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Top 22 Exam Preparation Questions
1. Explain the COCOMO model in detail and provide an example for calculating
effort, time, and staff size.
Ans. COCOMO Model Overview
The COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model) is a widely used software cost estimation model
developed by Barry Boehm. It helps estimate the effort, time, and team size required to
complete a software project based on its size and complexity.
COCOMO provides a structured framework for estimating costs in software projects and is
divided into three levels:
1. Basic COCOMO: Estimates software effort and cost based primarily on the project size in
terms of KLOC (thousands of lines of code).
2. Intermediate COCOMO: Incorporates various cost drivers like product complexity, team
experience, and tool support to refine the estimates.
3. Detailed COCOMO: Adds further granularity by estimating the effort required for each
phase of the software development lifecycle.
Basic COCOMO Model
The Basic COCOMO model uses mathematical formulas to estimate Effort (EEE),
Development Time (TTT), and Staff Size (SSSSSS):
Formulas:
1. Effort (EEE): E=a⋅(KLOC)b(in person-months)E = a \cdot (KLOC)^b \quad \text{(in person-
months)}E=a⋅(KLOC)b(in person-months)
2. Development Time (TTT): T=c⋅(E)d(in months)T = c \cdot (E)^d \quad \text{(in
months)}T=c⋅(E)d(in months)
3. Staff Size (SSSSSS): SS=ET(in people)SS = \frac{E}{T} \quad \text{(in people)}SS=TE
(in people)
Project Categories
COCOMO divides projects into three categories based on complexity:
1. Organic: Small teams, familiar domains, and less complex requirements.
2. Semi-Detached: Intermediate size, mixed experience levels, moderately complex.
3. Embedded: High complexity, stringent constraints, real-time systems.
Each category uses different constants (aaa, bbb, ccc, and ddd):
Project Type aaa bbb ccc ddd
Organic 2.4 1.05 2.5 0.38
Semi-Detached 3.0 1.12 2.5 0.35
Embedded 3.6 1.20 2.5 0.32
Step 2: Calculate Development Time (TTT):

Using the formula:
T=c⋅(E)d
For a Semi-Detached project:
T=2.5⋅(263.13)0.35
T≈2.5⋅6.89≈17.22 months
Step 3: Calculate Staff Size (SS):
Using the formula:
SS=ET/SS
SS=263.13/17.22≈15.27 people
Results
• Effort (E): 263.13263.13263.13 person-months
• Development Time (T): 17.2217.2217.22 months
• Staff Size (SS): 151515 people (approx.)
Interpretation
To complete a Semi-Detached software project requiring 50 KLOC, the team would need
approximately 15 people working for 17 months to cover an estimated effort of 263
person-months.
Let me know if you'd like assistance with another example or further details on
Intermediate/Detailed COCOMO!
2. What is Software Configuration Management (SCM)? Why is it important in
software engineering?
Ans. Software Configuration Management (SCM)
Software Configuration Management (SCM) is a systematic process of managing,
controlling, and tracking changes in software projects. It ensures that all artifacts related to
the project—such as source code, documentation, test scripts, and configuration files—are
accurately identified, maintained, and tracked throughout the software development
lifecycle.
Key Activities in SCM
1. Version Control: Tracks changes to files and allows developers to revert to previous
versions or work on multiple versions simultaneously.
2. Change Management: Manages and documents changes to requirements, design, and
code to ensure traceability.
3. Configuration Identification: Defines and identifies all software items (e.g., source code
files, libraries, and documentation) to be managed.
4. Configuration Control: Ensures that only approved changes are implemented in the
software system.
5. Build Management: Automates the process of compiling source code, linking libraries,
and packaging the application for deployment.
6. Release Management: Manages the deployment and delivery of software builds to
various environments (e.g., testing, production).
7. Status Reporting: Provides a record of the current state of the project’s artifacts,
changes, and their status.
Importance of SCM in Software Engineering
1. Ensures Consistency: Maintains uniformity in code and documentation across teams,
minimizing discrepancies.
2. Improves Collaboration: Facilitates teamwork by allowing multiple developers to work
on the same project without conflicts.
3. Manages Complexity: Helps handle the growing complexity of software systems by
organizing and tracking components.
4. Change Control: Ensures that changes are systematically reviewed, tested, and
integrated, reducing the risk of introducing defects.
5. Traceability: Tracks the origin of changes and links them to requirements, designs, or
bug reports, making it easier to audit and review.
6. Disaster Recovery: Provides backups and version histories, enabling recovery from
errors, data loss, or unexpected issues.
7. Faster Releases: Automates build and release processes, accelerating software delivery
while maintaining quality.
8. Compliance: Ensures adherence to industry standards and regulatory requirements by
documenting and controlling changes.
SCM Tools
Some popular tools for implementing SCM include:
• Git: A distributed version control system widely used in software projects.
• Subversion (SVN): A centralized version control system.
• Microsoft Team Foundation Server (TFS): A platform for version control, build
management, and project tracking.
• Jenkins: An automation server for building, testing, and deploying software.
• Perforce: A version control system used for large-scale projects.
Example in Practice
Imagine a team developing a mobile app. Without SCM, developers might overwrite each
other's changes, lose track of which version is deployed, or find it challenging to revert to a
stable state after an error. SCM ensures:
• Developers work on separate branches of the code.
• Changes are merged and reviewed systematically.
• Builds are automated and tested before deployment.
• A record exists of what changes went into each version.
3. Define the Agile Manifesto and explain its four core values.
Ans. Agile Manifesto
The Agile Manifesto is a foundational document that outlines the principles and values
guiding Agile software development. It was created in 2001 by a group of software
developers and practitioners aiming to improve traditional development processes,
emphasizing flexibility, collaboration, and customer satisfaction.
The Agile Manifesto consists of four core values and twelve principles that prioritize
Four Core Values of the Agile Manifesto
1. Individuals and Interactions Over Processes and Tools
o Explanation: Agile prioritizes the people involved in the project—developers,
stakeholders, and customers—and their collaboration over rigid adherence to
processes or reliance on tools.
o Why It Matters: Processes and tools are important, but successful projects
depend on effective communication, teamwork, and problem-solving by the
individuals involved.
Example: Developers working closely with stakeholders to clarify requirements rather than
relying solely on detailed documentation or predefined workflows.
2. Working Software Over Comprehensive Documentation
• Explanation: Agile emphasizes delivering functional software that meets customer
needs rather than producing extensive documentation that may become outdated or
irrelevant.
• Why It Matters: While documentation has value, the primary measure of progress is
functional, deployable software that provides real value to the customer.
Example: Delivering a usable prototype to the customer early in the project instead of
spending months documenting every feature before starting development.
3. Customer Collaboration Over Contract Negotiation
o Explanation: Agile promotes continuous collaboration with customers to
understand their needs and adapt to changes rather than sticking rigidly to a
predefined contract.
o Why It Matters: Requirements often evolve during a project, and frequent
customer feedback ensures the product stays aligned with business goals.
Example: Regularly meeting with the client to review progress and reprioritize features
instead of adhering strictly to the original scope.
4. Responding to Change Over Following a Plan
o Explanation: Agile recognizes that change is inevitable and encourages flexibility
to adjust plans as necessary rather than rigidly following a fixed plan.
o Why It Matters: Adapting to changes ensures the product remains relevant and
valuable in a dynamic environment.
Example: Updating the development roadmap to accommodate new market demands
instead of completing features that are no longer needed.
Why the Agile Manifesto Is Important
The Agile Manifesto transformed the software development industry by focusing on:
• Customer Satisfaction: Delivering value early and continuously.
• Adaptability: Embracing changes in requirements and priorities.
• Collaboration: Encouraging open communication among team members and
stakeholders.
• Continuous Improvement: Iterative development cycles that allow for learning and
refinement.
These values have influenced not just software development but also broader industries
adopting Agile methodologies for project management and organizational growth.
4. Differentiate between Agile project management and Traditional project

management.
Ans. Agile Project Management vs. Traditional Project Management
Aspect Agile Project Management Traditional Project Management
Iterative and incremental Linear and sequential approach

1. Approach
approach. (Waterfall model).
Highly adaptable to changes in Limited flexibility; changes are

2. Flexibility
requirements or priorities. difficult to accommodate.
Continuous and adaptive;

Extensive upfront planning with a
3. Planning detailed planning happens in
fixed scope and schedule.
iterations.
Customer satisfaction through Delivering the project within

4. Focus
continuous delivery of value. scope, time, and budget.
Follows distinct, predefined

5. Project Divided into short cycles or
phases: initiation, planning,
Lifecycle sprints.
execution, closure.
Incremental delivery after each Single delivery at the end of the

6. Deliverables
sprint or iteration. project.
Active participation
7. Customer Minimal involvement after
throughout the project
Involvement requirements are gathered.
lifecycle.
Aspect Agile Project Management Traditional Project Management
Self-organizing, cross- Hierarchical and structured

8. Team Structure
functional teams. teams with defined roles.
Risks are identified and Risks are often identified later in

9. Risk
addressed early through the lifecycle, making mitigation
Management
frequent iterations. challenging.
10. Minimal documentation; Comprehensive documentation

Documentation emphasis on working software. throughout the project.
11. Performance Measured by value delivered Measured by adherence to the

Metrics and team velocity. plan (scope, time, budget).
12. Suitable Best for dynamic, innovative, Best for well-defined, stable, and
Projects or complex projects. predictable projects.
13. Tools and Uses tools like Scrum, Kanban, Uses Gantt charts, PERT charts,
Techniques and user stories. and detailed timelines.
14. Leadership Collaborative leadership Directive leadership (command

Style (servant leadership). and control).
5.What is a Minimum Viable Product (MVP)? Provide an example.

Ans. Minimum Viable Product (MVP)
A Minimum Viable Product (MVP) is a development technique in which a product is created
with only the core features necessary to satisfy early adopters. The purpose of an MVP is to
gather user feedback quickly and cost-effectively, allowing teams to iterate and improve the
product based on real-world usage before committing to a full-scale development.
Key Characteristics of an MVP
1. Core Functionality: Includes only the essential features to meet the primary needs of
target users.
2. Quick to Market: Built and released quickly to begin testing with users as soon as
possible.
3. Feedback-Driven: Aims to collect user feedback to guide further development and avoid
building features that aren't needed.
4. Cost-Effective: Minimizes time and resource expenditure by focusing on essential
features.
Benefits of an MVP
1. Validates Ideas: Helps test the feasibility of the product idea with minimal investment.
2. Reduces Risk: Identifies potential issues or mismatches with user needs early on.
3. Improves Resource Allocation: Focuses efforts on features that users truly value.
4. Encourages Iteration: Supports continuous improvement based on user feedback.
Example of an MVP
Scenario: Developing a Ride-Sharing App
Suppose a team wants to create a ride-sharing app like Uber. Instead of building a full-fledged
platform with all features (real-time tracking, multiple payment options, loyalty programs, etc.),
they could release an MVP with the following core features:
1. User Registration: Allows users to create an account.
2. Ride Request: Lets users input pickup and drop-off locations.
3. Driver Assignment: Matches users with available drivers.
4. Basic Payment: Facilitates cash or simple card payments.
By launching this MVP, the team can:
• Test whether users find the idea valuable.
• Gather feedback on user experience (e.g., ease of booking rides, driver availability).
• Determine if the app solves a genuine problem before investing in advanced features like
real-time tracking.
6.Explain quality metrics in software engineering with examples.

