coil, which pos¬ efficiency where the condenser effect
sessed extremely low self-capacity, between grid and anode caused ter¬
but had the disadvantage of an in¬ rific instability and oscillation unless
creased high-frequency resistance and some means were introduced to stop
consequent flattening of tuning. The it. This could take the form of an
first real efficiency coil consisted of inefficient coil, or a potentiometer to
an ingenious structure so arranged apply a small positive bias to the
that every turn was air-spaced from valve grid, but both those methods
its neighbour by slotted ebonite pegs were unsatisfactory, as they either
and in addition each turn was prac¬ ruined selectivity or range, or both.
tically a circle, and almost in a true The function of the neutrodyne was
plane. to balance out the troublesome grid
About the same time several other anode capacity by means of a small
good coils made their appearance, condenser adjusted so that an equal
notable among which was the familiar amount of energy was fed from anode
yellow bound type. to grid in reverse to that fed through
The old plug-in coil is still in use the capacity of the valve itself (see
to some extent to-day, and whatever Fig. 444).
may be said against it, it possesses Screening. Following immediately
the advantage of extreme flexibility on the problem of efficient coil design
and gives the user a possible range came the question of adequate screen¬
of, say, 20 to 25,000 metres, should ing one from the other. A common
he for any reason require it. form was the 6-pin coil in a copper
The idea that a plug-in coil is hope¬ can, but such an arrangement was
lessly inefficient is quite erroneous, unsatisfactory, as the proximity of
as the coil referred to above possesses the metal to the coil greatly reduced
at least 70 per cent, of the efficiency the efficiency of the latter, and to
of many modern screened coils. overcome this difficulty, two special
The successor to the plug-in coil forms of coil were introduced. One
was the 6-pin type, which for many was the binocular coil, which con-
358
359
 TUNING COILS
sisted of two coils, usually small, larity is due to some extent to the
placed side by side so that the field fact that the necessary coil is very
was limited, and the other was the hard to obtain ready-made.
toroidal coil, which was wound on a Another circuit that is capable of
small mandrel like a spring and then wonderful things is the Hartley,
curved round until it resembled an which is shown in Fig. 455, but this
unduly bulky curtain ring. Both circuit has the disadvantage that a
these arrangements had the great dis¬ powerful short-wave station has the
advantage that far more wire was unfortunate habit of butting in on
necessary to reach the tuning range, the long-wave band in the most
which resulted in an increase of H.F. alarming manner. This caused the
resistance and impaired selectivity. circuit to die a natural death with
Just before the advent of the screen¬ the introduction of Brookman's Park.
grid valve, super-high efficiency low- The circuit shown is the popular
loss coils appeared. Whatever may variation of the original known as the
have been the merits of this type of Throttle Control Hartley.
coil when used in some form of neu- When it is desireci to gang three
trodyne circuit, there is much to be or more tuned circuits, a condenser
said against it when used in conjunc¬ should be chosen where one rotating
tion with a screen-grid valve. section can be advanced or retarded
The position to-day is that the on the main spindle quite independ¬
screen-grid valves are of very high ently of the others, and the shape of
efficiency indeed, and when associated the vanes must be logarithmic : the
with a really efficient coil, it becomes reason for this is that only vanes of
almost impossible to make the set this type can balance up discrepancy
stable. In fact, with a modern type in coil inductance. If, say, a
of mains screen-grid valve and a 4-in. straight-line frequency condenser
low-loss coil, nothing less than |-in. were used in this manner, it would
sheet copper with soldered joints is gang up at one point and come out
adequate for screening. Therefore, of step at another. This type of con¬
(

for practical purposes, two combina- 1denser can, of course, be used if the
tions suggest themselves. A high- ,coils are a perfect match, but if they
efficiency valve with a medium effi- 1are not, which is more probable, a
ciency coil, or vice versa', as the ]logarithmic is essential. The trim¬
efficiency of the coil will be impaired 1ming condensers usually attached are
by the presence of the necessary 1to balance out the stray capacity of
screening, anyway, it is obvious that 1the wiring, and should never be used
the first arrangement is preferable. 1to trim badly matched coils, as they
There are many tuning systems in will only do so at one point of the
use to-day that are new, but some <dial. When ganging a set, always
of the old ones are firm favourites. ;adjust the trimmer at a station that
Fig. 456 shows a straight circuit <comes in as near as possible to the
with capacity-controlled reaction, that 1minimum setting of the main con¬
is thought by thousands of construe- <densers, and adjust the relative posi¬
tors to be the true Reinartz. The 1tions of the moving sections on a
latter circuit is in more or less general ■station right at the top of the dial.
use with receivers that do not employ The use of the two coils necessary
a high-frequency valve. The Reinartz i
for band-pass tuning drops a con¬
can be remarkably selective and well ssiderable amount of efficiency, while
deserves to be in much wider use. 1the usual close “canning" also
It is possible that the lack of popu- 1throws away some of the range.
360
 S/Cn^L STñEJSCTH

361
 -3-

60 ruGNs Co/L

î
Fig. 455.—A Tap¬
ped Coil Crystal Set
showing (left)
HT-t details of the
coil winding
with 26 gauge
D.C.C. wire.

a. 3

MF FlG. 456.—A Capac¬

ity-controlled Reaction
Circuit.

3Ó2
 TUNING COILS
Some form of screening is essential cerned. These may be the ordinary
in the interests of stability, but with screened band-pass coils. The prin¬
band-pass tuning the gain is much cipal feature of the super-het. is the
more than the loss. high degree of selectivity obtainable,
The variable-mu valve opens up an and this is carried out by changing
entirely new field for design of tuning the frequency of the received station
systems, as it possesses many ad¬ into some predetermined frequency
vantages over the original form of and then carrying out the amplifica¬
screen-grid valve, most important oí tion of the signal at this new fre¬
which is the fact that it is almost in¬ quency. These " intermediate fre¬
capable of cross modulation and quency amplifier” coils, as they are
therefore "pre-selection” is not of called, must be very accurately made,
special importance Another advan¬ as no tuning condensers are fitted in
tage claimed for the band-pass system these stages, and they must be de¬
is that there is no top cut. signed and adjusted to cover the
A receiver consisting of two stages smallest possible band of frequencies,
of variable-mu valves preceded by a in order to give the selectivity. It
very well-designed but single-coil is possible to design these coils to
tuner will put up a performance of cover such a narrow band that de¬
combined selectivity and range finite side-band cut-off results, and
coupled with good quality, but it tone compensators have to be inserted
does not equal band-pass tuning. on the L.F. side to get a loudspeaker
Screened Aerial Coil. The idea of signal of good quality.
screening is to prevent one or more A further important coil in the
components or stages from being super-het. is the oscillator coil—an
coupled together by stray fields If arrangement which is employed after
two coils are to be screened from each the first valve to change the fre¬
other, it will be sufficient to screen quency of the received signal. This
only one, provided that it is done particular coil works in conjunction
thoroughlv, as if coil " A ” is screened with the tuned circuit of the first de¬
from coil "B” obviously coil "B” tector, and in order to enable one-
must be screened from coil "A.” knob control to be carried out (that
To relieve the aerial coil of the damp¬ is, a ganged condenser to tune input
ing effects of the adjacent " can " is coils and first detector coils), the
to materially increase its efficiency. oscillator coil requires to be wound
A three-valve battery set employ¬ to a certain value, and disposed in
ing a variable-mu valve with a well- a certain position relative to the first
designed aerial coil entirely un¬ detector coil, so that to whatever fre¬
screened and a tuned grid coil for quency this latter coil is tuned, the
intervalve coupling heavily screened oscillator coil will have the same
in a copper or brass ' ' can ” isa rival effect from the shortest to the highest
that even a band-pass set using the wavelength.
same number of valves will find very A glance at a modern super-het.
hard to beat indeed. receiver will reveal the fact that all
Super-het. Coils. The type of re¬ coils are "canned,” and in order to
ceiver which is now becoming in¬ use a “ganged” condenser, specially
creasingly popular is the super-hetero¬ shaped vanes have to be used for the
dyne (super-het.). For this special section included for the oscillator
circuit the ordinary types of coil are coil. (See also Coils. Band-pass
entirely unsuitable, except, perhaps, Tuning Circuit. Condenser, and Vari¬
in so far as the input coils are con¬ able Condenser.)
3Ö3
 TWEETER — UNIT OF CONDUCTANCE
TWEETER.— A loudspeaker unit at the aerial. This term is also used
designed to reproduce only the high to denote the strength of signals which
frequencies (usually above 3,000 may be given by a specific valve, bear¬
cycles per second). (See Woofer.) ing in mind its working potentials,
TWIN WIRE.— A wire which con¬ and the amount of second harmonic
sists of two wires twisted together, distortion which is permissible. This
but not electrically connected. A strength, which is measured in watts,
good example is the flex used for may be ascertained from the dynamic
house wiring. This is known as twin curves of the valve, and is rather
flex, and consists of two lengths of difficult to work out. A very rough
flexible wire, each enclosed in a cotton formula, which, although not correct,
covering, the two wires being twisted gives a proportionate result (that is,
for the whole of their length. if applied to any number of valves
TWO-ELECTRODE VALVE.—A will give the relation between the re¬
valve consisting of a cathode and spective outputs) is as follows: grid
an anode only. This valve is also bias squared, multiplied by amplifica¬
known as a diode, and is used for tion factor squared, divided by eight
high-quality rectification purposes, or times the normal impedance. The
for half-wave rectification in mains re¬ answer is in watts.
ceivers. An ordinary three-electrode UNIDIRECTIONAL. — In one
valve may be used as a diode by direction. Direct current.
ignoring the grid. UNILATERAL.— In single layers,
TWO-STAGE AMPLIFIER.—An or in one direction.
amplifier having two distinct circuits. UNILATERAL CONDUCTIVITY.
It does not , therefore, necessarily con¬ —Conducting in one direction only.
sist of two valves. For instance, one A crystal detector is a good example
valve may be used with transformer of unilateral conductivity.
coupling to two valves in parallel, or UNIT B.O.T.—The Board of Trade
two valves in push-pull. Unit is 1,000 watt-hours.
u UNIT CHARGE.—Any charge
which repels an equal and like charge
ULTRA SHORT WAVES.—The with a force of 1 dyne when they are
term given to those wavelengths be¬ i centimetre apart.
bet ween i and 10 metres. UNIT MAGNETIC POLE.— That
UMBRELLA AERIAL.—An aerial pole which, if situated in a vacuum at
having a mast with the wires for the a distance of one centimetre from a
aerial attached to the top of the mast, similar pole, would give rise to a me¬
and then brought down to the ground chanical force of repulsion of one dyne.
in radial fashion. The name is given The total number of lines of force
to the aerial on account of the fact which pass through a unit magnetic
that the arrangement is very similar pole = 4 7r. (See Weber, Maxwell, and
to an umbrella stick and its ribs. Gilbert.)
This type of aerial is only employed UNIT OF CAPACITY.— The unit
in confined spaces. of capacity is the farad. A conductor
UNDAMPED. — Remaining con¬ has a capacity of 1 farad when a
stant. A train of oscillations of con¬ charge of 1 coulomb raises the poten¬
stant amplitude. tial i volt. In wireless practice the
UNDISTORTED OUTPUT — A practical unit is the micro-farad.
term applied to signal impulses at the UNIT OF CONDUCTANCE.—The
anode of the output valve which are unit of conductance is the mho, which
a true replica of the signals received is the reciprocal of the ohm.
364
 UNIT OF CURRENT—VALVES EXPLAINED
UNIT OF CURRENT—The unit nal oscillations amplification takes
of current is the ampere. It is a place. The term is also applied to a
flow of I coulomb per second. A valve and its associated couplings in
pressure of i volt will pass a current high- or low-frequencv stages.
of i ampere through a resistance of VALVE DETECTOR —The valve
I ohm. may be made to rectify the received
UNIT OF INDUCTANCE.— The signal oscillations by applying a nega¬
unit of inductance is the henry. It tive potential to the grid so that a
is the amount of inductance in a cir¬ unidirectional current is produced in
cuit which will produce a difference the anode circuit. Rectification may
in potential of i volt when the am¬ also be carried out by including in
perage is changing at the rate of the grid circuit a fixed condenser,
i ampere per second. with a high resistance joined to the
UNIT OF POTENTIAL.—The unit cathode. The inclusion of this con¬
of potential is the volt. It is the pres¬ denser and resistance has the same
sure required to pass a current of I effect, namely, the production of a
amp. through a resistance of i ohm. unidirectional current in the anode
UNIT OF POWER.—The unit of circuit. (See also Grid Leak, Power
power is the power required to per¬ Grid Detection, Anode Bend Rectifi¬
form i foot-pound of work per cation.}
second. It is referred to as F.P.S. VALVE-LEG SPACING.— The
UNIT OF RESISTANCE.—The spacing of the valve legs is so ar¬
unit of resistance is the ohm. It is ranged that it is impossible to plug a
the resistance which will permit the valve into its holder in the wrong way.
flow of i amp. when a pressure of The actual disposition of the legs is
i volt is applied. shown in Figs. 458 to 462. This
illustration also gives the actual
V measurements between the pins of
VACUUM.—A space which is the valve.
theoretically devoid of all matter. VALVES EXPLAINED.— In a
When a glass bulb as used in a valve modern valve there are three distinct
is evacuated, it is said to be a parts; these, as shown in the dia¬
vacuum. Theoretically it is impos¬ grams, are the filament at the centre,
sible to completely evacuate a bulb. surrounded by the grid, which in its
VACUUM TUBE.—The tube used turn is surrounded by the anode;
in X-ray work. It consists of a glass these three parts are known as elec¬
vessel which is evacuated, and has trodes. Inside the bakelite base from
two electrodes. which the valve pins project is ce¬
VALVE.—The name given to the mented a glass pinch; embedded in
glass or metal vessels containing elec¬ this are five stout supporting wires,
trodes used in wireless receivers. (See four of which run from the electrodes
Valves.} right through to the valve pins, two
VALVE AMPLIFIER—A valve of these four to the filament pins,
acts as an amplifier owing to the fact and one each to the anode and
that the anode current produced by grid pins respectively; the fifth
the application of a potential to the wire acts as a support for the
cathode and anode is much greater filament.
than that which is passed to the grid. The functioning of the valve is
The signal oscillations on the grid commenced by passing a low-ten¬
vary the anode current, and as this sion current from an accumulator
is of greater magnitude than the sig¬ through the filament; this has the

