CHAPTER 2

FURTHER TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

2.1 Review
2.1.1 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
2.1.2 Graphs of Exponential Functions
2.1.3 Trigonometric Identities
2.1.4 Graphs of f and f −1
2.2 Hyperbolic Functions
2.2.1 Definition of Hyperbolic Functions
2.2.2 Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions
2.2.3 Hyperbolic Identities
2.3 Inverse Functions
2.3.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
2.3.2 Inverse Trigonometric Identities
2.3.3 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
2.3.4 Log Form of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

1
2.1 Review

2.1.1 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

Graph of y = sin x Graph of y = cos x

y
y

1
1

x x
–2 π –π 0 π 2π 3π 4π –2 π –π 0 π 2π 3π 4π

-1 -1

• Period: 2π • Period: 2π
• Domain: All real numbers • Domain: All real numbers
• Range: [–1, 1] • Range: [–1, 1]
• Symmetric with respect to the origin • Symmetric with respect to the y axis

2
 Graph of y = tan x Graph of y = cot x
y
y

1
1
–2π –π 0 π 2π 3π π π 3π
x – –
5π 3π π π 3π 5π 2 2 2 2
– – – x
2 2 2 –1 2 2 2 –2 π –π 0 π 2π
–1

• Period: π • Period: π
• Domain: All real numbers except • Domain: All real numbers except kπ , k is
π 2 + kπ , k is an integer an integer
• Range: All real numbers
• Range: All real numbers
• Symmetric with respect to origin
• Symmetric with respect to origin

3
2.1.2 Graphs of Exponential Functions

Graph of
= y ax,a > 1 Graph of y= a x ,0 < a < 1

• Domain: (–∞, ∞), Range: (0, ∞)

• Natural Exponential Function f ( x) = e
x

4
2.1.3 Trigonometric Identities

1
2.1.4 Graphs of f and f -1
Inverse Functions
The inverse of a function f is denoted by f -1 . The inverse reverses the original function.
-1
Hence, if f(a) = b then f (b) = a
-1
Note: f (x) does not mean 1/f(x).

One to one Functions

If a function is to have an inverse which is also a function then it must be one to one.
This means that a horizontal line will never cut the graph more than once. i.e we cannot have
f(a) = f(b) if a ≠ b,
Two different inputs (x values) are not allowed to give the same output (y value).

For instance f(-2) = f(2) = 4

2
y = f(x) = x with domain x∈ℜ is not one to one.

1
Drawing the graph of the Inverse
-1
The graph of y = f (x) is the reflection in the line y = x of the graph of y = f(x).
2
Example: Find the inverse of the function y = f(x) = (x-2) + 3 , x ≥ 2
Sketch the graphs of y = f(x) and y = f −1 (x) on the same axes showing the relationship between
them.

Domain:
This is the function we considered earlier except that its domain has been restricted to x ≥ 2 in
order to make it one-to-one. We know that the Range of f is y ≥ 3 and so the domain of f −1 will
be x ≥ 3.

Rule:
2
Swap x and y to get x = (y-2) + 3. Now make y the main subject:
2
x – 3 = (y-2)
√(x –3) = y-2
y = 2 + √(x –3)

Hence, the final answer is: f −1 (x) = 2 + √(x –3) , x ≥ 3

2
Graphs
Reflect in y = x to get the graph of the inverse function.

Note:
Remember with inverse functions everything swaps over.
Input and output (x and y) swap over
Domain and Range swap over
Reflecting in y = x swaps over the coordinates of a point
so (a,b) on one graph becomes (b,a) on the other.