Ans. Quality metrics in software engineering are quantitative measures used to evaluate the
quality of a software product or process. These metrics help developers, project managers, and
stakeholders understand how well the software meets its requirements, performs in its
environment, and satisfies user needs. Quality metrics are essential for monitoring, assessing,
and improving software development and maintenance processes.
Categories of Quality Metrics
1. Product Quality Metrics
These metrics focus on the quality of the software itself. Examples include:
o Functionality: Measures how well the software meets functional requirements.
o Reliability: Assesses the probability of failure-free operation over time (e.g.,
Mean Time Between Failures, MTBF).
o Maintainability: Evaluates how easily the software can be modified or updated
(e.g., cyclomatic complexity).
o Performance Efficiency: Examines how well the software uses resources (e.g.,
response time, throughput).
o Portability: Measures the ease of transferring software to a different
environment.
2. Process Quality Metrics
These metrics assess the effectiveness and efficiency of the software development
process. Examples include:
o Defect Density: Number of defects per unit of code or functionality.
o Cycle Time: Time taken to complete a development cycle.
o Effort Variance: Difference between estimated and actual effort.
o Test Coverage: Percentage of the codebase covered by test cases.
3. Project Quality Metrics
These metrics evaluate the overall health and success of a project. Examples include:
o Schedule Variance: Difference between planned and actual timelines.
o Budget Variance: Difference between planned and actual costs.
o Team Productivity: Output per developer or team (e.g., lines of code or features
delivered per sprint).
Example:-
1. Product Quality Metrics
These measure the quality of the software product itself.
• Defect Density:
Defect Density=Number of Defects Found/Size of Software (e.g., lines of code, function points)
Example: 0.5 defects per 1000 lines of code (KLOC).
• Mean Time to Failure (MTTF):
Average time the software operates before a failure occurs.
Example: MTTF = 500 hours.
• Response Time:
Time taken by the system to respond to a user request.
Example: 2 seconds for a webpage to load.
• Code Coverage:
Percentage of source code executed during testing.
Example: 85% of code covered by unit tests.
• Cyclomatic Complexity:
Measures the complexity of a program's control flow.
Example: A function with a cyclomatic complexity of 10 may indicate it is difficult to test
or maintain.
2. Process Quality Metrics
These evaluate the quality of the development process.
• Defect Removal Efficiency (DRE):
DRE=Defects Removed During Development/Total Defects (Development + Post-Release)
Example: 90% defect removal efficiency.
• Test Case Effectiveness:
Effectiveness=Defects Found by Test Cases/Total Defects Found (Test + Production)
Example: 75% of defects found during testing.
• Change Request Count:
Number of change requests made during the project lifecycle.
Example: 10 change requests during development.
• Test Execution Rate:
Number of test cases executed per unit of time.
Example: 50 test cases per hour.
3. Project Quality Metrics
These assess the overall success and quality of the project.
• Schedule Variance (SV):
SV=Planned Completion Time−Actual Completion Time
Example: -10 days (indicating a delay).
• Cost Variance (CV):
CV=Planned Budget−Actual Cost
Example: $10,000 under budget.
• Requirement Stability Index (RSI):
Measures the stability of requirements over time.
RSI=1−Number of Requirement Changes/Total Requirements
Example: 0.95 (high stability).
• Team Velocity (Agile):
Measures the amount of work (story points or tasks) completed in a sprint.
Example: 25 story points per sprint.
• Customer Satisfaction Score (CSAT):
Measures how satisfied customers are with the product.
Example: CSAT = 4.5/5.
4. User-Oriented Quality Metrics
These focus on user experience and satisfaction.
• Net Promoter Score (NPS):
Measures user willingness to recommend the product.
Example: NPS = 75 (on a scale of -100 to 100).
• Usability Score:
Based on usability tests, rates how easy the product is to use.
Example: Usability Score = 85/100.
• Error Frequency:
Number of user-reported errors per unit time.
Example: 2 errors per 100 users per week.
7.Prepare an SRS document for the LIC management system, including policy
administration, claims processing, and customer management.
Ans. 1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this document is to provide a comprehensive Software Requirements
Specification (SRS) for the LIC Management System. The system will handle key operations for
policy administration, claims processing, and customer management. This document will be
used by the development team, stakeholders, and testers to ensure that the system meets its
objectives and user requirements.
1.2 Scope
This system will provide an end-to-end solution for managing Life Insurance policies, processing
claims, and managing customer records. It will support various stakeholders, including insurance
agents, customers, and administrative staff.
1.3 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations
• LIC: Life Insurance Corporation
• SRS: Software Requirements Specification
• UI: User Interface
• API: Application Programming Interface
• DBMS: Database Management System
1.4 References
• LIC Policy Management Guidelines
• ITU-T Recommendations for Communication Protocols
• ISO 27001: Information Security Management
1.5 Overview
This document details the functional and non-functional requirements for the LIC Management
System. The system will manage policy details, handle claims, and provide tools for managing
customer data. It will integrate with existing infrastructure and provide high security, scalability,
and user-friendliness.
2. Overall Description
2.1 Product Perspective
The LIC Management System is a web-based application designed to help insurance companies
efficiently handle policies, claims, and customer information. It will integrate with databases,
external insurance databases, and payment systems.
2.2 Product Functions
• Policy Administration: Allows agents to create, modify, renew, and cancel policies.
• Claims Processing: Enables the registration, verification, approval, and settlement of
claims.
• Customer Management: Manages customer profiles, interactions, and feedback.
2.3 User Classes and Characteristics
• Customers: Individuals who hold insurance policies and may file claims.
• Agents: LIC employees or external agents who manage policies and handle claims.
• Administrators: LIC staff who oversee the operations, manage system configurations,
and generate reports.
2.4 Operating Environment
• Server: Linux/Windows Server 2019 or later
• Client: Web browser (Chrome, Firefox, Edge)
• Database: MySQL / PostgreSQL
2.5 Design and Implementation Constraints
• The system should be designed to comply with LIC's regulatory standards.
• The system should be implemented using scalable technologies to handle high data
volumes.
2.6 User Documentation
User manuals will be provided for both customers and administrators. These manuals will
contain instructions on how to use the system for various functions.
2.7 Assumptions and Dependencies
• Integration with existing LIC databases and payment gateways is required.
• Third-party services for document verification and fraud detection may be integrated.
3. System Features
3.1 Policy Administration
3.1.1 Feature 1: Policy Creation
• Description: This feature allows agents to create new policies for customers. The agent
will input customer details, policy type, premium amount, and other relevant
information.
• Functional Requirements:
o The system should allow agents to select policy types (e.g., term, endowment).
o The system should validate the customer’s eligibility.
o The system should generate a unique policy number.
3.1.2 Feature 2: Policy Modification
• Description: The system will allow agents to modify the policy details (premium amount,
beneficiaries, etc.) based on customer requests.
o Changes should be tracked with an audit log.
o Notifications should be sent to customers for any updates.
3.1.3 Feature 3: Policy Renewal
• Description: Customers will be able to renew their policies through the system.
o The system should remind customers when their policy is about to expire.
o Payments for renewal should be processed through integrated payment
gateways.
3.1.4 Feature 4: Policy Cancellation
• Description: The system allows policy cancellation before the policy’s maturity date.
o A confirmation should be requested from the customer before processing.
o A reason for cancellation must be provided.
3.2 Claims Processing
3.2.1 Feature 1: Claims Registration
• Description: Customers or agents can register claims through the system by providing
necessary details (incident, policy number, documents).
o Claims can be submitted online with relevant documents (e.g., medical reports,
police reports).
o Claims are assigned a unique claim ID.
3.2.2 Feature 2: Claims Verification and Validation
• Description: Claims submitted by customers will be verified against policy terms and
conditions.
o The system should perform automated checks against policy coverage.
o Fraud detection algorithms should be applied to detect false claims.
3.2.3 Feature 3: Claims Approval/Disapproval
• Description: After verification, claims will either be approved or rejected based on the
investigation.
o The system should provide notifications to customers about approval/rejection.
o Reasons for rejection should be documented.
3.2.4 Feature 4: Claims Settlement
• Description: The system will facilitate claims settlement by processing payments to
customers.
o Payment should be processed via integrated gateways.
o Claims status should be updated as "Settled."
3.3 Customer Management
3.3.1 Feature 1: Customer Registration
• Description: Customers can register in the system by providing necessary personal
information.
o The system should validate the customer’s identity.
o Customer registration should be confirmed via email or SMS.
3.3.2 Feature 2: Customer Profile Management
• Description: Customers should be able to manage their profile information.
o Profile details such as contact information, beneficiaries, and policy preferences
can be updated.
o The system should maintain a history of changes.
3.3.3 Feature 3: Customer Communication
• Description: The system should allow for communication between the company and
customers.
o Email and SMS notifications should be sent for critical events (policy renewal,
claim status).
o Customers should be able to send queries via the portal.
3.3.4 Feature 4: Customer Feedback
• Description: The system should allow customers to submit feedback on services.
o Feedback can be submitted through a form and tracked.
o Administrators should have access to feedback reports.
4. External Interface Requirements
4.1 User Interfaces
• The system will have a user-friendly web interface.
• The user interface should be responsive and work across devices
8. Design the SRS for an online examination form submission system, including
functional and non functional requirements.
Ans. 1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose
This Software Requirements Specification (SRS) document describes the requirements for an
Online Examination Form Submission System. The system is designed to allow students to
register, fill out their examination forms, and submit them online. It will also enable
administrators to manage the submissions and track form status.
1.2 Scope
The Online Examination Form Submission System allows students to fill in and submit
examination forms for their respective courses, while administrators can view, validate, and
approve these submissions. The system should handle user authentication, data validation,
form submission, and confirmation.
• Admin: The administrator responsible for managing and validating form submissions.
• Student: The end user who fills out and submits the examination form.
1.4 References
• ISO 9126: Software Engineering – Product Quality
• Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG)
• System Security Guidelines (ISO/IEC 27001)
1.5 Overview
This document provides both functional and non-functional requirements for the Online
Examination Form Submission System. It outlines the key features of the system, the
interactions between users and the system, and specifies the expected performance, security,
and usability standards.
The system will be a web-based application accessed via a browser. It will integrate with existing
student management systems for user verification and data retrieval (e.g., course information).
It will allow students to fill out the examination form, upload necessary documents (if required),
and submit their forms. Administrators will have access to the system to validate and track the
submissions.
• User Registration and Authentication: Students will need to register and log in securely
to access the examination form.
• Examination Form Filling: The system will present the student with the examination
form to be filled out with personal details, course details, and exam-related information.
• Form Submission: After filling the form, the student will submit it electronically, and the
system will validate the form.
• Confirmation and Acknowledgment: After submission, the system will send a
confirmation message to the student.
• Admin Interface: Administrators can review and manage form submissions.
• Students: They will register, fill out, and submit the examination form.
• Admins: Administrators who validate the form submissions, view student submissions,
and manage the system's overall operations.
• Guest Users: Users who may browse the system for public information (e.g., exam dates,
instructions), but will not have access to fill the forms unless authenticated.
• Server: The application will be hosted on a web server running Linux/Windows Server.
• Client: Any modern web browser (Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge) supporting HTML5,
CSS3, and JavaScript.
• Database: MySQL or PostgreSQL for storing form data and user information.
• Framework: The application will be built using an MVC-based web framework (e.g.,
Spring, Django, or Ruby on Rails).
• The system should be developed using open-source technologies, wherever feasible.
• The system must comply with WCAG for accessibility and GDPR for data privacy,
ensuring compliance with international standards.
• Students will have access to the internet to complete their form submission.
• The system assumes that the student database and course information are available and
can be accessed by the system.
3. System Features
3.1 User Registration and Authentication
3.1.1 Description
• Functionality: The system must allow users (students) to register and authenticate
themselves via a secure login.
• Requirements:
o Students should be able to register using their student ID and email.
o A verification email or SMS should be sent to confirm registration.
o The system should authenticate users before accessing the form.
o Passwords must be stored securely (hashed and salted).
3.1.2 Functional Requirements
• FR1: The system should allow students to create an account using their registration
number and email address.
• FR2: Students must log in using a username (student ID) and password.
• FR3: Users should be able to reset passwords via email/SMS if forgotten.
3.2 Examination Form Filling
3.2.1 Description
• Functionality: Once authenticated, students will fill out an examination form with
necessary details.
• Requirements:
o The form should include fields for personal information, course selection, and
exam preferences.
o Students must attach any required documents (e.g., photo, ID proof).
o Form data must be validated (e.g., valid student ID, valid courses).
• FR4: The system must display a form with all necessary fields such as personal details,
course information, and exam preferences.
• FR5: The system should validate the entered data before submission (e.g., ensure all
required fields are filled).
• FR6: The system should allow document uploads in formats like JPG, PNG, PDF.
• FR7: The form should allow users to preview their submission before final submission.
3.3 Form Submission
3.3.1 Description
• Functionality: After filling the form, students will submit it electronically. The system will
validate the form for completeness and correctness.
• Requirements:
o The system will check for missing or invalid data before accepting the submission.
o The student will receive an acknowledgment after successful submission.
• FR8: The system must validate the form for missing data or invalid entries.
• FR9: Upon successful form submission, the system will generate a confirmation message
with a reference number.
3.4 Confirmation and Acknowledgment
3.4.1 Description
• Functionality: After submitting the form, the system will send a confirmation message
(email/SMS) to the student with submission details.
• Requirements:
o The message should include the submission reference number, and instructions
for further actions.
• FR10: The system must send a confirmation email/SMS with the submission details to
the student.
• FR11: The system should provide a downloadable PDF version of the form for the
student to keep.
3.5 Admin Interface for Form Management
3.5.1 Description
• Functionality: Administrators will have access to manage form submissions, validate
entries, and generate reports.
• Requirements:
o Admins should be able to view and approve or reject student submissions.
o Admins can generate reports (e.g., the number of submissions, pending forms).
• FR12: The system should allow administrators to view submitted forms with details.
• FR13: Administrators should be able to validate, approve, or reject the submissions.
• FR14: Admins should be able to generate submission reports (e.g., daily, weekly).
Sure! Below is the Software Requirements Specification (SRS) for an Online Examination Form
Submission System, including both functional and non-functional requirements.
Software Requirements Specification (SRS) for Online Examination Form Submission System
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
o 1.1 Purpose
o 1.2 Scope
o 1.3 Definitions, Acronyms, and Abbreviations
o 1.4 References
o 1.5 Overview
o 2.1 Product Perspective
o 2.2 Product Functions
o 2.3 User Classes and Characteristics
o 2.4 Operating Environment
o 2.5 Design and Implementation Constraints
o 2.6 Assumptions and Dependencies
3. System Features
o 3.1 User Registration and Authentication
o 3.2 Examination Form Filling
o 3.3 Submission of Examination Form
o 3.4 Confirmation and Acknowledgment
o 3.5 Admin Interface for Form Management
o 4.1 User Interfaces
o 4.2 Hardware Interfaces
o 4.3 Software Interfaces
o 4.4 Communication Interfaces
5. System Attributes
o 5.1 Performance Requirements
o 5.2 Security Requirements
o 5.3 Availability Requirements
o 5.4 Maintainability and Supportability
6. Other Non-Functional Requirements
o 6.1 Usability
o 6.2 Reliability
o 6.3 Scalability
1. Introduction
1.1 Purpose
This Software Requirements Specification (SRS) document describes the requirements for an
Online Examination Form Submission System. The system is designed to allow students to
register, fill out their examination forms, and submit them online. It will also enable
administrators to manage the submissions and track form status.
1.2 Scope
The Online Examination Form Submission System allows students to fill in and submit
examination forms for their respective courses, while administrators can view, validate, and
approve these submissions. The system should handle user authentication, data validation,
form submission, and confirmation.
• Admin: The administrator responsible for managing and validating form submissions.
• Student: The end user who fills out and submits the examination form.
1.4 References
• ISO 9126: Software Engineering – Product Quality
• Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG)
• System Security Guidelines (ISO/IEC 27001)
1.5 Overview
This document provides both functional and non-functional requirements for the Online
Examination Form Submission System. It outlines the key features of the system, the
interactions between users and the system, and specifies the expected performance, security,
and usability standards.
The system will be a web-based application accessed via a browser. It will integrate with existing
student management systems for user verification and data retrieval (e.g., course information).
It will allow students to fill out the examination form, upload necessary documents (if required),
and submit their forms. Administrators will have access to the system to validate and track the
submissions.
• User Registration and Authentication: Students will need to register and log in securely
to access the examination form.
• Examination Form Filling: The system will present the student with the examination
form to be filled out with personal details, course details, and exam-related information.
• Form Submission: After filling the form, the student will submit it electronically, and the
system will validate the form.
• Confirmation and Acknowledgment: After submission, the system will send a
confirmation message to the student.
• Admin Interface: Administrators can review and manage form submissions.
• Students: They will register, fill out, and submit the examination form.
• Admins: Administrators who validate the form submissions, view student submissions,
and manage the system's overall operations.
• Guest Users: Users who may browse the system for public information (e.g., exam dates,
instructions), but will not have access to fill the forms unless authenticated.
• Server: The application will be hosted on a web server running Linux/Windows Server.
• Client: Any modern web browser (Chrome, Firefox, Safari, Edge) supporting HTML5,
CSS3, and JavaScript.
• Database: MySQL or PostgreSQL for storing form data and user information.
• Framework: The application will be built using an MVC-based web framework (e.g.,
Spring, Django, or Ruby on Rails).
• The system should be developed using open-source technologies, wherever feasible.
• The system must comply with WCAG for accessibility and GDPR for data privacy,
ensuring compliance with international standards.
• Students will have access to the internet to complete their form submission.
• The system assumes that the student database and course information are available and
can be accessed by the system.
3. System Features
3.1 User Registration and Authentication
3.1.1 Description
• Functionality: The system must allow users (students) to register and authenticate
themselves via a secure login.
• Requirements:
o Students should be able to register using their student ID and email.
o A verification email or SMS should be sent to confirm registration.
o The system should authenticate users before accessing the form.
o Passwords must be stored securely (hashed and salted).
• FR1: The system should allow students to create an account using their registration
number and email address.
• FR2: Students must log in using a username (student ID) and password.
• FR3: Users should be able to reset passwords via email/SMS if forgotten.
3.2 Examination Form Filling
3.2.1 Description
• Functionality: Once authenticated, students will fill out an examination form with
necessary details.
• Requirements:
o The form should include fields for personal information, course selection, and
exam preferences.
o Students must attach any required documents (e.g., photo, ID proof).
o Form data must be validated (e.g., valid student ID, valid courses).
• FR4: The system must display a form with all necessary fields such as personal details,
course information, and exam preferences.
• FR5: The system should validate the entered data before submission (e.g., ensure all
required fields are filled).
• FR6: The system should allow document uploads in formats like JPG, PNG, PDF.
• FR7: The form should allow users to preview their submission before final submission.
3.3 Form Submission
3.3.1 Description
• Functionality: After filling the form, students will submit it electronically. The system will
validate the form for completeness and correctness.
• Requirements:
o The system will check for missing or invalid data before accepting the submission.
o The student will receive an acknowledgment after successful submission.
• FR8: The system must validate the form for missing data or invalid entries.
• FR9: Upon successful form submission, the system will generate a confirmation message
with a reference number.
3.4 Confirmation and Acknowledgment
3.4.1 Description
• Functionality: After submitting the form, the system will send a confirmation message
(email/SMS) to the student with submission details.
• Requirements:
o The message should include the submission reference number, and instructions
for further actions.
• FR10: The system must send a confirmation email/SMS with the submission details to
the student.
• FR11: The system should provide a downloadable PDF version of the form for the
student to keep.
3.5 Admin Interface for Form Management
3.5.1 Description
• Functionality: Administrators will have access to manage form submissions, validate
entries, and generate reports.
• Requirements:
o Admins should be able to view and approve or reject student submissions.
o Admins can generate reports (e.g., the number of submissions, pending forms).
• FR12: The system should allow administrators to view submitted forms with details.
• FR13: Administrators should be able to validate, approve, or reject the submissions.
• FR14: Admins should be able to generate submission reports (e.g., daily, weekly).
4.1 User Interfaces
• Web Interface: A responsive, web-based UI that works across various browsers (Chrome,
Firefox, Edge, Safari).
o The interface should be accessible and easy to navigate.
o Forms should have clear instructions
9. Identify all possible epics, features, and user stories for upgrading an ERP
system for a travel company.
Ans. To upgrade an ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning) system for a travel company, we need
to break down the requirements into epics, features, and user stories. This will help to ensure
that the system addresses all necessary functionalities and delivers value to the users.
Below is an outline for epics, features, and user stories for the ERP system upgrade:
Epic 1: User Management & Authentication
Feature 1.1: User Roles and Permissions
• User Story 1.1.1: As an admin, I want to create and manage different user roles (e.g.,
Agent, Customer Support, Manager) so that I can assign appropriate permissions based
on job functions. Epic 2: Booking & Reservation Management
• Feature 2.1: Travel Package Management
• User Story 2.1.1: As an agent, I want to create and manage travel packages so that I can
offer tailored travel experiences to customers.
• User Story 2.1.2: As an admin, I want to assign discounts and promotional offers to
specific travel packages so that customers can avail of the benefits.
• Feature 2.2: Booking Creation and Modification
• User Story 2.2.1: As an agent, I want to create new bookings for customers, including
flight, hotel, and tour reservations.
• User Story 2.2.2: As an agent, I want to modify existing bookings if the customer
changes their plans (e.g., dates or locations).
• Feature 2.3: Payment Integration
• User Story 2.3.1: As a customer, I want to securely pay for my travel booking using my
credit card or PayPal.
• User Story 2.3.2: As an agent, I want to view the payment status of each booking so that
I can follow up on pending payments.
• Feature 2.4: Customer Preferences and Customization
• User Story 2.4.1: As a customer, I want to save my travel preferences (e.g., preferred
destinations, hotel types) so that I don’t need to enter them repeatedly.
• User Story 2.4.2: As an agent, I want to access a customer’s previous bookings and
preferences to provide personalized service.
• User Story 1.1.2: As an admin, I want to assign specific permissions to each role, so that
users can only access the parts of the ERP relevant to their responsibilities.
Feature 1.2: Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)
• User Story 1.2.1: As a user, I want to enable MFA on my account to enhance the security
of my login.
• User Story 1.2.2: As a system administrator, I want to enforce MFA for all users to secure
access to the ERP system.
Feature 1.3: Self-Service User Profile Management
• User Story 1.3.1: As a user, I want to update my profile (name, contact information) so
that my details remain up to date.
• User Story 1.3.2: As a user, I want to reset my password via email or SMS in case I forget
it.
Epic 3: Inventory Management
Feature 3.1: Supplier and Partner Management
• User Story 3.1.1: As an admin, I want to manage suppliers and travel partners (e.g.,
airlines, hotels, local tour operators) so that I can track the services provided and prices.
• User Story 3.1.2: As an agent, I want to view the availability of services from suppliers so
that I can confirm bookings in real-time.
Feature 3.2: Inventory Tracking (Hotels, Flights, Cars)
• User Story 3.2.1: As an agent, I want to see the real-time availability of hotel rooms,
flights, and car rentals so that I can make accurate bookings.
• User Story 3.2.2: As an admin, I want to receive notifications when inventory (e.g., hotel
rooms, flights) is low so that I can replenish stocks or make new arrangements.
Epic 4: Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
Feature 4.1: Customer Data Management
• User Story 4.1.1: As an agent, I want to create and maintain customer profiles, including
contact information, preferences, and past bookings, so that I can offer personalized
services.
• User Story 4.1.2: As an admin, I want to access a customer’s complete history of
interactions with the travel company to better understand their needs.
Feature 4.2: Customer Communication
• User Story 4.2.1: As an agent, I want to send automated booking confirmations,
reminders, and alerts to customers to keep them informed.
• User Story 4.2.2: As a marketing team member, I want to send promotional emails and
newsletters to customers based on their travel interests.
Feature 4.3: Feedback and Surveys
• User Story 4.3.1: As a customer, I want to provide feedback on my travel experience so
that the company can improve its services.
• User Story 4.3.2: As an admin, I want to analyze feedback from customers to identify
areas for improvement in the company’s offerings.
Epic 5: Reporting & Analytics
Feature 5.1: Sales and Revenue Reports
• User Story 5.1.1: As a manager, I want to generate sales reports to track the revenue
generated by bookings, so that I can assess the performance of different packages.
• User Story 5.1.2: As an admin, I want to view profit margins for each travel package so
that I can optimize pricing strategies.
Feature 5.2: Customer Insights
• User Story 5.2.1: As a marketing analyst, I want to view data on customer demographics
and travel preferences to target specific customer segments with promotions.
• User Story 5.2.2: As a manager, I want to track customer satisfaction scores over time so
that I can measure the effectiveness of changes to services.
Feature 5.3: Operational Reports
• User Story 5.3.1: As an admin, I want to track the status of each booking (e.g., pending,
confirmed, canceled) to keep operations running smoothly.
• User Story 5.3.2: As a manager, I want to view daily, weekly, and monthly reports on
bookings and cancellations so that I can anticipate demand.
Epic 6: Mobile Access & User Experience
Feature 6.1: Mobile App for Agents and Customers
• User Story 6.1.1: As a customer, I want to access my bookings and make changes on a
mobile app, so I can manage my trips on the go.
• User Story 6.1.2: As an agent, I want to receive real-time notifications of new bookings,
cancellations, or payment issues, so I can take immediate action.
Feature 6.2: Mobile-Friendly Website
• User Story 6.2.1: As a customer, I want to access the travel company’s website from my
mobile browser with an optimized experience.
• User Story 6.2.2: As an admin, I want the ERP system to be mobile-responsive so I can
manage bookings and customer data when away from my desk.
Epic 7: Travel Documentation Management
Feature 7.1: Visa and Passport Management
• User Story 7.1.1: As an agent, I want to assist customers with visa and passport
information, ensuring they have the required documents for travel.
• User Story 7.1.2: As an admin, I want to store and access documents related to
customer visas and passports securely.
Feature 7.2: Travel Itinerary Management
• User Story 7.2.1: As a customer, I want to view my detailed travel itinerary, including
flight details, hotel reservations, and tour schedules.
• User Story 7.2.2: As an agent, I want to be able to generate a printable travel itinerary
for customers.
Epic 8: Integrations with Third-Party Systems
Feature 8.1: Integration with Payment Gateways
• User Story 8.1.1: As a customer, I want to make payments securely via credit card,
PayPal, or other payment methods, so I can complete my booking.
• User Story 8.1.2: As an admin, I want to ensure that payments are securely processed
and recorded in the ERP system.
Feature 8.2: Integration with External Travel APIs
• User Story 8.2.1: As an agent, I want the ERP system to integrate with external flight,
hotel, and car rental providers to offer real-time availability and pricing.
• User Story 8.2.2: As an admin, I want to manage API integrations to ensure that all third-
party providers' data is up-to-date.
10.Write a user story for managing student records, course schedules, fee
payments, and faculty coordination for a college.
Ans. User Story: Managing Student Records, Course Schedules, Fee Payments, and Faculty
Coordination
Title: As a college administrator, I want to manage student records, course schedules, fee
payments, and faculty coordination so that I can ensure smooth operations and effective
management of academic activities.
Acceptance Criteria:
1. Student Records Management:
o The system must allow the administrator to add, update, or delete student
records, including personal details, contact information, enrollment status, and
academic performance.
o The system should maintain a complete history of each student's academic
progress (grades, completed courses, etc.).
o The system must provide search functionality to quickly find student records
based on student ID, name, or course.
2. Course Schedules Management:
o The system should allow the administrator to create, update, and manage course
schedules (including course name, course code, instructor, time, and location).
o The system must ensure there are no scheduling conflicts for students when they
enroll in courses.
o The administrator should be able to assign faculty members to specific courses
and update this assignment as necessary.
3. Fee Payment Tracking:
o The system should allow for the tracking of student fee payments, including
tuition fees, examination fees, and other applicable charges.
o Students should be able to view and pay their fees online through the system,
and the administrator should receive real-time updates on payments.
o The system should send payment reminders to students and maintain records of
any outstanding fees.
4. Faculty Coordination:
o The system must allow administrators to assign faculty members to courses and
manage their schedules.
o Faculty members should be able to view their teaching schedule, student
assignments, and any important notifications or announcements.
o Administrators should be able to communicate with faculty members through
the system for important updates or coordination.
11. Draw a use-case diagram for an online airline reservation system.
12. Draw an activity diagram for ordering food through Zomato or groceries using
a mobile app.
13. Construct a sequence diagram for reserving a hotel room online.
14. Draw a class diagram for a placement agency system, showing how candidates
register and organizations search for candidates.
15. Draw a collaboration diagram for an agriculture farming system.