365
 VALVES EXPLAINED

VALVE-LEG SPACING
DIAGRAMS
/8 MM

7 STANOA10 SPLIT PINS DtAM APPPQx

FlC. 459.—Valv.-leg spacing for 7-pin valves.

5M.
FIG. 458.—Valve-leg spacing for 4- and 5-pin
valves. The diameter of the valve pins is
3'2 mm.

4M.

Fig. 4¿0.—Valve-leg spacing for 9-pin valves. FlGS. 461 and 462.—The two diagrams above
show the valve-leg spacing of the Hivac midget
valves (see table on page 369).

366
 ig£

O3NIVldXH S3A1VA
 VALVE BASE CONNECTIONS FOR STANDARD (B.V.A.) VALVES
See paße 369 for definitions of abbreviations used.
—
1 Pin Connections
Valve Type i Top
1 Cap
I 2 3 1 7 8
1 4 5 1 « 9
Triode.D.H. 4 A G F F
Triode. I.H.

H 1 1 111111100151111111 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
5 A G H H c
Triode.I.H. 7 M H H C A G
Tetrode.D.H. 4 G2 Gi F F
Tetrode.I.H. A
5 G2 Gi H H C A
H.F. Pentode.D.H. 7 M Gi F F
G3 G2 A
H.F. Pentode .... I.H. 5 G2 Gi H H C, G3
H.F. Pentode.I.H. A
7 M Gi G3 H H c G2 A
H.F. Pentode ..... I.H. 7 M A G3 H H c E
G2

VALVES EXPLAINED
Output Pentode . . . .D.H. Gi
4 A Gi F F G2
Output Pentode . . . . .D.H. A Gi F F G2
Output Pentode.I.H. A Gi H H C i
Output Pentode.I.H. G2
Gi G2 H H c A
Heptode.D.H. \ Ao Go G 2 F F A Gi
Heptode.I.H. 7 Ao Go G2 H H c A Gi
Octode.D.H. 7 G2 Gi G3, G5 F F M, G6 A g4
Octode.I.H. 7 G2 Gi G3, G5 H H C, M,G6 A G4
Class B Output.D.H. 7 G2 Gi Ai F F A2
Double-diode..D.H. 4 Di D2 F F
Double-diode..I.H. 5 Di D2 H H C
Double-diode-triode . . . .D.H. 5 A D2 F, M F Di
Double-diode-triode . . . .I.H. G
7 Di M D2 H H C A M G
Triple-diode-triode.I.H. 9 D2 D3 H H C A G
Single-diode-tetrode .... I.H. 7 Gi G2 H H C, M D M A
Triode-pentode.D.H. 9 G2 Ai G3 F F Ao M Gi
Triode-pentode.I.H. 9 G2 Ai G3 H H C Ao Gi
Triode-hexode . . . . .D.H. 7 Ao Go G2 F F M A Gi
Triode-hexode . . . . .I.H. 7 Ao Go G2 H H C A Gi
Double-pentode.D.H. 7 Gi2 Gil Ai F F G2I, G22 A2 Gi*
Double-pentode.D.H. 9 Gil Ai G2I F F G2’ M
Double-diode-H.F. Pentode . . . I.H. 9 G2 A H H C, G3 Di Gi
Double-diode Output Pentode. . . I.H. 7 Di A D2 H H C G2 Gi
Rectifier, Half-wave .... D.H. 4 A F F
Rectifier, Half-wave . . . .I.H. 5 A H H C
Rectifier, Full-wave . . . .D.H, 4 A A F F
Rectifier, Full-wave .... I.H. 4 A A H H
Rectifier, Full-wave . . . . I.H. 5 A A H H C
Rectifier, Full-wave .... I.H. 7 H.C.T. Ai Ci H H C2 A2
Baretter ....... 4 F F
 VALVES EXPLAINED
Abbreviations relative to Table on page 368.
I.H.—Indirectly heated ; D.H.—Directly heated. A, Ar, etc.—Anodes (Ao—Oscillator anode).
M.—Metallising. G or Gr—Control grid (Go—Os< illator control grid)
F—Filament. Ga—Screening grid.
H—Heater. G3—Suppressor grid.
C, Ci, etc.—Cathodes. D, Di, etc.—Diodes (anodes).

VALVE BASE CONNECTIONS FOR HIVAC MIDGET VALVES

Pin Connections
Valve T vpe Base
Top
1 1 2 1 3
4 1 5 6 7 8 Cap

Triode . . . I.H. Oct. M H A G H C

Triode . . - I.H. Oct. M H A 1 1 1 1 ; 1 1 < < 1 1 H C G
H.F. Pentode . . I.H. Oct. M H A G2 G3 H c Gi
Output Pentode . I.H. Oct. M H A G2 Gi H c
Heptode . . . I.H. Oct. M H A g3, g5 Go (Gi) H c g4
Double-diode . - I.H. Oct. M H D2 C2 Di H Ci
Double-diode-triode . I.H. Oct. M H A Di Da H C G
Rectifier, Full-wave . I.H. Oct. M H A H, C
Rectifier, Full-wave . I.H. Oct. H H A2 C2 H,Ci
Rectifier, Full-wave . I.H. Oct. M H A A H C
Rectifier, Full-wave, Gaseous Oct. M A A C

VALVE BASE CONNECTIONS FOR ACORN AND DEAF-AID VALVES

See Fig. 463.

Pin Connections
Type Base
i ' 2 3 4 5 Top Bottom

Acorn
Triode ...... i H C H G A
H.F. Pentode ..... i H C H S SG A G
Deaf Aid
Triode (D.H.). a A G F F
Triode (I.H.) ..... 2 A C H H G
Triode (Mullard) .... 3 A G F F
Public Address
Triode ...... 4 A F G F

3<t9
 VALVES EXPLAINED
VALVE BASE CONNECTIONS FOR CONTINENTAL VALVES
See Fig. 463.