Note: we could also have

-√(x –3) = y-2
and y = 2 - √(x –3)
But this would not fit our function as y must be greater
than 2 (see graph)

3
2.2.1 Definition of Hyperbolic Functions
 Hyperbolic Sine, pronounced “shine”.  Hyperbolic Secant, pronounced “shek”.

e x − e−x 1 2
sinh x = sech x = = x
2 cosh x e + e − x
 Hyperbolic Cosine, pronounced “cosh”.  Hyperbolic Cosecant, pronounced
“coshek”.
e x + e−x
cosh x =
2 1 2
cosech x = = x
sinh x e − e − x
 Hyperbolic Tangent, pronounced
“tanh”.  Hyperbolic Cotangent, pronounced

sinh x e x − e− x e2 x − 1 “coth”.
tanh x =
cosh x
= x −x ≡ 2x
e +e e +1 cosh x e x + e − x
coth x = = x −x
sinh x e − e

4
2.2.2 Graphs of Hyperbolic Functions
Since the hyperbolic functions depend on the values of e x and e− x , its graphs is a
combination of the exponential graphs.
(ii) Graph of cosh x
(i) Graph of sinh x

(i) cosh 0 = 1
From the graph, we see
(ii)The domain is all real numbers.
(i) sinh 0 = 0.
(iii)
The value of cosh x is never less than 1.
(ii) The domain is all real numbers
(iv) The curve is symmetrical about the y-axis, i.e.
(iii) The curve is symmetrical about the
origin, i.e. cosh (−x) = cosh x
(v) For any given value of cosh x, there are two
sinh (−x) = −sinh x
values of x.
(iv) It is an increasing one-to-one function.
5
 (iii) Graph of tanh x

We see

(i) tanh 0 = 0
(ii) tanh x always lies between y = −1 and y = 1.
(iii) tanh (−x) = −tanh x
(iv) It has horizontal asymptotes y = ±1.

6
2.2.3 Hyperbolic Identities
For every identity obeyed by trigonometric functions, there is a corresponding identity obeyed
by hyperbolic functions.
1. cosh 2 x − sinh 2 x = 1
2. 1 − tanh 2 x = sec h 2 x
3. coth 2 x − 1 = cos ech2 x
4. sinh( x ± y ) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
5. cosh( x ± y ) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
tanh x ± tanh y
6. tanh( x ± y ) =
1 ± tanh x tanh y
7. sinh 2 x = 2 sinh x cosh x
8. cosh 2 x = cosh 2 x + sinh 2 x
= 2 cosh 2 x − 1
= 2 sinh 2 x + 1
2 tanh x
9. tanh 2 x =
1 + tanh 2 x

7
Some of the hyperbolic identities follow exactly the trig. identities; others have a difference in
sign.

Trig. Identities Hyperbolic Identities

sechθ = 1
coshθ
cosechθ = 1
sinhθ
cothθ = 1
tanhθ

cosh 2θ − sinh 2θ ≡ 1
1− tanh 2θ ≡ sech 2θ
coth 2θ −1 ≡ cosech 2θ

sinh 2 A ≡ 2sinh A cosh A

cosh 2 A ≡ cosh 2 A + sinh 2 A
≡ 1+ 2sinh 2 A
≡ 2 cosh 2 A −1

8
Examples 2.1
1. Sketch the graph of the following functions. State the domain and range.
a) y = sinh x + 2
b) y = 2tanh 3x
2. By using definition of hyperbolic functions,
a) Evaluate sinh(-4) and cosh(ln 2) to four decimal places.
b) Show that 2 cosh2 𝑥𝑥 − 1 = cosh 2𝑥𝑥
c) Show that cosh2 𝑥𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥𝑥 = 1
3. By using identities of hyperbolic functions, show that

1 − tanh2 𝑥𝑥
= sech 2𝑥𝑥
1 + tanh2 𝑥𝑥
4. Solve the following for x, giving your answer in 4dcp.
a) 2cosh x – sinh x = 2
b) cosh 2x - sinh x = 1

9
2.3 Inverse Functions

Definition 2.3 (Inverse Functions)

If f : X → Y is a one-to-one function with the domain X and the range Y, then there exists an
inverse function,

f −1 : Y → X
where the domain is Y and the range is X such that

y = f ( x) ⇔ x = f −1 ( y )
−1
Thus, f ( f ( x)) = x for all values of x in the domain f.

Note:
The graph of inverse function is reflections about the line y = x of the corresponding non-
inverse function.

10
2.3.1 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Trigonometric functions are periodic hence they are not one-to one. However, if we restrict
the domain to a chosen interval, then the restricted function is one-to-one and invertible.