16. Explain the risk management process in small project development.
Ans. Risk management in small project development involves identifying, analyzing, mitigating,
and monitoring risks that could affect the project's success. Although the scope is smaller than
large projects, the steps are similar, but they are scaled down to fit the project's size and
resources. Here's a breakdown of the process:
1. Risk Identification
The first step is to identify potential risks that could affect the project. This involves
brainstorming, analyzing past projects, and consulting stakeholders to create a comprehensive
list of risks. Common risks in small projects include:
• Limited budget or resources.
• Key personnel availability.
• Technical challenges.
• Scope creep.
• Tight timelines.
Tools/Methods:
• Brainstorming sessions.
• Checklists from similar projects.
• SWOT analysis (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats).
2. Risk Analysis
Once risks are identified, assess their potential impact and likelihood. In small projects, this step
is often qualitative due to limited resources for extensive analysis.
• Qualitative Analysis: Categorize risks as high, medium, or low based on their impact and
likelihood.
• Quantitative Analysis: If possible, use numerical methods to estimate the probability
and financial impact of risks.
Example:
• High Impact/High Probability: Loss of a key team member.
• Low Impact/Low Probability: A minor delay in document delivery.
3. Risk Prioritization
Not all risks require immediate attention. Rank the risks based on their priority:
• Focus on high-impact and high-likelihood risks first.
• Monitor lower-priority risks for changes in conditions.
Tools:
• Risk matrix (Impact vs. Probability chart).
4. Risk Mitigation and Planning
Develop strategies to address the risks. For each risk, decide on one of the following
approaches:
• Avoidance: Change project plans to eliminate the risk (e.g., selecting proven technology
to avoid technical failures).
• Mitigation: Reduce the likelihood or impact (e.g., cross-training team members to
address resource risks).
• Transfer: Shift the risk to a third party (e.g., outsourcing a risky component).
• Acceptance: Acknowledge the risk and plan to deal with it if it occurs (e.g., setting aside
contingency funds).
Example Mitigation Plan:
• Risk: Tight timeline.
• Mitigation: Break tasks into smaller milestones and conduct weekly progress reviews.
5. Risk Monitoring and Control
Continuously monitor risks throughout the project lifecycle. Update the risk register as new risks
emerge or existing risks evolve.
Key Activities:
• Regularly review and update the risk management plan.
• Track risk triggers and early warning signs.
• Adjust mitigation plans as needed.
6. Risk Documentation
Maintain a risk log or register to document:
• Identified risks.
• Analysis results (impact and probability).
• Mitigation strategies.
• Status updates (e.g., resolved, ongoing).
Simplified Example for a Small Project:
1. Risk Identification: Identify resource unavailability and technical challenges.
2. Risk Analysis: Assign a high likelihood to resource unavailability and medium impact to
technical challenges.
3. Risk Prioritization: Prioritize resource unavailability due to its potential to delay the
project.
4. Risk Mitigation: Plan cross-training for team members and allocate additional resources
to critical tasks.
5. Risk Monitoring: Conduct weekly status meetings to track progress and identify new
risks.
Benefits of Risk Management in Small Projects:
• Improved Preparedness: Reduces surprises and ensures better handling of issues.
• Enhanced Decision-Making: Provides a clear framework for resource allocation.
• Cost and Time Efficiency: Minimizes delays and additional costs caused by unmanaged
risks.
17. Identify potential risks for automating student records and suggest
appropriate risk management strategies.
Ans. Potential Risks for Automating Student Records
Automating student records involves digitizing and managing student-related information
through a centralized system. While beneficial, the process comes with several risks:
1. Data Security Risks
• Risk: Unauthorized access, data breaches, or hacking may compromise sensitive student
information like grades, personal details, or financial data.
• Management Strategy:
o Implement robust security measures, such as encryption (AES-256) and secure
access protocols.
o Enforce role-based access control (RBAC) to limit data visibility based on user
roles.
o Regularly update and patch the system to prevent exploitation of vulnerabilities.
o Conduct periodic security audits and penetration testing.
2. System Downtime or Failure
• Risk: System outages could disrupt access to critical records, affecting operations like
admissions or exam management.
o Use a reliable infrastructure with high availability (e.g., cloud hosting with a
99.9% uptime guarantee).
o Implement a disaster recovery plan, including regular backups and failover
systems.
o Conduct stress testing to ensure the system can handle peak loads.
3. Data Loss
• Risk: Accidental deletion, hardware failure, or software bugs could lead to partial or
complete data loss.
o Schedule automated and secure data backups.
o Use redundant storage systems (RAID or cloud storage) to ensure data
availability.
o Perform routine checks to verify backup integrity.
4. Resistance to Change
• Risk: Teachers, staff, or students may resist adopting the new system due to unfamiliarity
or fear of job displacement.
o Provide comprehensive training programs and user manuals.
o Gradually transition from manual to automated systems to allow adjustment.
o Engage stakeholders early in the process to gather feedback and address
concerns.
5. Integration Challenges
• Risk: Compatibility issues when integrating the new system with existing software or
databases.
o Conduct a thorough analysis of legacy systems to identify integration points.
o Use standardized APIs and middleware for seamless integration.
o Test integrations in a controlled environment before full deployment.
6. Inaccurate Data Migration
• Risk: Errors during data transfer from manual records to the automated system could
result in incomplete or incorrect records.
o Use data validation techniques during migration to ensure accuracy.
o Conduct multiple rounds of testing and verification post-migration.
o Maintain a backup of original records for cross-referencing.
7. Compliance Risks
• Risk: Non-compliance with regulations like GDPR, FERPA, or local data protection laws
may result in legal penalties.
o Ensure the system adheres to relevant legal and regulatory requirements.
o Include a data audit trail to monitor access and modifications.
o Appoint a compliance officer to oversee adherence to regulations.
8. High Initial Costs
• Risk: Significant upfront costs for software, hardware, and training may strain budgets.
o Use phased implementation to spread costs over time.
o Explore cost-effective solutions such as open-source software or cloud-based
platforms.
o Develop a clear ROI analysis to justify the investment.
9. System Misuse
• Risk: Users may intentionally or unintentionally misuse the system, leading to
unauthorized changes or data corruption.
o Implement audit logging to track all user activities.
o Enforce strict authentication mechanisms, such as multi-factor authentication
(MFA).
o Provide regular training on system usage and ethical considerations.
10. Vendor Dependence
• Risk: Reliance on external vendors for maintenance or support could create delays or
risks if the vendor fails.
o Choose vendors with a proven track record and reliable support contracts.
o Maintain in-house technical expertise to reduce dependency.
o Negotiate service-level agreements (SLAs) with clearly defined response times.
18. Write a risk management plan for an online shopping system, considering risks
like data breaches and system downtime.
Ans. Risk Management Plan for an Online Shopping System
Introduction: This risk management plan outlines the strategies and actions needed to manage
potential risks related to an online shopping system. The system facilitates e-commerce
transactions, handling sensitive data, payments, and customer interactions. Risks include data
breaches, system downtime, fraud, and other technical or operational failures that could
negatively impact the system's performance, security, and reputation.
1. Risk Identification:
a. Data Breach Risks:
• Risk Description: Unauthorized access to sensitive customer data, including personal
details, payment information, and transaction histories.
• Potential Impact: Legal consequences, loss of customer trust, financial penalties, and
reputational damage.
b. System Downtime:
• Risk Description: Service outages, server crashes, or failures in core systems (e.g.,
payment gateway, inventory management, or web hosting).
• Potential Impact: Loss of sales, customer dissatisfaction, and operational delays.
c. Cyberattacks (e.g., DDoS, Malware):
• Risk Description: Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attacks or malware targeting the
system’s infrastructure, leading to service unavailability or data compromise.
• Potential Impact: Service disruption, data loss, and operational inefficiencies.
d. Payment Fraud:
• Risk Description: Unauthorized or fraudulent transactions processed through
compromised payment methods.
• Potential Impact: Financial losses, legal issues, and damage to merchant credibility.
e. Compliance Violations:
• Risk Description: Failure to adhere to data protection laws (e.g., GDPR, CCPA) or
payment card industry standards (PCI DSS).
• Potential Impact: Legal repercussions, fines, and loss of customer confidence.
f. Vendor or Third-Party Risks:
• Risk Description: Risks from reliance on third-party services such as payment gateways,
shipping services, or cloud hosting providers.
• Potential Impact: Loss of service, data leaks, and third-party failures impacting
operations.
g. System Integration Issues:
• Risk Description: Errors or incompatibility between various integrated systems such as
inventory management, customer relationship management (CRM), and external
suppliers.
• Potential Impact: Errors in product listing, stock updates, and fulfillment.
2. Risk Assessment:
Each identified risk will be assessed based on two factors: probability (likelihood) and impact
(severity).
Risk Likelihood Impact Risk Rating (High/Medium/Low)
Data Breach High High High
System Downtime Medium High High
Cyberattacks (DDoS, Malware) Medium High High
Payment Fraud Medium High High
Compliance Violations Low High Medium
Vendor/Third-Party Failures Medium Medium Medium
System Integration Issues Low Medium Low
3. Risk Mitigation Strategies:

a. Data Breach:
• Preventive Measures:
o Implement strong encryption protocols (e.g., TLS 1.2 or higher) for data in transit
and at rest.
o Use multi-factor authentication (MFA) for admin access and sensitive actions.
o Conduct regular security audits, penetration testing, and vulnerability scans.
o Educate employees about phishing, social engineering, and password hygiene.
o Ensure secure coding practices are followed (e.g., input validation to avoid SQL
injection).
• Contingency Plan:
o Develop and test a data breach response plan.
o Notify affected customers and authorities within the required timeframes (as per
GDPR, CCPA).
o Offer affected customers credit monitoring services, if applicable.
b. System Downtime:
o Implement a robust, redundant infrastructure using multiple data centers or
cloud providers.
o Use load balancing and automatic failover systems to ensure high availability.
o Regularly update and patch software and systems to prevent vulnerabilities.
o Monitor system performance 24/7 and set up automatic alerts for unusual
activities.
o Establish a business continuity plan and recovery protocols.
o Have a backup of critical data stored securely and ensure it can be quickly
restored.
o Perform regular disaster recovery drills to ensure preparedness.
c. Cyberattacks (DDoS, Malware):
o Use a content delivery network (CDN) to mitigate DDoS attacks.
o Deploy a Web Application Firewall (WAF) to block malicious traffic.
o Implement endpoint protection and malware detection on all devices and
servers.
o Maintain up-to-date software and hardware security patches.
o Have a DDoS mitigation plan with predefined contact points for your hosting
provider.
o Develop an incident response plan for malware infections, including steps for
containment and eradication.
d. Payment Fraud:
o Implement 3D Secure (3DS) for online payments to verify cardholder identity.
o Use machine learning algorithms and fraud detection tools to identify suspicious
transactions.
o Regularly audit payment systems for compliance with PCI DSS.
o Set transaction limits and flag high-risk transactions for manual review.
o Block compromised payment methods immediately.
o Reimburse customers if fraudulent transactions are detected and follow proper
reporting procedures.
e. Compliance Violations:
o Stay up to date with the latest data protection regulations (GDPR, CCPA, PCI DSS).
o Regularly conduct compliance audits.
o Implement data minimization practices and limit access to sensitive information.
o Offer customers easy-to-use options for managing their privacy preferences.
o Work with legal teams to handle violations and mitigate penalties.
o If required, notify affected customers and regulators within stipulated timelines.
f. Vendor/Third-Party Failures:
o Ensure third-party vendors have appropriate security measures in place (e.g.,
SSL, encryption).
o Negotiate Service Level Agreements (SLAs) with clear uptime guarantees and
performance expectations.
o Perform periodic assessments of vendor security practices and backup strategies.
o Maintain alternative suppliers or backup systems to switch to in case of failure.
o Keep a list of critical vendor contacts and escalation paths.
g. System Integration Issues:
o Regularly test system integrations before deployment.
o Maintain proper documentation for all integrations and update it as needed.
o Ensure thorough testing of new updates or features that may affect integration.
o Have technical support teams on standby for rapid response to integration
issues.
o Ensure manual overrides for critical systems if integration fails.
4. Risk Monitoring and Review:
• Ongoing Monitoring:
o Use automated monitoring tools to continuously track system performance,
security vulnerabilities, and user activity.
o Schedule quarterly risk assessments to identify new threats and vulnerabilities.
o Keep track of legal and compliance changes in relevant jurisdictions.
• Review:
o Conduct bi-annual reviews of the risk management plan and update it based on
new risks, incidents, and operational changes.
o Review insurance policies and incident response protocols to ensure they remain
adequate.
19. What is a Product Backlog and how is it different from a Sprint Backlog?
Ans. Product Backlog vs. Sprint Backlog
Both the Product Backlog and Sprint Backlog are essential components in Agile frameworks,
particularly in Scrum methodology, and they play distinct roles in the development process.
Here's an overview of each and how they differ:
1. Product Backlog
Definition:
The Product Backlog is a prioritized list of all the features, functionalities, enhancements, bug
fixes, technical requirements, and other tasks that need to be completed for the product. It is
the single source of truth for everything that is needed for the product’s development.
Key Characteristics:
• Owned by the Product Owner: The Product Owner is responsible for managing and
maintaining the Product Backlog.
• Dynamic: The Product Backlog is continuously updated and evolves as the product and
business requirements change. It’s refined, reprioritized, and adjusted throughout the
product lifecycle.
• Prioritized List: Items in the Product Backlog are ordered based on business value,
customer needs, risk, and other factors. The most important tasks appear at the top.
• Long-Term Focus: It includes work not just for the current sprint, but for all future
sprints. It's a high-level vision of the product's development.
Components of a Product Backlog:
• User Stories: Short descriptions of a feature from the user’s perspective.
• Epics: Large bodies of work that are eventually broken down into smaller stories.
• Bugs: Issues or defects found in the product.
• Technical Debt: Refers to the need for improvements in the architecture, design, or
codebase.
• Enhancements: Improvements to existing features.
Purpose:
The Product Backlog helps the development team and stakeholders to understand the scope of
work, plan upcoming sprints, and ensure that the product meets customer and business needs
over time.
2. Sprint Backlog
Definition:
The Sprint Backlog is a subset of the Product Backlog that the team commits to delivering in a
specific sprint. It represents the work the development team will focus on during the upcoming
sprint, which usually lasts 1-4 weeks.
Key Characteristics:
• Owned by the Scrum Team: While the Product Owner defines and prioritizes the
Product Backlog, the Sprint Backlog is managed by the development team.
• Fixed During the Sprint: Once the Sprint Backlog is created at the start of a sprint, it is
locked. No new items are added unless absolutely necessary (e.g., a critical bug fix).
• Task-Oriented: Each item in the Sprint Backlog is usually broken down into smaller tasks
or actions that the team needs to complete in the sprint.
• Short-Term Focus: The Sprint Backlog is concerned with what will be done in the current
sprint and how the team will achieve the sprint goal.
• Adjustable: The team can add, remove, or adjust tasks as the sprint progresses,
depending on what is feasible or what is learned during the sprint. However, the overall
sprint goal and scope should remain unchanged unless there's a significant change in
circumstances.
Components of a Sprint Backlog:
• Sprint Goal: A clear and concise objective the team aims to achieve by the end of the
sprint.
• Sprint Items: The user stories, bugs, or technical tasks selected from the Product Backlog
that the team will work on.
• Tasks: Specific tasks associated with each backlog item, created by the team during
Sprint Planning.
Purpose:
The Sprint Backlog gives the team a clear and focused set of tasks for the sprint and aligns them
towards achieving the sprint goal. It provides a detailed plan for the sprint and allows the team
to track progress on a daily basis (e.g., using a Scrum board or a task management tool).
Key Differences Between Product Backlog and Sprint Backlog
Aspect Product Backlog Sprint Backlog
A prioritized list of all work to be done A list of tasks and user stories the team
Definition
for the product. commits to in a sprint.
Ownership Owned by the Product Owner. Owned by the Development Team.
Includes all future features, Only contains work selected for the
Content
enhancements, bugs, and tech debt. current sprint.
Long-term view of the product Short-term view of the current sprint’s