Type Base

H.F. Pentode
H.F. Pentode
Triode .
Double-diode.
Frequency Changer
Output Pente.de
Output Pentode
Rectifier
Rectifier

MULLARD UNIVERSAL SIDE-CONTACT VALVES

See Fig. 463.

Contact Connections

Valve Type Base

I 4 5 6 7 8 7?
2 3 Cap

Triode .... P M H H c A G

° 1 1 1 1 9 1 1 1

| 1 1 1 1 1 - ? 1
H.F. Pentode . . P M H H c G3 A Gi
Output Pentode . . P H H c, g3 A Gi
Octode .... P M H H C, G6 G2 A g
4
Double-diode V D2 H H C, M Di
Double-diode (alternative) . V M H H C Di D2
Rectifier, Half-wave . p H H c A
Rectifier, Voltage Doubling . p Ci H H C2 Ai
Visual Tuning Indicator (TV4) p H H c A

effect of heating it. When the fila¬ the battery being connected to low-
ment has reached the correct tem¬ tension negative. In this way the
perature it throws off minute elec¬ voltage to the filament is unaltered,
trical negative charges which are but the voltage of the anode with
known as electrons. The electrons respect to the filament is greatly in¬
pass through the grid, and are at¬ creased and with it the electron flow.
tracted to the anode; they flow The grid is a spirally wound length
thence back to the low-tension of special wire, and, as before
battery. To attract these negative stated, is between the filament and
electrons to the anode from the fila¬ the anode. To this the incoming
ment, the anode is kept positively wireless signals are applied. These
charged, for it is a well-known fact signals are alternately negative and
that in electricity a positive charge positive; this changing of polarity
attracts a negative charge. To posi¬ tends to control the electron flow
tively charge the anode, it is con¬ from the filament to the anode, for
nected to the positive side of a high- when the grid is positive it acts like
tension battery, the negative side of a small anode, and because it is
37°
 VALVES EXPLAINED
nearer to the filament its attraction to interpret the wireless signals. In
for the electrons is much greater, but a wireless wave of 300 metres the
this also means an increase in anode frequency of this carrier wave is in
current. The grid, however, is just the neighbourhood of 1,000,000 cycles
as often negative, and has the effect per second, which is far above the
of repelling electrons leaving the fila¬ frequency audible to the human ear.
ment, for like repels like. A nega¬ A microphone current is modulated
tive grid will therefore mean a de¬ into this carrier wave at the broad¬
crease in anode current. It may be casting station, and this produces the
seen, then, that if the grid is biased sound waves of speech and music; this
negatively with a grid-bias battery current has, of course, a much lower
as much as possible, it will tend to frequency. The action of the detector
valve in a set is to demodulate these
two variations of current— i.e. separ¬
ate them, retaining the sound waves
(low frequency) and dispersing the
carrier waves (high-frequency cur¬
rent).
Valves in which a trace of gas is
allowed to remain are classified as
“gassy” or "soft,” and are apt to
become unstable, besides having a
very short life. In the process of
manufacture the valve is connected
to pumps and as nearly as possible
evacuated and hermetically sealed. It
is then brought into close proximity
to a high-frequency coil, the high-
frequency currents of which tend to
heat the electrodes; this has the effect
of releasing any gases remaining in
the metal of the electrodes, and when
the temperature becomes sufficiently
high a small piece of magnesium, pre¬
viously fixed inside the valve, is ig¬
F1C. 464.—Characteristic Curve of a Low-impedance
Medium-slope Valve.
nited and burnt. The combustion of
the magnesium absorbs the remaining
stop any positive signal voltages from traces of gas in the valve. The pro¬
making the grid positive; grid cur¬ cess of combustion causes a portion
rent is thus prevented, although the of the metal to be deposited upon the
controlling action of the grid is main¬ inside of the glass bulb in the form
tained. If over- or underbiased, of oxide of magnesium, which gives
however, the grid will not be able to that silvered effect which may be
deal with the applied signal voltages, seen in the upper parts of all valves.
and distortion will be noticeable. The operation of final exhaustion by
Now it is possible to understand why magnesium is called “ gettering,” and
with the correct amount of grid bias the magnesium is known as the
the anode current consumption of the " getter.”
valve is cut down and the H.T. bat¬ The latest development in modern
tery is therefore being used as econo¬ valves of the screened-grid and de¬
mically as possible. The grid serves tector types is the coating of the
371
 VALVES EXPLAINED
outer surface of the glass bulbs with of current drawn through the valve
a finely divided metal powder. This by 4 m/A. Such results would be
appears to be applied in a dry state obtained from a valve having an
to the tacky surface of a coat of impedance of 5,000 ohms. If the
varnish. Its effect is to eliminate the same experiment was tried with a
usual aluminium shield, and must be high-impedance valve, the change re¬
earthed in the same way as such sulting would be very much smaller;
shield. This earthing is already ar¬ in the case of a screened-grid valve,
ranged in the valve by the manufac¬ only a fraction of a milliamp.
turers. The effect of the metal coat¬ Low-impedance Valves. The job
ing is to isolate the valve electrically that a valve is required to do is to
and prevent stray currents from in¬
terfering with other surrounding com¬
ponents.

1
The screening provided by this
metallic coating is quite as efficient

anode current /n milli ahp eres

as is obtained by enclosing the valve
in a metal box, so long as the valve
holder is correctly wired up. If you
examine one of these metallised valves y
you will find, attached to the coating
just above the base of the valve, a 4
small disc or ring. This sometimes ¿y
bears the letter E. From this disc . 0/
or ring a thin wire can be seen pass¬
ing into the holder, and the metallic
y
coating covers both disc and wire.
The filament leg beneath this disc ft A
must be joined to the earth terminal
of the set to enable the screening to V
' p
be effective.
Impedance. Impedance indicates
the capability of a valve to handle 35 3 25 2 15 t -5 0
large or small volume: the lower the — Grid Mts
F1C. 465.—Characteristic Curve of a very High Im¬
figure of impedance the more undis¬ pedance Valve.
torted output— i.e. the volume of
pure signals that the valve will give. change its high-tension current when
Impedance is arrived at by measur¬ a signal is applied to its grid, but it
ing the corresponding change of high- must not alter the nature of the sig¬
tension current that will result from nal so applied by becoming over¬
changing the high-tension voltage; loaded, which would cause distortion.
for example, suppose that a valve Fig. 464 shows a valve of low imped¬
has the anode, or plate, connected ance. A glance at the “ 150” curve
to no volts and that the current will show that it is practically
drawn from the battery is n m/A, straight from 8 m/A to just over
also if the anode voltage is reduced 26 m/A, or, in other words, the in¬
to 90 there is a reduction in the coming signal can swing up and
amount of H.T. current used to the down over a nominally straight line
extent of 4 m/A. From this it will that is 18 m/A long without touch¬
be seen that a change of 20 volts on ing the curve portion which causes
the anode has reduced the amount the valve to distort very badly.
372
 VALVES EXPLAINED
This long, straight portion indicates much influence as 20 volts applied to
that it is a low-impedance valve the anode; if 20 is divided by 2 the
capable oí handling large signals. answer is 10, which is the amplifica¬
Reference to Fig. 465 shows that this tion factor of the valve, or the
valve is entirely different, and that amount of influence that the grid has
the "150” line is only straight be¬ over the anode. The valve shown
tween J and 2| m/A. From this it in Fig. 465 has an amplification factor
will be seen that the total swing is of 40, and will therefore amplify a
only i J m/A, and that therefore the signal four times as much as the
valve will handle very little volume valve shown in Fig. 464 with ampli¬
before distortion sets in. fication factor of 10; but with the
A low-impedance valve has a high amplification factor there is a
small amplification factor and a corresponding rise in impedance, and
high-impedance valve a large am- consequently the valve will not
handle as much volume as the valve
with the lower factor.
To summarise briefly, a high-im¬
pedance valve may be used to am¬
plify weak signals, but a low-imped¬
ance valve must be used to prevent
distortion when handling loud signals.
Take for example a 2-valve set em¬
ploying detector and output valves.
The first valve will be called upon
to handle a very small input, thus a
valve of high impedance can be used,
and its amplifying properties em¬
ployed to advantage. The signals,
now strengthened by the first valve,
are passed on to the second valve,
which must be capable of handling
the larger input, and therefore a
valve of low impedance must be
F1C. 466.—Matching is making the impedance of used. Tins rule of valve graduation
the anode roughly equal to the valve impedance. holds good if resistance capacity
The Anode Circuit is shown by the heavy black line.
coupling is used, but if a transformer
plification factor. The amplifica¬ is employed it is equally essential
tion factor (sometimes called “mag¬ that the valve and transformer must
nification factor ” ) of a valve is the suit each other. Let it be quite
influence that a signal applied to the clear that it is the valve and trans¬
grid has over the H.T. current. former that follows it that are the
Take the original case of the 5,000- pair, and definitely not the trans¬
ohm. valve referred to above. It former which goes in front of the
will be remembered that it took a valve.
variation of 20 volts high tension to Matching is making the impedance
vary the high-tension current 4 m/A. of the anode circuit roughly equal to
If the anode voltage is left alone and the valve impedance (see Fig. 466).
2 volts grid bias applied to the grid, A transformer is like a valve in some
it will be found that the same charge respects, as it possesses primary im¬
of 4 m/A takes place. Therefore, pedance and amplification factor in
2 volts applied to the grid has as the form of the ratio; the transformer
373
 VALVES EXPLAINED

with a high primary impedance has 6 volts grid bias. It will also be
a low ratio, and one with a low prim¬ noticed that the point struck is sen¬
ary impedance has a high ratio. If a sibly on the straight portion. Now turn
high-impedance valve is used, a trans¬ to Fig. 467 and find the 6-volt G.B.
former with high primary impedance line ; follow it until it hits the 125-
must also be used which has a small volt line, turn to the right, and de¬
ratio, and vice versa. As a rough note the H.T. consumption, only
guide, the ratio of a transformer less 2 J m/A; also particularly note that
i, multiplied by the impedance of a the point is right on the bend of
valve should not exceed 60,000. For the curve, which will result in hor¬
example, a transformer having a ratio rible distortion. It is therefore ob¬
of 3 : i : take 1 away, which gives 2; vious that the same grid bias is not
multiply by the impedance of the suitable for both valves ; the valve in
valve to be used—say 30,000—the
answer is 60,000, which is quite in
order. Cn the other hand, if a 3: 1
transformer is to be used with a
valve having an impedance of 50,000
ohms, this simple sum will come out
at 100,000, which is too high.
Mutual Conductance. The charac¬
teristic which has not been dealt with
is mutual conductance, or slope as
it is sometimes called. This is a
combination of impedance and ampli¬
fication factor, and may be described
as indicating the goodness of the
valve. It has many influences on
the valve’s performance, but a
marked influence on the value of the
grid bias necessary. Reference to
Figs. 464 and 467 will show that there
is a marked resemblance between
these curves, inasmuch as the straight
portion of their curves measured in
m / A is almost the same, but, on the — Grid Volts +
other hand, they differ greatly in the F1C. 467.—A Steep Slope Valve.
angle at which this line is set. Fig.
464 is the curve of a valve with a Fig. 467 has twice the slope of that
slope of 2. Fig. 467 is a similar in Fig. 464, consequently it only re¬
curve of a valve with a slope of 4. quires half the grid bias.
The latter is steeper than the former, A valve should always be biased
and is said to be a steep-slope valve. in the middle of the straight portion
Grid Bias Values for Valves. Re¬ of its curve, therefore in Fig. 467 note
fer to Fig. 464, and look along the the middle of the straight portion of
grid bias figures at the bottom, and the 125-volt curve. Drop the eye
follow the 6-volt line upwards until to the grid bias figures, and it will
it strikes the 125-volt line, turn to be seen that the figure is 3; also run
the right, and it will be found that along the horizontal line and note
the valve takes 10 m/ A under these that the anode consumption is 10.
conditions— i.e. 125 volts H.T. and The significant point is that the two

374
 VALVE OSCILLATOR — VARIABLE CONDENSER
D.C. valves can also be tested with of the variable condenser, the use of
this adaptor, in a similar way to A.C. this type causes all the stations to
valves, with the exception that the be bunched at one end and widely
adaptor should be inserted in the separated at the other.
valve holder out of which the valve The square-law type has vanes
to be tested was taken. specially shaped to give a definite
VALVE OSCILLATOR.— A valve result, and when associated with a
having some form of coupling be¬ coil, the dial reading gives a definite
tween anode and grid circuits to indication of the wavelength; thus,
maintain continuous interaction. This if 30 on the dial is 300 metres and 90
usually takes the form ot a coil in on the dial is 400 metres, then with a
each circuit, closely coupled. The square-law condenser 60 must be 350
frequency of the oscillations depends metres and so on. For station iden¬
upon the electrical time period of the tification this is admittedly ex¬
circuits in question. The valve os¬ tremely useful, but it does not over¬
cillator is used for transmission and come entirely the tendency for
for super-heterodyne receivers. stations to be more bunched at one
VALVE VOLTMETER.— Used for end than the other; the reason for
measuring the voltage of .alternating this is not generally appreciated. As
or high-frequency currents, and con¬ the wavelength is increased, the sta¬
sists of a valve connected on the tion separation in terms of metres
anode-bend-detection system. A milli¬ becomes less. For example, it is far
ammeter is wired in the anode cir¬ easier to separate two stations at 300
cuit of the valve and the reading of and 310 metres respectively, than it
this is taken as a measure of the A.C. is to separate two stations of exactly
voltage applied between the grid and the same power working on a wave¬
cathode. The meter must, of course, length of 500 metres and 510 metres
be calibrated if it is to be used for respectively. It will be observed
accurate work, such as determining that in both cases the stations differ
the efficiency of coils or the output of by 10 metres, but actually, the
a receiver. second pair are closer together than
VARIABLE CONDENSER. — A the first pair. The reason for this
device consisting of a moving and is that the relative distance between
fixed electrode, with a dielectric sep¬ the wavelengths of stations cannot
arating the electrodes. be measured in metres, but must be
There are four separate types of measuredin kilocycles (krs.).
variable condenser, each of which Square-law Condensers. A brief
has certain definite characteristics. consideration of the square-law con¬
The first to be introduced was the denser will show that if it arranges
straight-line capacity type, which for the various wavelengths to be
had a metal vane shaped in a half¬ separated by an appropriate number
circle, with the spindle in the exact of metres, and that the metre is not
centre. The result of this pattern is a true indication of separation, it
that the actual capacity changes in follows that the square-law condenser
proportion to the degrees of the knob. will tend to bunch stations. To
In other words, if the dial is moved take another example, Kaunas works
from, say, 20 o to 30 o, it will vary on a wavelength of 1,935 metres, and
the capacity exactly the same amount Lahti works on a wavelength of 1,807
as turning it, say, from 70 to 80. metres; thus the difference in wave¬
As the wavelength of the coil is not lengths is 128 metres; the frequency
directly proportional to the capacity of the first-named station is 155 kcs..
P.W.E.—N 377
 VARIABLE CONDENSER—VARIABLE-MU PENTODE
and the frequency of the latter 166 tage for ganging, as the shape of
kcs., being a difference of n kcs. the vanes permits discrepancies of
Thus at the very top of the long¬ the coil matching to be overcome. It
wave dial 128 metres separation is is incorrect to imagine that a trim¬
equal to 11 kcs. separation. Belfast ming condenser will gang up a set if
has a wavelength of 307.1 metres, and the coils are not properly matched, as
Ukhta a wavelength of 309.9 metres, an adjustment of the trimmers at one
the difference being 2.8 metres. The part of the dial will result in throw¬
frequency of the former station is ing out other sections. With the
977 kcs., and the latter station logarithmic condenser, where each
968 kcs., a difference of 9 kcs. set of moving vanes can be moved
It will be remembered that at the separately, it is simply a matter of
top of the dial 128 metres was equal advancing one set in front of the
to II kcs., but it will be observed other, so that ganging is accom¬
that at the lower end of the short¬ plished at the top of the dial, when the
wave dial the same number of kilo¬ special shape of the vanes will result
cycles is only worth 2.8 metres. Be¬ in ganging being preserved through¬
fore leaving this subject, the reader out the whole length, provided, of
will doubtless be surprised to hear course, the trimmers have been
that the separation between London adjusted to equalise odd capacities.
National and Toulouse is twice as Mechanical Defects. The modern
great as that between Droitwich and condenser is a very fine piece of work
Radio Paris. from the point of view of efficiency,
The straight-line frequency type is but many types have small mechani¬
arranged so that each degree on the cal drawbacks that are annoying to
dial is equivalent to a definite fre¬ the constructor. In particular, screens
quency-difference, and, therefore, a are extremely difficult to replace when
movement at one end of the dial will they have been moved from the
affect the tuning of the circuit framework. Another point that is
exactly the same as a similar move¬ not satisfactory is the pigtail con¬
ment at another portion of the dial. nection which is still used on many
Therefore, every station is spaced types. This form of connection,
along the dial in the position that it while being liable to break, is also
is allotted by its true frequency, and inclined to scrape on the plates, and
this condenser is, consequently, the in extreme cases to short them.
best possible type to use when con¬ When choosing a condenser which
venience and ease of manipulation is comprises several units ganged to¬
desired. gether, care should be taken to see
It should be borne in mind that of that the main spindle is properly