Focus
development. work.
Priority Items are prioritized based on business Sprint items are selected based on priority
Aspect Product Backlog Sprint Backlog
value, needs, and risk. and team capacity.
Continuously refined and updated as Set for the duration of the sprint; updated
Updates
product requirements evolve. as necessary based on progress.
Broad, covering the entire product’s Narrow, limited to the current sprint’s
Scope
lifecycle. scope and goals.
High-level features, epics, stories, bugs, Concrete tasks, user stories, and technical
Items
etc. work broken down for the sprint.
Time Indefinite: evolves throughout the Defined to the duration of a sprint (1-4
Frame product's development. weeks).
20. Explain the role and responsibilities of the Scrum Master in Agile project
management.
Ans. Role and Responsibilities of the Scrum Master in Agile Project Management
In Agile project management, particularly in the Scrum framework, the Scrum Master plays a
crucial role in facilitating the team’s processes, ensuring Scrum practices are followed, and
removing any obstacles that may hinder the team's progress. The Scrum Master is not a
traditional project manager but acts more as a servant-leader, coach, and facilitator for the
Scrum Team and the broader organization.
Here’s a detailed breakdown of the role and responsibilities of a Scrum Master:
1. Facilitator of Scrum Events
The Scrum Master ensures that Scrum ceremonies (or events) are organized, executed
efficiently, and that the team is adhering to Scrum principles. These events are designed to keep
the team aligned, focused, and transparent.
• Sprint Planning: Helps the team understand the goals of the sprint and assists in
defining the Sprint Backlog by breaking down work into achievable tasks. Ensures that
the team commits to realistic goals within their capacity.
• Daily Stand-ups (Daily Scrum): Facilitates the daily stand-up meetings, ensuring they
stay focused and within the time-box (usually 15 minutes). While the Scrum Master
doesn't usually contribute directly to the discussion, they help keep it productive and
ensure that any blockers or issues are surfaced.
• Sprint Review: Helps organize and facilitate the sprint review meeting where the team
demonstrates completed work to stakeholders. This event fosters collaboration and
feedback, ensuring that the product is aligned with customer and business needs.
• Sprint Retrospective: Facilitates the retrospective meeting where the team reflects on
the sprint, discusses what went well, what didn’t, and how they can improve. The Scrum
Master helps the team identify actionable improvements for the next sprint.
2. Servant Leader to the Team
The Scrum Master acts as a servant leader, prioritizing the needs of the team and empowering
them to do their best work. This means removing obstacles (impediments), supporting the team
in achieving goals, and fostering a positive environment for self-organization.
• Removing Impediments: Identifying and eliminating any external or internal obstacles
that are preventing the team from being productive (e.g., bottlenecks in the workflow,
lack of resources, organizational barriers).
• Supporting Team Autonomy: Helping the team become self-organized, meaning that
they take responsibility for planning, executing, and improving their own work, rather
than being micromanaged.
• Fostering Collaboration: Encouraging teamwork and open communication. The Scrum
Master helps build a collaborative and transparent atmosphere where all voices are
heard.
3. Championing Scrum Practices
The Scrum Master ensures that the team follows Scrum principles, practices, and values, and
that Scrum is properly implemented across the team and organization.
• Coaching on Scrum: Coaches the Scrum Team on how to use Scrum effectively. This
includes helping them understand roles (Product Owner, Development Team),
ceremonies, artifacts (Product Backlog, Sprint Backlog, Increment), and values
(commitment, courage, focus, openness, respect).
• Continuous Improvement: Helps the team and organization adopt an improvement
mindset. This includes facilitating retrospectives and ensuring that improvements from
previous sprints are implemented in future work.
4. Shielding the Team from External Distractions
The Scrum Master protects the team from external disruptions so they can focus on delivering
the sprint goals. This is a key part of creating an environment conducive to high performance.
• Managing External Interference: Ensures that the team is shielded from unnecessary
distractions, such as frequent interruptions from other departments or stakeholders,
that might impede their progress.
• Buffering Against Organizational Pressure: Defends the team from unrealistic
expectations or pressure to deliver outside of the sprint scope, ensuring that the team
focuses on the goals defined during Sprint Planning.
5. Serving the Product Owner
While the Product Owner is responsible for the product vision and backlog, the Scrum Master
supports the Product Owner by helping them with backlog management and maximizing the
team’s ability to deliver value.
• Supporting Backlog Refinement: The Scrum Master helps the Product Owner facilitate
backlog refinement (grooming) sessions, ensuring that backlog items are well-defined,
prioritized, and understood by the team before Sprint Planning.
• Helping Manage Stakeholder Expectations: The Scrum Master may help communicate
with stakeholders about the progress of the sprint and product development to ensure
alignment with the team’s work.
6. Promoting Agile Practices Across the Organization
The Scrum Master’s responsibilities extend beyond the team, and they often act as an advocate
for Scrum and Agile practices within the broader organization.
• Agile Coaching: The Scrum Master helps other teams and departments adopt Agile
principles, practices, and the Scrum framework. This might include mentoring new
Scrum Masters, conducting workshops, or training teams on Agile methodologies.
• Improving Organizational Processes: Identifies and advocates for process improvements
that can benefit the team, such as enhancing cross-functional collaboration or improving
communication between teams and stakeholders.
7. Building a High-Performance Team
A core responsibility of the Scrum Master is to help the team mature into a high-performing,
self-sufficient group that consistently delivers high-quality work.
• Fostering Team Development: Encourages continuous learning and growth for both
individuals and the team as a whole. Helps the team build skills like problem-solving,
conflict resolution, and decision-making.
• Maintaining Team Morale: Works to maintain a positive and supportive team culture,
ensuring that team members are motivated, confident, and able to perform to their full
potential.
8. Metrics and Reporting
Although the Scrum Master is not responsible for project management in the traditional sense,
they play a role in tracking and reporting key metrics related to team performance.
• Tracking Progress: The Scrum Master helps the team track progress against the sprint
goal using visual tools like burndown charts or Kanban boards, helping the team stay
focused on their objectives.
• Facilitating Transparency: Ensures that the work completed, work in progress, and work
remaining are visible and understood by the team and stakeholders, fostering
transparency and trust.
21. What is a story point, and what techniques are used for estimating story
points?
Ans. What is a Story Point?
A story point is a unit of measure used in Agile project management to estimate the relative
effort, complexity, and time required to complete a user story or task. Rather than estimating
the exact time (e.g., hours or days), story points provide a way to gauge the relative size or
difficulty of a piece of work compared to other tasks.
Story points are intentionally abstract, focusing on the effort needed to complete a task, which
includes factors like:
• Complexity: How difficult or intricate the work is.
• Effort: The amount of work or energy required to complete it.
• Risk/Uncertainty: Any uncertainty or unknowns involved in delivering the task.
The main goal of using story points is to provide a quick and flexible estimate of the size of a
task, while avoiding the precision of time-based estimates (such as hours or days) that can often
be misleading.
Techniques for Estimating Story Points
Several techniques are commonly used by Agile teams to estimate story points. These
techniques involve group discussions and consensus to arrive at a shared understanding of the
work’s complexity.
1. Planning Poker (or Scrum Poker)
Description:
Planning Poker is one of the most widely used methods for estimating story points. It involves
the entire development team, and it’s designed to make the estimation process collaborative
and interactive.
How it works:
• Each team member is given a deck of cards with numbers (usually Fibonacci numbers
like 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, etc.).
• The Product Owner presents a user story, and the team discusses the scope and
complexity of the work.
• After discussing, each team member selects a card from their deck that represents their
estimate of the story’s size (in story points).
• All cards are revealed simultaneously, and if there is a large variance in estimates, the
team discusses the reasons behind their choices.
• The process is repeated until a consensus is reached, or the estimates converge.
Benefits:
• Engagement: Everyone on the team is involved in the estimation process.
• Collaboration: Discussion helps surface different perspectives and concerns about the
task.
• Reduces Bias: Because cards are revealed simultaneously, it minimizes the influence of
higher-status team members on others’ estimates.
2. T-shirt Sizing
Description:
T-shirt sizing is a simple and intuitive way of estimating story points using relative sizing labels
like XS (extra small), S (small), M (medium), L (large), and XL (extra large).
How it works:
• The team discusses the user story and assigns it a T-shirt size based on its perceived size
relative to other stories.
• Each size corresponds to a range of story points (e.g., XS = 1 point, S = 2-3 points, M = 5
points, L = 8-13 points, XL = 20 points, etc.).
• The relative sizes are compared to previous user stories the team has completed.
Benefits:
• Simple and Quick: T-shirt sizing provides a fast and easy way to estimate work, especially
for teams that are new to Agile or don’t need highly detailed estimates.
• Easy to Understand: Non-technical stakeholders (e.g., business representatives) can
easily understand the estimates.
3. The Fibonacci Sequence
Description:
The Fibonacci sequence is often used in Agile estimation to represent story points. The
sequence follows the pattern: 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and so on.
How it works:
• The numbers in the Fibonacci sequence represent increasing levels of complexity. The
reasoning behind using Fibonacci numbers is that as the work gets larger, the
uncertainty around estimating it increases. Larger numbers capture this uncertainty
better than linear scales.
• The team discusses the user story and assigns it a number from the Fibonacci sequence,
based on its relative size and complexity.
• Larger numbers (e.g., 13 or 21) indicate that the story is more complex and carries more
risk or unknowns, which often leads to larger ranges of uncertainty.
Benefits:
• Reflects Uncertainty: The increasing gaps between numbers reflect the greater
uncertainty in estimating larger tasks.
• Easy to Scale: The Fibonacci sequence is a scalable approach to handle a wide range of
story sizes, especially as teams handle increasingly complex tasks.
4. Affinity Estimation
Description:
Affinity Estimation is a group-based method where stories are grouped based on their size and
complexity in relation to each other, rather than assigning individual point values initially.
How it works:
• The team lays out user stories on a wall, whiteboard, or virtual board.
• Without assigning any points initially, the team sorts the stories in order of size or
complexity, grouping them into categories like “small,” “medium,” and “large.”
• After the stories are grouped, the team assigns story points to each group, using
previously agreed-upon point values.
• The stories are then reviewed to make sure they fit within the established size
categories.
Benefits:
• Faster than Planning Poker: Affinity estimation can be quicker because it avoids
individual estimation and uses relative comparisons.
• Collaborative: It encourages team collaboration and consensus-building while creating a
shared understanding of story sizes.
5. Dot Voting (or Silent Grouping)
Description:
Dot Voting is a technique where team members silently vote on the estimated size of user
stories by assigning dots (or votes) to the stories.
How it works:
• The team discusses a user story, and each team member is given a set number of "dots"
(usually 3-5).
• After a brief discussion, each team member places their dots on the user stories they
believe should be estimated at a certain point value.
• The stories with the most votes or dots are considered the most accurate estimates, and
the group discusses the results to ensure alignment.
Benefits:
• Quick and Anonymous: It’s a quick and democratic way to gather estimates while
avoiding groupthink or bias from dominant voices in the team.
• Engaging: It gives everyone a chance to participate in the estimation process.
22. For a system with specified user inputs, outputs, inquiries, files, and external interfaces,
compute the Function Points using given complexity factors.
Ans. Function Point Analysis (FPA) Overview
Function Points are a measure used in software engineering to quantify the functional size of a
system. It is often used for estimating effort, project scope, and complexity. The calculation of
function points depends on five major components of the system: Inputs, Outputs, Inquiries,
Files, and External Interfaces. These components are evaluated based on their complexity, and
the resulting values are combined to give an overall function point count.
The typical steps for computing function points involve:
1. Classifying each component (Inputs, Outputs, Inquiries, Files, External Interfaces) into
one of three complexity levels (Low, Average, High).
2. Assigning a weight to each component based on its complexity.
3. Summing the weighted values for all components to compute the unadjusted function
points (UFP).
4. Applying a complexity adjustment factor (CAF) based on system characteristics to get
the adjusted function points (AFP).
Function Point Components:
1. External Inputs (EI): These are data or control inputs from external sources that the
system processes. Typically, these inputs are user inputs, external databases, or input
from other systems.
2. External Outputs (EO): These are outputs that provide data to users or external systems.
Examples include reports, displays, or messages sent to external systems.
3. User Inquiries (EQ): These are interactive inputs and outputs, like requests for
information from users, often requiring a read and a response.
4. Internal Logical Files (ILF): These are user-maintained internal data files that the system
uses. For example, databases or data structures where the application stores its data.
5. External Interface Files (EIF): These are data files used by the system but maintained by
external systems. For example, files shared between systems or databases owned by
another system.
Step-by-Step Process:
1. Classify each component and assign weights:
Each component (EI, EO, EQ, ILF, EIF) is classified into one of three complexity levels: Low,
Average, or High. Each complexity level has an associated weight, which is typically as follows:
Component Low Complexity Average Complexity High Complexity
External Input (EI) 3 4 6
External Output (EO) 4 5 7
User Inquiry (EQ) 4 5 7
Internal Logical File (ILF) 7 10 15
External Interface File (EIF) 5 7 10
2. Calculate the Unadjusted Function Points (UFP):