all the types of condensers available, bushed and free from side play, and
the straight-line frequency is the least also that there is no backward and
suitable for ganging, unless the user forward movement possible, as these
is absolutely certain that the coils mechanical faults result in the capa¬
associated are accurately matched. city of one section changing out of
Special Function of the Log-law proportion to another section, thus
Condenser. The log-law condenser, throwing out ganging. The reaction
or more correctly the logarithmic condenser is not particularly import¬
condenser, has a special function to ant as long as it is well made and
fulfil. From a point of view of sta¬ has good insulation. A condenser
tion separation, it is midway between with bad insulation results in worry¬
the square-law and the straight-line ing scraping noises when adjusted.
frequency, but has a special advan¬ VARIABLE-MU PENTODE.—A
 VARIABLE-MU PENTODE — VOLT
valve possessing similar characteristics A.V.C. effect will not be so great, and
to the variable-mu screened-grid the H.F. amplification increases. Dis¬
valve, but possessing an extra grid tortion due to side-band amplifica¬
which increases its efficiency as an tion, and increased background noises
H.F. amplifier. thereby result, and it becomes neces¬
VARIABLE-MU S.G. VALVE.— sary to provide some indication when
Screened-grid valve having variable resonance is reached. There are
impedance. (See aso Valve.) many forms of indicator, some of
which take the form of a light which
VARIOCOUPLER.—A variometer
VARIOMETER.—Two coils, one
rotatable within the other.
VELOCITY MODULATION. — A
method of modulating the output
current of a television transmitter
by means of which the scanning spot
moves quickly' over the dark portions
of the picture to be televised and
slowly over the bright parts of the
picture. Also known as variable tube
scanning.
VELOCITY OF ETHER WAVES.
—The velocity of ether waves is
186,000 miles per second. This is
equal to 300,000,000 metres per
second. (See also Sound Waves and
Light Waves.)
Fta. 469.—Csnnsclis".# for mtkode-ray tuning
VELOCITY OF LIGHT.—T h e indicator.
same as the speed of ether waves,
186,000 miles per second. varies with input signal strength, and
VERI. — Abbreviation for verifi¬ some in the form of a meter. The
cation of a transmission. cathode-ray tuning indicator con¬
sists of a valve having cathode,
VIDEO.—Television term signify¬ heater, target anode, and space-charge
ing picture or vision, aS distinct from grid. It is wired to the 2nd detector
sound (audio). in a superhet, and the emission is
VISIBLE SPECTRUM.—This ex¬ directed on to a fluorescent disc which
tends from infra-red, through red, it causes to glow with a green colour.
orange, yellow, green, blue, and The degree of flurorescence and the
violet to ultra-violet. shape of the glow depend upon the
VISUAL TUNING INDICATORS. strength of the electron stream which
—A device wired into a circuit to in turn is dependent upon the signal
enable the correct resonance point arriving at the 2nd detector stage.
to be seen. This arrangement has VOLT, THE.—The volt is the unit
been rendered necessary by the em¬ of electromotive force or pressure.
ployment of A.V.C. When the re¬ It is the practical unit of potential
ceiver is exactly tuned to a station difference, being that potential dif¬
the A.V.C. comes into effect and con¬ ference which produces a current of
trols the H.F. amplification, and thus one ampere when applied to a con¬
as the tuning circuit is detuned, the ductor the resistance of which is one
p.W.E.—N* 379
 VOLT — VOLTMETER
ohm. It is equal to 10 s C.G.S. electro¬ bridge circuit, and this results in a
magnetic units, the symbol being V. step-up in voltage.
The international volt is the poten¬ VOLTAGE DRO^.— The difference
tial difference which will produce a of potential along a resistance.
current of one international ampere VOLTAGE DROP AND RESIST¬
when steadily applied to a conductor ANCE.— A useful example of the
the resistance of which is one interna¬ value of one quantity depending
tional ohm. upon the product of two others is the
Other units are the millivolt (which voltage drop in a resistance, which
is equal to the current in amperes,
multiplied by the resistance in ohms.
To take a concrete case, a resistance
of 4 ohms in a circuit carrying 2
amperes will cause a drop of 8 volts.
The practical use of this relation can
be seen when it is desired to break
down the voltage of a high-tension
power unit in order to apply a volt¬
age less than the maximum to one
valve, say, the detector. In order to
do this, the formula must be turned
round a bit, and restated to the
effect that the resistance required for
a given voltage drop is equal to the
required voltage drop divided by the
current in amperes.
If the current is expressed in milli¬
amperes, the answer must be multi¬
plied by 1,000, because a milli¬
ampere is one-thousandth part of an
ampere.
VOLTAIC CELL.— A cell invented
by Professor Volta, and consisting of
two plates, one of zinc and one of
copper, immersed in a weak solution
equals one-thousandth of a volt), the
of sulphuric acid. The acid solution
microvolt (one-millionth of a volt),
should consist of about 10 parts of
and the kilovolt, which equals 1,000
water to 1 of acid, and the metal
volts.
plates may be kept apart by a block
VOLTA EFFECT.— When two dis¬ of wood. (See Fig. 227B.)
similar metals are in contact with one
VOLTMETER.—A measuring in¬
another (in air) one becomes positive
strument used to indicate the pres¬
and the other negative.
sure, or E.M.F., applied to a circuit.
VOLT-AMPERE.— The product of An instrument of this type consumes
R.M.S. volts and R.M.S. amperes. current, and therefore it is essential
Symbol V.A. that the use to which it is to be put
VOLTAGE DOUBLER.—The term should be first decided upon before
applied to a rectifying circuit wherein the type of meter is chosen. A cheap
a metal oxide rectifier is employed. meter will have a low resistance—say,
The rectifier is connected, together round about 200 ohms per volt, and
with fixed condensers, to provide a will therefore consume 5 milliamps.
380
 VOLTMETER VOLUME CONTROL
per volt, a quite considerable value remedies for overloading—one is to
when the meter is used to test, say, increase the handling capabilities of
a ELT. battery of 120 volts rated to the valve by applying more H.T.,
deliver 3 or 4 milliamps. This type and the other is to cut down the
of instrument is also useless for test- signal strength.
ing the mber of receivers
output of ie reaction control
battery " Volume Control,”
elimina- is not strictly cor-
tors, as tile A volume control
voltage >e able to cut down
will drop ngth of any signal,
when the reaction control can
current only build up the
taken is strength of re¬
greater ceived signals, and
than the cannot cut down
eliminator below the original
is rated to strength received
deliver. A by the
good volt¬
Flc. 471.—A simple form of meter o f
Control in conjunction with the
L.F. transformer. the mov¬ There
ing-coil are several differ¬
type will have a resistance of about ent forms of volume
1,000 ohms per volt, and will there¬ control, but there
fore only consume 1 of a milliamp. are very few which
per volt, or 1 milliamp. for an in¬ do not possess some fault. However,
strument reading 100 volts. A volt¬ it should be a simple matter to decide
meter has to be joined in parallel (or upon which type of control will suit
across) the source to be measured. your particular receiver.
(See also Meter.) The Transformer. In conjunction
VOLUME CONTROL. — Unless with the ordinary type of low-fre¬
your loudspeaker gives forth the quency transformer there are two
same tone on either soft or loud sig- possible arrangements. These are
nais, then overloading shown in Figs. 471 and 472. In Fig.
is taking place in the 47T is shown a variable resistance
receiver. There are two shunted across the primary of the
transformer, and the value of the
resistance should be chosen so that
when "all in ” it does not have too
Fig. 472. — great an effect upon the reproduction
A better form
of Control GA’/O quality. Of course, when the trans¬
than Fig. 471. former is a high-class component the
A Potentio-
meter across
presence of an external resistance
the Secondary across either primary or secondary
Winding.
will materially affect the response
curve and the reproduction will be
affected. In some cases, particularly
in the cheap transformer line, the
Plate reproduction may be improved owing
38 t
 VOLUME CONTROL
to the flattening of the curve. The good-class component should be em¬
value of the resistance in Fig. 471 ployed.
should be about 100,000 ohms—not Where resistance capacity coupling
more. is employed, the grid leak can con¬
veniently be substituted
by the potentiometer
method of Fig. 472,
and this arrangement
is shown in Fig. 473.
Very little, if any, dis¬
tortion is introduced by
this method of volume
control, and the only
trouble that can arise
here is noisiness due to
In Fig. 472 a high-resistance poten- a poor contact between the resist-
tiometer is connected across the sec- anee element and the moving arm.