For each of the components in the system, classify them according to the level of complexity
and assign the appropriate weight. Then, multiply the count of each type of component by its
assigned weight and sum the results.
Formula for UFP:
UFP=∑(Count of Component×Weight)
3. Apply Complexity Adjustment Factor (CAF):
The complexity of the system is adjusted using a factor based on 14 general system
characteristics, such as data communications, performance, security, etc. Each of these
characteristics is rated from 0 (No influence) to 5 (Strong influence). The total score is
calculated as the sum of these ratings.
CAF=0.65+0.01×Total of 14 Factors
Then, the Adjusted Function Points (AFP) are computed by multiplying the UFP by the CAF:
AFP=UFP×CAF
Example Calculation:
Let’s compute the Function Points for a system with the following components and complexity
factors:
Step 1: Classify Components and Assign Weights
• External Inputs (EI):
o 5 Inputs, each with High Complexity (Weight = 6)
• External Outputs (EO):
o 3 Outputs, each with Average Complexity (Weight = 5)
• User Inquiries (EQ):
o 2 Inquiries, each with Low Complexity (Weight = 4)
• Internal Logical Files (ILF):
o 4 Files, each with Average Complexity (Weight = 10)
• External Interface Files (EIF):
o 2 Files, each with Low Complexity (Weight = 5)
Step 2: Compute UFP
UFP=(5×6)+(3×5)+(2×4)+(4×10)+(2×5)
UFP=(5×6)+(3×5)+(2×4)+(4×10)+(2×5)
UFP=30+15+8+40+10=103
Step 3: Apply Complexity Adjustment Factor (CAF)
Assume the total of the 14 general system characteristics is 35.
CAF=0.65+(0.01×35)=0.65+0.35=1.00
Step 4: Compute Adjusted Function Points (AFP)
AFP=UFP×CAF=103×1.00=103
Final Answer:
The Function Points for this system, after applying the complexity factors, are 103.
23. A project of 200 KLOC is to be developed in a semi-detached mode. Calculate