Fig. 477.—A Resistance instead

of a differential Condenser in
the Aerial Circuit.

ondary winding—the arm of the This is the best method of I F.

potentiometer being joined to the volume control.
grid of the following valve. In this
case the value of the resistance
across the transformer is constant
the whole time, and the adjust¬
ment of the arm simply taps off
the required signal voltage. In Fig.
471 the adjustment of signal strength
also varies the value of the resist¬
ance shunted across the primary, and
therefore this method will affect the
quality more than the Fig. 472 ar¬
rangement. The potentiometer should
have a value of 1 or 2 megohms. To
ensure noiseless adjustment a fairly
382
 VOLUME CONTROL — WATT-HOUR
Overloading the Detector. It is not a very good arrangement. Fig. 477
always in the L.F. side of the re¬ shows another form of aerial cöntrol,
ceiver that overloading troubles arise. using this time a variable resistance.
In sets fitted with one or more ELF. The value should be 25,000 or 50,000
stages the detector valve may be ohms, and should be of the poten¬
overloaded and it is therefore neces¬ tiometer type, having three terminals.
sary to introduce some form of con¬ Une end Of the resistance elemi nt is
trol in the aerial circuit. A very Joined to earth and the other end
common form of control is a series is joined to the aerial terminal via
aerial condenser (Fig. 474). but this a small fixed condenser, value about
will affect the tuning adjustment, and •001 ,mfd. The arm is joined to the
when two or more dials have to be aerial. This gives a very fine control
adjusted for tuning, this alteration and does not affect tuning. If the
of the aerial tuning condenser may rubbing contact, is poor it is inclined
make it difficult to get an accurate to be noisy.
setting. It is not therefore ideal, but The final method We shall deal with
will be found good enough for simple is shown in Fig. 47S, and for this a
sets, and can, in fact be used with potentiometer of 50,000 ohms is re¬
a simple detector arrangement when quired. It is joined acrósS the aerial
situated very close to a powerful coil, the arm being taken to the grid
main station. The value should be of the first valve. This is a very
■0003 mid. maximum, and whilst the good arrangement, provided the tun¬
air-dielectric condenser is the best ing coif is not seriously affected by
from the "loss” point of view, the the resistance shunted across it. Some
simple semi-variable type of condenser coils will be badly upset, but in most
is quite O.K. cases this will be found as good an
A much better aerial arrangement arrangement as Fig. 476.
is shown in Fig. 475—this arrange¬ Practically every receiver, of two
ment not affecting the selectivity valves or more, should be ftted with
as does Fig. 474. A simple differ¬ one of the volume-control devices
ential reaction condenser of 0003 mentioned, and improved quality on
mfd. is used for this, although better the local station will be the result of
control is sometimes afforded by an the outlaynecessary for the extra parts.
air-dielectric condenser. The moving (See also Automatic Volume Control
plates are joined to the aerial lead, and Quiet Automatic Volume Control.)
and one Set of fixed plates is joined
to earth and the other end to the w
aerial terminal of the set. This gives WANDER PLUGS.— Small plugs,
a very smooth control of volume and or brass piris fitted with springs or
does not materially alter the tuning slotted, having ebonite ends. These
of the set. A more elaborate version, are attached to flexible leads, and em¬
for use in band-pass circuits and ployed for varying the voltage applied
other critical tuned circuits, is shown to a circuit by inserting in sockets pro¬
in Fig. 476. For this, a small semi¬ vided on batteries of the dry-cell type.
variable condenser of 0003 mfd. is WATT.—The Electrical Unit of
joined between the earth terminal Power; the rate of work represented
and one set of fixed plates. The semi¬ by a current of I ampere under a
variable is adjusted until a value is pressure of 1 volt. 746 watts = 1 h.p.
reached where the setting of the mov¬ It is the product of volts and amps.
ing plates of the differential does not WATT-HOUR.—A commercial unit
have any effect on the tuning. This is of electrical work. It is the work done
383
 WAVEBAND, AMATEUR — WAVEMETER
in I hour by a current of i amp. WAVELENGTH OF TUNED CIR¬
flowing between two points having CUIT.— Formula for the wavelength
a difference of potential of I volt. of a tuned oscillatory circuit is :
WAVEBAND, AMATEUR.— It has i884'96^/LC, where L = inductance in
been internationally agreed to allot microhenrys and C = capacity in
the following bands of frequencies microfarads.
for amateur use. These are popu¬ WAVEMETER.—A device for mea¬
larly referred to as the 5-, 10-, 20-, suring the wavelength of a received
40-, 80-, and 160-metre bands. signal, or setting a receiver to a pre¬
determined wavelength in order to
Frequency in Equivalent Wavelenths in receive a particular station. The de¬
Megacycles. Metres (approx.). vice consists of a coil tuned by a
56-000 to 60-000
variable condenser, the latter having
5’357 to 5-000
nR.no- to JfOûÜ 10-714 to 10-000 a calibrated diál. Across this tuned
14-000 to 14-400 21*428 to 20*833 circuit is arranged a battery and small
7-000 to 7-300 42-857 to 41-095
3-500 to 4-000 85*714 to 75-000 buzzer. If desired a switch may be
1-715 to 2-000 174’635 to 150-000 included in order to avoid disconnect-
ing the battery. When the buzzer
WAVE-CHANGE SWITCH. — A is operated oscillatory currents are
switch included in a circuit to pro¬ set up in the tuned circuit, and these
duce a change in the range of fre¬ can be picked up by a receiver over
quencies over which that circuit will quite a considerable distance. If the
tune. The present wavelengths em¬ dial of the wavemeter is set to a given
ployed by European broadcasting wavelength and the buzzer put in
stations are between 173 and 882-3 action, upon rotating the tuning dial
metres, and there is then a gap until of your receiver you will find a spot
1,060 metres. The gap is reserved for where the oscillations from the buzzer
commercial stations, ships, etc. The are at a maximum. At this spot the
long wavelengths, as they are called, receiver is tuned to the wavelength
extend from 1,060 to 1,973’5 metres. shown by the dial of the wavemeter.
WAVE FREQUENCY.— See Fre¬ In order to enable sharp tuning to
quency. be carried out it is advisable to re¬
WAVELENGTH. — The distance move the wavemeter as far away as
possible from the re-
c e i V e r . Further¬
more, once the
wavemeter has been
calibrated, the coils
and condenser
should be enclosed
in boxes so that
they may not be
damaged and the
values altered. The
diagram (Fig. 479)
shows the circuit
arrangement.
from the crest of one oscillation to There are three types of wave¬
the crest of the next. This distance meter in general use. First, there is
is measured in metres. (See Aerial, the “buzzer” meter, which is in
Natural Wavelength of.) reality a miniature ‘ ‘ spark ’ ’ trans-
384
 WAVEMETER
mitting station which can be tuned which will not vary their character¬
to known wavelengths. It consists of istics in the course of time. It will
an oscillating circuit similar to the be realised that any change in the
aerial circuit of a receiver. This is value of the components will upset
excited by a buzzer like that used in the readings and necessitate the re¬
an electric bell. Secondly, there is calibration of the meter. It is for
the absorption wavemeter, which this reason that one valve must
works by virtue of absorbing energy always be kept for the meter. A dif¬
from the circuit of the set it is desired ferent valve would most likely throw
to calibrate. It consists essentially the readings right out. In fact, it is
of a tuned circuit, comprising an in¬ best not to remove the valve at all
ductance and a variable condenser. It unless you are certain of pushing it
is brought into close proximity to the right home in its holder each time.
circuit to be calibrated. This latter It is the same with the other com¬
has to be oscillating, but when the ponents—once they are fixed leave
wavemeter is brought near it ceases them alone, and try by all means to
to oscillate on the particular wave¬ avoid the accumulation of dust, espe¬
length to which the wavemeter is cially when accompanied with mois¬
tuned. This kind of wavemeter is ture.
very simple and requires no batteries, The only part to be actually ‘ ‘ con¬
but it has the one drawback, that as structed" is the coil. This is wound
it has to be brought very close to the on a 3-in. diameter paxolin former
circuit undergoing calibration it is 6 in. long. Wind the wire as evenly
sometimes difficult to use. and tightly as possible, so that it will
The heterodyne wavemeter is simi¬ not shift later on and alter the wave¬
lar to the other two, in that it has length. Pierce two small holes about
a tuned circuit controlled by a vari¬ J in. from one end of the tube, and
able condenser. This circuit, how¬ leaving a short length for connection,
ever, is made to oscillate by means of secure the wire through the holes.
an ordinary valve. It might be com¬ Then commence winding. Put on 55
pared to a one-valve receiver, in turns, which by the way should con¬
which the reaction is “ turned on sist of 24-gauge D.S.C. wire, and
full ” all the time. It is placed some then make two more holes and finish
little way from the set to be cali¬ off by threading the wire through
brated. The latter is then made to the holes as before, leaving a short
oscillate by advancing the reaction, length for connections. This is the
and on tuning-in to the wavelength medium-wave grid coil. The reaction
which the wavemeter is radiating, the coil follows, and consists of 25 turns
familiar squeal one gets when pass¬ in the same direction composed of
ing a station with the reaction too the same gauge wire. Leave a space
far advanced is heard in the loud¬ of about J in. before starting the
speaker or 'phones. When this squeal long-wave coils. These consist of 170
is heard the wavelength of the meter and 50 turns for grid and reaction
is noted and the same figure marked windings respectively. Fig. 480 will
on the dial of the receiver opposite make the construction quite clear.
where the pointer is. Mounting the Components. Fig.
If a wavemeter is to be reasonably 481 gives a birds’-eye view of the lay¬
accurate, and what is most im¬ out with the panel represented as
portant, remain accurate, it must be lying flat. Probably the first thing
carefully constructed, and must in¬ that will strike you as being some¬
clude only good-class components what unusual is the mounting of the
3«5
 WAVEMETER
variable condenser. It is supported tension. The original component
on a little ebonite panel of its own used was intended as a reaction con¬
some way back from the panel. This trol, and was fitted with a small
is to reduce hand-capacity effects. reaction condenser of the solid-di¬
If you are not familiar with hetero¬ electric type. This, of course, was
dyne wavemeters you may not at removed, and an air-dielectric tuning
once see the reason for this, but it condenser used instead as shown. If
is because there is no aerial or earth on ordering you explain to the
used with the meter. In a receiving makers that the condenser is not re¬
set the moving vanes of the tuning quired, they will, no doubt, supply
condenser are connected to earth so the dial and extension without this.
that bringing one’s hand, which is For the same reason that the con¬
also at earth potential, into proxim- denser is placed some distance from

FlG. 480.—Diagram of coil connections for the Heterodyne Wavemeter shown in Fig. 48!.

ity with them when tuning has no the front panel, so also is the coil
effect. The fixed vanes which are mounted well back. A piece of wood
at high potential are screened by the is fixed across the lower end of the
moving vanes. Here, however, both coil with the aid of glue or one or
the fixed and the moving vanes are two small brads, and then the wood
at high potential, hence the need for is secured to the baseboard with
placing the condenser some way back screws. The rest of the arrangements
from the front panel. This is actually are quite straightforward, and com¬
done by mounting it on a separ¬ prise the mounting of the two
ate panel of its own and controlling switches on the panel, the valve
it by an extension handle. The panel holder and the two terminal mounts
used is simply a piece of ebonite with their four terminals.
21 X 4 in. held upright with two small Precautions in Wiring. Although
panel brackets, and having a hole the wiring is so simple it should not
near the top for the condenser spindle be carried out carelessly. Every wire
to pass through. The control of the should be as straight as possible and
condenser is by means of a really no fancy work indulged in, in the
good slow-motion dial v/ith an ex- form of square corners or angles.
Fig. 481.—Wiring diagram for the Heterodyne Wavemeter.

JS?
 WAVEMETER
Stiff wire is better than limp, as it The meter is now calibrated, and
is less likely to vary its position and to use it adopt the procedure men¬
so cause any slight inaccuracies in tioned in the first part of this section.
wavelength after the meter is cali¬ Any set to be calibrated is set oscil¬
brated. The same remarks apply to lating. Then rotate the knobs until
some extent to the wires from the the heterodyne whistle or squeal of
set to the batteries, especially the the meter is picked up. It is already
H.T. battery. The best way is to known to what wavelength the meter
build a cabinet to house both set and has previously been set, this having
batteries and so do away with any been done by means of the graph.
trailing leads. It is advisable to Assume it was 350 metres, perhaps
solder all connections where possible. 120 0 on the wavemeter dial. Since
Where two wires from the coil are the set under test is tuned to the same
connected to the same terminal on wavelength as the meter it must be
the wave-change switch, it is best to tuned to 350 metres. The meter is
solder them together as near to the then set to another wavelength and
coil as practicable, and take a single the procedure repeated.
stiff connecting wire from this union There are several points to be ob¬
to the switch terminal. served in calibrating and using the
Calibrating and using the Meter. meter. The endeavour should be to
Calibration is carried out in the usual keep the operating conditions the
way with squared paper. Draw a same. Do not, for instance, stand
line and mark it in the dial readings the meter on a wooden table one
of the wavemeter condenser and an¬ day and on another place it on an
other at right angles to it and mark iron mantelshelf. Keep the batteries
it in wavelengths. Tune in a known at the same voltage. Here it may be
station on a selective receiver, and mentioned that there is no need to
tune the wavemeter to the same use a higher value of H.T. than is
wavelength by turning its dial until necessary to keep the meter oscillat¬
it causes a howl right on top of the ing. If there is any difficulty in get¬
transmission being received. Mark ting it to do so it means that in¬
the known wavelength of the station sufficient H.T. is being used or the
on the graph and also the dial read¬ value is unsuitable. If desired, an
ing of the wavemeter. In each case earth connection can be made to the
draw a pencil line in the usual way, meter; if you do so, the connection
from the point marked, so that the must remain, to secure uniformity of
two lines follow the square lines of readings.
the paper, and where they cross mark Finally, it is essential that the
the spot with a point. Repeat this meter should oscillate. If it fails
procedure with as many known sta¬ to do so, then the meter will
tions as possible. The graph is com¬ be useless for all test purposes,
pleted by joining up each of the as it will be impossible to ob¬
points thus plotted with a line. This tain a note from it for hetero¬
will not be straight but slightly dyning.
curved. This plotting must be car¬ When calibrating a set you may, if
ried out for both wavelengths. the meter is too near, get a double
Either make two graphs, or plot hump to the heterodyne note as one
both curves on the same graph using, does from a powerful broadcasting
say, red ink for the medium-wave station. The true wavelength is at the
curve and blue ink for the long-wave silent point between the humps, but
one.
if the meter is placed farther away
388
 WAVEMETER — WHEATSTONE BRIDGE