the effort, development time, and average staff size using the COCOMO model.
Ans. COCOMO Model Formula (Semi-Detached Mode)
For semi-detached mode, the effort E (in person-months) is given by the following formula:
E=a×(KLOC)b
Where:
• E is the estimated effort in person-months.
• KLOC is the size of the project in thousands of lines of code.
• a and b are constants that depend on the development mode.
For the semi-detached mode, the typical values for a and b are:
• a = 3.0
• b = 1.12
Development Time (TDEV)
The development time TDEV (in months) is calculated using the following formula:
TDEV=c(E)d
Where:
• TDEV is the development time in months.
• E is the estimated effort (in person-months).
• c and d are constants that depend on the development mode.
For the semi-detached mode, the typical values for c and d are:
• c = 2.5
• d = 0.35
Average Staff Size (S)
The average staff size S (in persons) is calculated as:
S=E/TDEVS
Where:
• S is the average staff size.
• E is the estimated effort (in person-months).
• TDEV is the development time (in months).
Given:
• KLOC = 200 (i.e., 200,000 lines of code)
Step-by-Step Calculation:
1. Calculate the Effort (E):
E=3.0×(200)1.12
E=3.0×(200)1.12≈3.0×251.2≈753.6 person-months
E=3.0×(200)1.12≈3.0×251.2≈753.6 person-months
So, the estimated effort is 753.6 person-months.
2. Calculate the Development Time (TDEV):
Using the formula for TDEV:
TDEV=2.5×(753.6)0.35
TDEV=2.5×(753.6)0.35 TDEV=2.5×(753.6)0.35≈2.5×11.9≈29.75 months
So, the estimated development time is approximately 29.75 months.
3. Calculate the Average Staff Size (S):
Now, using the formula for S:
S=E/TDEVS
S=753.6/29.75≈25.3 persons
So, the estimated average staff size is approximately 25 persons.
Results:
• Effort (E): 753.6 person-months
• Development Time (TDEV): 29.75 months (approximately 2.5 years)
• Average Staff Size (S): 25.3 persons
24. Write short notes on any two: Agile Tools, GitHub, Quality Metrics.
Ans. Agile Tools
Agile tools are software or frameworks designed to support Agile project management
methodologies, emphasizing iterative development, collaboration, and flexibility. These tools
help teams plan, track, and execute projects efficiently. Popular Agile tools include Jira, Trello,
and Asana, which offer features like backlog management, sprint planning, and real-time
progress tracking through Kanban boards or Scrum boards. Agile tools enhance team
communication, improve transparency, and ensure alignment with project goals, making them
essential for dynamic project environments.
GitHub
GitHub is a web-based platform for version control and collaboration, built on Git, a distributed
version control system. It allows developers to host, review, and manage code repositories. Key
features of GitHub include pull requests, issue tracking, and branch management, enabling
teams to work on projects simultaneously while maintaining code integrity. GitHub also
supports CI/CD workflows and integrates with various tools, making it a popular choice for
open-source and enterprise projects. Its vast community fosters code sharing and learning.
Quality Matrices
quality matrices (or metrics) are tools and frameworks used to measure and monitor the
quality of a software product, the processes involved in its development, and the overall
project management. These matrices help in identifying areas of improvement, ensuring
reliability, and meeting user expectations. They can be broadly categorized as follows:
1. Product Quality Matrices
These focus on the attributes of the software itself:
• Defect Density: Number of defects per unit of code (e.g., per KLOC).
• Mean Time to Failure (MTTF): Average time the system operates without failure.
• Response Time: Time taken for the system to respond to user actions.
• Usability Metrics: Measures ease of use and user satisfaction.
25. Explain the software project management life cycle with a neat diagram.
Ans. Software Project Management Life Cycle
The Software Project Management Life Cycle (SPMLC) outlines the key stages of managing a
software project. It ensures that the project is delivered on time, within budget, and meets the
desired quality standards. The cycle is iterative and consists of the following phases:
1. Initiation
• Define the project goals and objectives.
• Identify stakeholders, scope, and feasibility.
• Develop a preliminary project charter.
2. Planning
• Create detailed project plans, including schedules, resources, and budgets.
• Define tasks, milestones, and deliverables.
• Develop risk management and quality assurance plans.
3. Execution
• Allocate resources and assign tasks to team members.
• Monitor progress and ensure deliverables are completed.
• Facilitate communication among stakeholders.
4. Monitoring and Controlling
• Track project performance using metrics and KPIs.
• Manage changes in scope, budget, or timeline.
• Conduct regular reviews to ensure alignment with goals.
5. Closure
• Finalize project deliverables and ensure quality standards are met.
• Document lessons learned and best practices.
• Release resources and formally close the project.
26. Explain SDLC with Diagram.