one will get just a single howl which poles respectively. A pole strength
is, perhaps, more satisfactory. of m webers will repel a unit pole
Another point to look out for is i ctn. away in air, with a force of m
harmonics. A heterodyne meter gives dynes. (See Ampere, Unit Magnetic
out. besides the fundamental, several Pole, Gilbert, and Maxwell.)
harmonics some distance on either WET BATTERY.—A battery in
side of the fundamental. These, al¬ which the electrolyte is in liquid
though not nearly so strong, might form.
possibly be mistaken for the real note WHEATSTONE BRIDGE.— A de¬
where the wavelength of the set vice for measuring the value of a
under calibration is entirely unknown.
This trouble is not likely to arise with
an ordinary broadcast receiver, how¬
ever.
Components
I -0005 mfd. low-loss log condenser.
I extended anti-capacity slow-motion
dial.
i pair of 2 J in. panel brackets.
4 terminals—H.T. + , H. 1. — , L.T. + ,
L.T. -.
2 terminal mounts.
i on-off filament switch.
i three-point wave-change switch.
FlC. 482.—The Wheatstone Bridge and its associated
I valve holder. apparatus.
Panels—one 10x7 in. and one 2 j x
4 in. resistance by balancing it against
Baseboard, 10x8 in. other and known resistances.
i coil former, 3x6 in. Making a Wheatstone Bridge.
Wire for coil—about 2 oz. 24 D.S.C. This instrument is to the electrician
and 2 oz. 30 D.S.C. as important as the balance to the
i hank of connecting wire, 18 guage. chemist, and therefore is very useful
WAVE TRAP.—A device inserted to have.
It consists of a board 12x8 in.
in the aerial lead for preventing in¬
terference. There are twô forms of of very dry oak.
Mount nine brass terminals upon
wave trap, an acceptor and a re¬
it in the positions shown in Fig. 483.
jector. The former accepts the un¬
At 20, 40, 60, 80, are brass pins
wanted signal, whilst the latter re¬
driven into the base in. apart.
jects all but the wanted signal. The
At a distance of 7 in. from this row
device in both cases consists of an
of pins is a row of five more, 10, 30,
oscillatory circuit, i.e. a coil and
50, 70, 90, the same distance apart.
variable condenser. The acceptor
The zigzag line is a length of bare
circuit is connected in series with the
Eureka resistance wire of 22 gauge.
aerial and the receiver, whilst the re¬
Fasten one end under terminal R,
jector is connected in parallel.
and stretch it lightly in a zigzag
WEBER.— The unit of pole strength manner round the brass pins as
named after the German physicist shown, finishing off under terminal
Weber (1795-1878). North and South
poles are called positive and negative Rule eleven horizontal lines across
3
89
 WHEATSTONE BRIDGE — WIMSHURST MACHINE
the board as shown, in. apart, tag of stiff copper wire soldered to
and number the intersections of these the end of it.
lines with the resistance wire. When everything is connected up,
Board Connections. The dotted touch the zigzag wire with this flex¬
lines represent connections at the ible lead. The galvo needle moves
back of the board with thick copper violently. Try different spots on the
wire. Be careful to join up the cor¬ zigzag wire, and one will eventually
rect terminals—R to B, B1 to X 1, find the one where the galvo needle
Rl to X, G‘ to Z, G to the middle is unaffected.
of the R‘X wire. Solder all connec¬ The Formula. Note the number of
tions if possible, but remember that this s-ot by means of the parallel
a good screwed-up connection is lines and figures. Suppose the spot
is 25.
By using the following formula find
the resistam . of the wire :
100 — N
XT XR = X

where N = the number on the board,

R = the standard resistance,
A' = the unknown resistance.
Then

- X 5 = X.
25
whence the resistance of the wire is
15 ohms.
If the unknown quantity’ is sus¬
pected of being high resistance, a
high standard resistance should be
used. One can easily make the
standard resistances, remembering
that the Eureka 22 gauge is 1 ohm per
F1C. 483. A detailed sketch of the Wheatstone Bridge,
showing its construction. 33 in. For 5 ohms, cut off 165 in.,
plus T in. for connections, Coil this
better than a badly soldered one. A round a small cardboard cylinder,
battery is joined up between B and leaving 2 in. free at either end for
B1, and the galvanometer between G connections. When placed in the
and G 1. bridge, | in. of the wire should go
The instrument is used commonly under each terminal to give the cor¬
to find the resistance of a wire or rect resistance between the terminals.
given circuit. WIMSHURST MACHINE. — A
Suppose one wants to find the re¬ machine for producing static charges.
sistance of a certain piece of wire. It consists of two glass or similar in¬
Connect it up between X and X 1. sulating discs having a number of
Between R and R l connect up a strips of tinfoil attached to one side.
standard resistance coil, say 5 ohms. These are rotated close to each other,
To the terminal Z is connected a but in opposite directions. Small
length of flexible wire, with a short tinsel brushes touch the tinfoil strips.
390
 WIRE GAUGES — WOW
and collecting combs ate also ar¬ WOOD SCREWS-— The following
ranged close to the brushes. Charges list of diameters and corresponding
are produced by induction, and are sizes of wood screws that will fit them
conveyed to a Leyden jar. will be found handy: Ä-in. diam.,
WIRE GAUGES. — Instrument No. 00; vj-in. diam., No. 2; J'in.
wires are numbered according to diam., No. 5; ^-in. diam., No. 7;
their thickness, and this numbering and ^¿-in. diam., No. 9.
is standard. Consequently it is WOOD SCREW PROPORTIONS
known as Standard Wire Gauge, ab¬ Twist Drills for Wood Screws
breviated to S.W.G. J I’M Side
Lips and
Dia- For Wood or Metal.
Centre for
Instrument Wire Gauges meter
H’ootZ only.
çf Neck
or "
No. ; Dia. Nò. Dia. Shank. Dia -
(S.B’.G.)(inches) (S.11,,7.) (taches) meter. Sir-' W
nicter

4/0 I -400
25 i ’020 I -066 •067
3/o I 372 ■0B1
2/Q 348 26 , -oi8 2 ' -080
3 I 094 •096
o i -324
i I ’300 28 I -0148 4 I -lort •no
2 I «276 29 *0136 5 I -122 •128 i -Í25
30 0124 6 ' 136 •140
3 I ’252
4 232 31 ï *0116 7 ¡ -150 •154
5 I -212 32 I -0108 8 1 164 •169
6 i ’192 33 j *0100 9 ! *17« •182 A -i_87
34 j -0092 10 I -192 •196
7 I -176
8 -i6o 35 1 *0084 11 1 -206 •209 is -2 18
36 i *0076 12 ' *220 •228
9 • *144 •238
io "128 37 i *0068 13 ' -234
il I -116 38 i *0060 14 -248 •250 i *250
12 -104 39 *°O52 IS I -262 •266
13 ' *092 40 i *0048 16 . -276 •281 is -281
14 *080 41 -0044 17 J -290
15 i -072 42 I -0040 18 i *304 A -312
16 i -064 43 1 *0036 19 I 318
17 ! -056 44 i -0032 20 i -332 Ji -343
18 i *048 45 -0028 21 ' -34Ó
19 -040 46 I -0024
20 I -036 47 *0020 22 | "360 •368 2 -375
•377 2 ; -375
I 'S
48 *0016 23 I 374
40 -0012 24 I 388 •397
23 -024 50 ! ’OOIO 25 i •413 JB ; 406
26 -416 •421
27 -436 *437 iV ; -437
WIRELESS CLUBS.—See Direc¬ 28 -444 •453
29 -458 • 1'^ JB j -468
tory oj Radio Societies. 30 ’472 •484
WIRE RESISTANCE.— See Re¬ 31 ‘486 •500 i -500
J *500
32 -500 •515
sistance Wire on page 13.
WIRED WIRELESS.—A process All dimensions in parts of an inch.
of sending wireless signals along a WOOD’S METAL.—A special soft
wire, using the wire to conduct the solder employed to fix crystals in the
high-frequency currents. This method holder. It consists of I part of tin, 4
permits of a telephone line being used parts of bismuth, I part of cadmium,
for its legitimate purpose of carrying and 2 parts of lead. It melts at about
telephonic communications, whilst at 6o° Centigrade. (See also Crystals.)
the same time carrying the wireless
WOOFER.— A speaker unit de¬
signals. They do not interact.
signed to reproduce the lower fre¬
Wollaston wire.—a very fine quencies. (See Tweeter.)
platinum wire which is coated with
silver. WOW.— Effect of change in pitch
391
 WOOD SCREW PROPORTIONS — ZINCITE

FlC. 484.—Wood Screw proportions and types.

Standard Wood Screws due to variation in speed in record¬

ing or reproducing machine.
rn
1 Fraction. |

Slot.
Approx.

No. of Dia-
1 .4 In.

Screw. meter.
Gauge Dec. CIn. Width.'Depth. X
X-RAYS.— The name given to the
0 •05784 A * A rays of light which are produced by
iA
h
i •07100 A A A pussing a current through a vacuum
2 •08416 À
3 * A A tube. These rays possess the property
4 •i 1048 «■4 A A A A of passing through opaque bodies.
5 •12364 J li A A A
6 •13680 3*4 11 A A Another term for them is Röntgen rays.
7 •44996 A A À X’s.—The term given to static or
8 •16312 A A Ä A
9 •17628 «1 'a4 A A A atmospheric disturbances. (See also
IO •18944 A <» A A Static.)
II •20260 11 A A X’MITTER. — Abbreviation for
12 •21576 A A Y A A
13 •22892 »ï i A A Transmitter.
14 •24208 i H A A
15 •25524 I A A A X’MITTING. — Abbreviation for
•26840 11 à A Transmitting.
it •28156 A A A
18 •29472 H U A
19 •30788 A 11 A Ä z
20 •32104 U SI U A A ZINCITE.— A crystal formed from
21 •33420 ¿ï A A
•34736 ÿ A A A oxide of zinc. Used in conjunction
23 •36052 il il H A A
■37368 S i il A A with bornite or copper pyrites. (See
24
also Crystals.)
392
 IMPORTANT DATES IN WIRELESS HISTORY