Ans.
Stage1: Planning and requirement analysis

Requirement Analysis is the most important and necessary stage in SDLC.
The senior members of the team perform it with inputs from all the stakeholders and domain
experts or SMEs in the industry.
Planning for the quality assurance requirements and identifications of the risks associated with
the projects is also done at this stage.
Stage2: Defining Requirements
Once the requirement analysis is done, the next stage is to certainly represent and document
the software requirements and get them accepted from the project stakeholders.
This is accomplished through "SRS"- Software Requirement Specification document which
contains all the product requirements to be constructed and developed during the project life
cycle.
Stage3: Designing the Software
The next phase is about to bring down all the knowledge of requirements, analysis, and design
of the software project. This phase is the product of the last two, like inputs from the customer
and requirement gathering.
Stage4: Developing the project
In this phase of SDLC, the actual development begins, and the programming is built. The
implementation of design begins concerning writing code. Developers have to follow the coding
guidelines described by their management and programming tools like compilers, interpreters,
debuggers, etc. are used to develop and implement the code.
Stage5: Testing
After the code is generated, it is tested against the requirements to make sure that the products
are solving the needs addressed and gathered during the requirements stage.
During this stage, unit testing, integration testing, system testing, acceptance testing are done.
Stage6: Deployment
Once the software is certified, and no bugs or errors are stated, then it is deployed.
Then based on the assessment, the software may be released as it is or with suggested
enhancement in the object segment.
After the software is deployed, then its maintenance begins.
Stage7: Maintenance
Once when the client starts using the developed systems, then the real issues come up and
requirements to be solved from time to time.
This procedure where the care is taken for the developed product is known as maintenance.
27.Explain the type of Requirement (Functional and Non-functional).

Ans. Types of Requirements in Software Engineering
Requirements in software engineering are typically categorized into two main types: Functional
Requirements and Non-functional Requirements. These are essential in guiding the design,
development, and testing of software systems.
1. Functional Requirements
Functional requirements describe what the system should do. They specify the functionalities,
features, or behavior that the system must support. These requirements are typically expressed
as specific actions that the system should perform in response to user inputs or interactions
with other systems.
Characteristics of Functional Requirements:
• Behavioral in nature: Describes specific operations, such as processing data, user
interface behavior, or system responses.
• Core features: Focus on what the system must be able to achieve in terms of tasks,
processes, or services.
Examples of Functional Requirements:
• The system should allow users to register an account by providing their name, email, and
password.
• The software must enable users to search for products by category or name.
• The system should send an email notification to the user after a purchase is made.
• The system must generate monthly financial reports for users.
2. Non-functional Requirements
Non-functional requirements describe how the system should perform and set criteria for the
system's quality attributes. These requirements define the overall system performance,
usability, reliability, security, and other qualities, which indirectly affect the user experience and
system stability.
Characteristics of Non-functional Requirements:
• Performance-related: Specify how well the system must perform under various
conditions.
• Quality attributes: Address system qualities like scalability, security, and maintainability.
• Not directly related to specific functions but to system constraints and qualities.
Examples of Non-functional Requirements:
• Performance: The system should support 10,000 concurrent users without performance
degradation.
• Security: All user data must be encrypted using AES-256 encryption.
• Usability: The application should be intuitive, requiring no more than two clicks to
complete the checkout process.
• Scalability: The system should be able to scale to handle a 50% increase in traffic over
the next year.
• Availability: The system must be available 99.9% of the time, excluding planned
maintenance.
• Compliance: The system must comply with GDPR for handling user data.
• Key Differences Between Functional and Non-functional Requirements:
Aspect Functional Requirements Non-functional Requirements

Define specific behavior or functions Define the quality or attributes of the
Definition
of the system. system.
What the system must do (features and How well the system performs its tasks
Focus
functionalities). (quality, performance).
Usually quantifiable through Often measured by metrics such as speed,
Measurement
acceptance criteria. security, usability.
Examples User authentication, data processing, System uptime, response time, user load,
Aspect Functional Requirements Non-functional Requirements
reporting, etc. security standards.
Directly related to the features or Affects the user experience, system
Impact
operations of the system. behavior, and infrastructure.
28. Write anotte on Requirement Engineering with its four phases

Ans. Requirement Engineering
Requirement Engineering is the process of gathering, analyzing, specifying, validating, and
managing the requirements of a software system. It is a crucial phase in the software
development life cycle (SDLC) because well-defined requirements form the foundation of a
successful project. The goal of requirement engineering is to ensure that the final software
product meets the stakeholders' needs and expectations.
Four Phases of Requirement Engineering:
1. Requirements Elicitation
This is the first phase where the primary goal is to gather requirements from various
stakeholders such as users, customers, and subject matter experts. It involves
understanding the problem that the software is intended to solve. The process includes
various techniques like interviews, surveys, workshops, observations, and document
analysis.
Key Activities:
o Conduct interviews with stakeholders.
o Organize workshops to gather group requirements.
o Use questionnaires or surveys to collect data.
o Analyze existing documentation or systems.
2. Requirements Analysis
In this phase, the gathered requirements are analyzed to identify and resolve any
conflicts, ambiguities, or gaps. The focus is on understanding the relationships between
different requirements and refining them. The analysis phase aims to create a clear,
structured view of what the system must do, and it often involves prioritizing the
requirements.
Key Activities:
o Organize and categorize requirements.
o Identify dependencies, conflicts, and ambiguities in the requirements.
o Define functional and non-functional requirements.
o Develop models or prototypes to better understand the requirements.
3. Requirements Specification
After analysis, the requirements are documented in a clear and detailed manner. This
phase results in a Requirements Specification Document (RSD) or a Software
Requirements Specification (SRS), which serves as a formal agreement between
stakeholders and developers. The specification should be clear, complete, and
unambiguous.
Key Activities:
o Document detailed functional and non-functional requirements.
o Define system behaviors, interfaces, and constraints.
o Create models (e.g., use cases, data flow diagrams).
o Develop user stories or acceptance criteria.
The result is a well-organized and formal document that serves as a reference throughout the
development process.
4. Requirements Validation
This phase ensures that the documented requirements accurately reflect the
stakeholders' needs and are feasible to implement. It involves reviewing the
requirements with stakeholders to ensure correctness, completeness, and clarity. The
goal is to identify and correct any issues before development begins, to avoid costly
mistakes later on.
Key Activities:
o Review the requirements with stakeholders (e.g., customers, users).
o Perform validation techniques such as walkthroughs, inspections, or prototyping.
o Ensure the requirements are consistent with business goals and constraints.
o Check if the requirements are testable and measurable.

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Top 22 Exam Preparation Questions

Project Type aaa bbb ccc ddd

Organic 2.4 1.05 2.5 0.38

Semi-Detached 3.0 1.12 2.5 0.35

Embedded 3.6 1.20 2.5 0.32

Step 2: Calculate Development Time (TTT):

4. Differentiate between Agile project management and Traditional project

Iterative and incremental Linear and sequential approach

Highly adaptable to changes in Limited flexibility; changes are

Continuous and adaptive;

Customer satisfaction through Delivering the project within

Follows distinct, predefined

Incremental delivery after each Single delivery at the end of the

Self-organizing, cross- Hierarchical and structured

Risks are identified and Risks are often identified later in

10. Minimal documentation; Comprehensive documentation

11. Performance Measured by value delivered Measured by adherence to the

14. Leadership Collaborative leadership Directive leadership (command

5.What is a Minimum Viable Product (MVP)? Provide an example.

6.Explain quality metrics in software engineering with examples.

11. Draw a use-case diagram for an online airline reservation system.

15. Draw a collaboration diagram for an agriculture farming system.

Risk Likelihood Impact Risk Rating (High/Medium/Low)

Data Breach High High High

System Downtime Medium High High

Cyberattacks (DDoS, Malware) Medium High High

Payment Fraud Medium High High

Compliance Violations Low High Medium

Vendor/Third-Party Failures Medium Medium Medium

System Integration Issues Low Medium Low

3. Risk Mitigation Strategies:

Aspect Product Backlog Sprint Backlog

Ownership Owned by the Product Owner. Owned by the Development Team.

Long-term view of the product Short-term view of the current sprint’s

value, needs, and risk. and team capacity.

Component Low Complexity Average Complexity High Complexity

External Input (EI) 3 4 6

External Output (EO) 4 5 7

User Inquiry (EQ) 4 5 7

Internal Logical File (ILF) 7 10 15

External Interface File (EIF) 5 7 10

2. Calculate the Unadjusted Function Points (UFP):

23. A project of 200 KLOC is to be developed in a semi-detached mode. Calculate

26. Explain SDLC with Diagram.

Stage1: Planning and requirement analysis

27.Explain the type of Requirement (Functional and Non-functional).

Aspect Functional Requirements Non-functional Requirements

28. Write anotte on Requirement Engineering with its four phases

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