IMPORTANT DATES IN WIRELESS HISTORY

JANUARY APRIL
Jan. i, 1894. Professor Hertz died. April 2, 1872. Samuel Morse died.
Jan. 7, 1927. Transatlantic service opened. April 7, 1927. First television demonstration by
Jan. 8, 1923. First outside broadcast, “ The American Telephone and Telegraph Co.
Magic Flute ” (Mozart), from Covent Garden. April 8, 1938. Cairo Wavelength Fixing Con¬
Jan. 17, ;7o6. Beniamin Franklin bum. ference concluded.
April 13, »324. First broadcast from St. Martin-
Ján. 20, 1904. First Press message across the
Atlantic. in-the-Fields, conducted by the Rev. Dick
Jan. 21, 1914. First presidential address to Wire¬ Sheppard.
less Spcjety of London. April 15, 1912. s.s. Titanic struck iceberg, and
Jan. 22, 1775. André Marie Ampère born. sank. Radio used to summon assistance.
Jan. 22, 1901. Station at Lizard opened. April 17, 1790. Benjamin Franklin died.
Jan. 27, 1912. Aranjuez station opened by King April 23, 1924. First broadcast by King George V
Alphonso XII. and King Edward VIII (then Prince of Wales)
Jan. 31,1926. Rugby telegraph station opened. at opening of Wembley Exhibition.
April 24, 1903. Cie. Française Maritime et
FEBRUARY Coloniale de T.S.F. formed.
April 25. 1900. Marconi International Marine
Feb. i, 1937. Penmon (Anglesey) transmitting Communication Co., Ltd., incorporated.
station opened. April 25,1874. H.E. MatChese Marconi, G.C.V.O.,
Feb. 2, 1896. Marconi ramo to Englund. LL.D., born.
Feu. 2, 1923. Cardiff station opened. April 27, 1791. Samuel Morse born.
Feb. 3, 1870. Government take pussession of April 29, 1932. First demonstration of U.S,
British telegraphy system. ultra-short-wavo television by Baird.
Feb. 4, 1925. Oliver Heaviside died
Feb. 8, 1925. First amateur telegraphy between MAY
Australia and England. May i, 1922. Poldhu station closed.
Feb n tq3 .
r Atlantic bridged by télévision. May i, 1923. First broadcast from Savoy’ Hill.
May 2, 1925. First broadcast by King George V,
Feb. il, 1847. Thomas Alva Edison born.
Feb. il, 1901. Wireless communication estab¬ at the Royal Academy Banquet.
lished between Niton and the Lizard ; 196 miles. May 13, 1897. Communication established over
Feb. 14, 1922. Writtie (2MT) transmitter opened. eight miles.
Feb. 15, 1834. Sir W. Preece born. May 21, 1901. First British ship, s.s. Lake
Feb. 16, 1923. First broadcast play. Champlain, equipped with wireless telegraphy.
Feb. 17, 1923. First charity appeal by wireless. May 30, 1927. Baird television by wire between
Feb. 18, 1900. First German commercial wireless London and Glasgow.
telegraph station opened on Borkum Island. JUNE
Feb. 19, 1745. Alessandro Volta born. June i, 1916. Wireless first adopted by New
Feb. 22, 1857. Professor H. R. Hertz bom. York Police.
Feb. 26, 1900. “Four Sevens” tuning patent June 2, i8ofi. Marconi’s fust British patent
taken out by Marconi. granted, No. 12039, for Hertzian Wave tele¬
Feh 27, 1922. Fir.ít Annual Radio Conference graphy.
held in Washington. June 3, 1898. Lord Kelvin sent first paid radio
Feb. 28, 1900. Communication up to 60 miles telegram from the Needles station.
between s.s. Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse and Bor¬ June 10. 1836. André Marie Anqère died.
kum Island. June 12, 1851. Sir Oliver Lodge bom.
MARCH June 25, 1902. First magnetic detection, installed
Mar. i, 1901. Wireless service inaugurated in the in Italian cruiser Carlo Alberto.
Hawaiian Islands. June 26, 1824. Lotd Kelvin bom.
Mar i, 1905. First amateur wireless telegraphy JULY
between Gt. Britain apd New Zealand.
Ma». 3, 1047. Dr. Alexander Graham Bell born. July 4,1937. Washford transmittingstationopened.
Mar. 3, 1899. First use of wireless in life-saving July 5, 1912. International Radiotelegraph Con¬
at sea. vention signed in London.
Mar. 3, 1923. Glasgow station opened. July 5, 1913. London Wireless Club inaugurated
Mar. 5, 1827. Alessandro Volta died. (the nucleus of the Wireless Society of London
Mar. 9, 1930. First dual transmission from and the Radio Society of Great Britain.
Brookmans Park. July 17, 1897. Communication up to 10 miles
Mar. 13, 1932. First programme from Broad¬ lietween Spezia and Italian cruiser San Martin.
casting House. July 20, 1897. Wireless Telegraph and Signal
Mar. 16, 1787. Georg Simon Ohm born. Co., incoiporated (from which the present
Mar. 20, 1727. Sir Isaac Newton died. Marconiphone Co. is directly descended).
Mar. 23, 1906. First high-power directional aerial July 20, 1898. • Events at Kingstown Regatta re¬
used at Clifden. ported by Radiotelegraphy.
Mar. 27, 1899. Communication established be¬ Julv 20, 1937. H.E. .Marchese Marconi, G.C.V.O.,
tween Wimereux and South Foreland Light¬ died.
house. July 21, 1925. First transmission from Chelms¬
Mar. 30, 1930. B.B.C. commence television ford, 5XX, B.B.C. high-power experimental
broadcasts. station.

393
 IMPORTANT DATES IN WIRELESS HISTORY
JULY— (contd.) Oct. 15, 1901. First fan aerials erected for experi¬
July 24, 1903. Agreement by British Admiralty ments between Poldhu and Newfoundland.
for the use of Marconi system in the Navy. Oct. 17, 1907. Transatlantic stations at Clifden
July 27, 1896. First demonstration of directional and Glace Bay open fo r public service.
wireless, using reflectors. Oct. 17, 1923. Bourne ith station opened.
July 27, 1915. Communication established be¬ Oct. 18, 1931. T. A ’ *n died.
tween San Francisco and Japan via Honolulu. Oct. 19, 1937. S.. • transmitting station
July 27, 1925. Daventry 5XX officially opened. opened.
July 28, 1916. Regulation published making Oct. 19, 1937. I .herford died,
wireless telegraphy compulsory on British Oct. 24, 1924. station opened.
vessels of 3,000 tons and over. Oct. 25, 1926. .nd-Canada Beam station
opened.
AUGUST Oct. 26, 190 e T.S.F. of Brussels formed,
Oct. 26, i ■iotelephonic communication
Aug. i, 1922. Dr. A. Graham Bell died. effected Arlington, U.S.A., and the
Aug. 2, 1928. First demonstration of Telelogo¬ Eiffel n
scopy by Baird.
.OVEMBER
Aug. 3, 1898. Communication established be¬
tween the Royal Yacht Osborne and Lady wood Noy. Marconi Wireless Telegraph
Cottage, Osborne. C< aada formed.
Aug a, 1993. First International Conference on Noy. irst wireless land station in Bel-
wireless telegraphy held in Bt rlin. giu. pc 1 4 La Panne.
Aug. 4, 1914. War declared on Germany and all Nov. 14, p* London Í2LO), first British
private radiotelegraphy suspended. broadcasting station, commenced.
Aug. 13, 1888. John Logie Baird born. Nov. 15, 1832. Morse code first made public.
Aug. 15, 1904. Wireless Telegraph Act of Great Nov. 15, 1899. Communication up to 36 miles
Britain passed. between the Needles station and s.s. St. Paul.
Aug. 15, 1924. Hull relay station opened. Nov. 15, 1922. First programmes broadcast from
Aug. 18, 1921. Leafield (Oxford) station opened the London, Birmingham, and Manchester
by P.M.G. stations.
Aug. 19, 1920. Communication established be¬ Nov. 16, 1904. First Fleming valve patent
tween an aeroplane in flight to Paris, and a granted No. 24850.
telephone subscriber in London. Nov. 22, 1899. Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph
Company of Amere; formed.
SEPTEMBER Nov. 22, 1922. • less Society of London
changed its title to the Wireless Society of Great
Sept. 3, 1939. Television transmissions suspended Britain.
owing to declaration of war with Germany. Nov. 25, 1642. Sir Isaac Newton born.
Sept. 9, 1737. Luigi Galvani bon.. Nov. 29, 1849. Dr. J. A. Fleming born.
Sept. 12, 1923. Sir E. Rutherford’s address to
the British Association at Liverpool simultane¬ DECEMBER
ously broadcast from all B.B.C. stations.
Sept. 16, 1929. First Regional station, Brook¬ Dec. i, 1900. Wireless officially adopted by Lon¬
mans Park, opened. don Fire Brigade.
Sept. 22, 1791. Michael Faraday born. Dec. 6, 1897. Communication established up to
Sept. 22, 1918. First messages transmitted by 18 miles between a steamer and the Needles.
wireless to Australia. Dec. 9,1932. Empire Broadcasting from Daventry
Sept. 28, 1837. Morse patented his telegraph. began.
Sept. 29, 1909. British coast stations taken over Dec. 12, 1896. Sir W. Preece lectured on Mar¬
by P.M.G. coni’s invention at Toynbee Hall.
Sept. 30, 1922. First Radio Exhibition at Dec. 12, 1901. Signals received at St. John’s,
Horticultural Hall. Newfoundland, from Poldhu, a distance of
1,800 miles.
OCTOBER Dec. 15, 1922. British Broadcasting Company,
Ltd., registered.
Oct. i, 1922. First all-British wireless exhibition Dec. 17, 1902. First wireless message transmitted
opened. across the Atlantic.
Oct. 3, 1906. Triode patented by Lee de Forest. Dec. 18, 1921. Demonstration of duplex radio-
Oct. 7, 1934. DrMtwich station opened. telephony between London and Amsterdam.
Oct. 8, 1908. Russian Company of Wifeless Dec. iH. 1902 Messages despatched bv Senatore
Telegraphs and Telephones formed. Marconi and Earl Minto to King Eduatu VII
Oct. 10, 1923. Aberdeen station opened. and King Victor of Italy.
Oct. 12, 1936. Burghead transmitting station Dec. 24, 1910. Cia Nacional de T.S.H. formed.
opened. Dec. 24, 1923. Newcastle station opened.

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