( i ) Inverse Sine Function

Look at the graph of y = sin x shown below

The function f ( x) = sin x is not one

to one. But if the domain is restricted
 π π  , then f(x) is one to one.
 2 , 2 
to −

The inverse sine function is defined

as y = sin − 1 x ⇔ x = sin y
where − π ≤ y ≤ π and − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
2 2

11
 −1
The graph of y = sin x is shown below

π
2

π
4

−
π -1 1 π
2 2

π
−
4

π
−
2

f ( x ) = sin −1 x
f ( x ) = arcsin x

12
ii) Inverse Cosine Function
Look at the graph of y = cos x shown below
The function f ( x) = cos x is not one to
one. But if the domain is restricted to
[0, π ], then f(x) is one to one.
The inverse cosine function is defined as
−1
y = cos x π π x = cos y
− ≤y≤
2 2

where 0 ≤ y ≤ π and −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

−1
The graph of y = cos x is shown below
π

π
2

−
π -1 1 π
2 2

13
(iii) Inverse Tangent Function
Look at the graph of y = tan x shown below
The function f ( x) = tan x is not one to
one. But if the domain is restricted to
 π π
 − ,  , then f(x) is one to one.
 2 2

The inverse tangent function is defined as

y = tan −1 x ⇔ x = tan y
where − π < y < π and −∞ < x < ∞ .
2 2
−1
The graph of y = tan x is shown below

π
2

π -1 1 π
−
2 2

π
−
2
14
 (vi) Inverse Cosecant Function
(iv) Inverse Cotangent Function
Domain: Domain:
Range:
Range:

15
Table of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Functions Domain Range

y = sin −1
x [−1, 1]

 − π , π 
 2 2

y = cos
−1
x [−1, 1] [0, π ]

y = tan
−1
x (−∞ , ∞)

 − π , π 
 2 2

y = csc
−1
x x ≥1

 − π ,0 ∪  0,π 
 2   2

y = sec
−1
x x ≥1

 0,π  ∪  π ,π 
 2  2 
y = cot −1 x (−∞ , ∞) (0, π )

1 1
 sin −1 x ≠ whereas (sin x)−1 = .
sin x sin x

16
2.3.2 Inverse Trigonometric Identities
The definition of the inverse functions yields several formulas.
Inversion formulas

for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
sin (sin − 1 x) = x

−1 for −90 ≤ y ≤ 90

sin (sin y) = y

cos (cos−1 x) = x for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1

cos−1(cos y) = y for 0 ≤ y ≤ 180

for all x
tan (tan − 1 x) = x

−1 for −90 ≤ y ≤ 90

tan (tan y ) = y

 These formulas are valid only on the specified domain

17
Basic Relation Reciprocal Identities

π for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 1   for x ≥ 1
sin
−1
x + cos
−1
x= csc−1 x = sin −1   
2 
 x 

π for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 1   for x ≥ 1
tan
−1
x + cot
−1
x= sec−1 x = cos−1   
2 
 x 

sec−1 x + csc−1 x =
π for 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 1 for all x
2 cot −1 x = tan −1  x
 

Negative Argument Formulas

−1 −1 −1 −1 −1 −1
sin ( − x ) = − sin x sec ( − x ) = π − sec x cos ( − x ) = π − cos x

18
Examples 2.2:

1.Evaluate the given functions.

−1
(i) sin (sin 0.5) (ii) sin (sin −1 3)

(iii) sin −1(sin 45 ) (iv) sin −1(sin 135 )

2. Evaluate the given functions.

(i) arcsec(−2) (ii) csc − 1 ( 2 ) (iii) cot −1 − 1 


 3 

3. Show that
π
(i) sin −1 x + cos−1 x =(ii) cos (sin −1 x) = 1− x 2 (iii) sin −1(− x) = − sin −1 x
2

4. Given that 2sin −1 x + sin −1 2x = π , find the value of x.

2

19
 2.3.3 Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

−1
The three basic inverse hyperbolic functions are sinh −1 x , cosh x , and tanh −1 x .

Definition (Inverse Hyperbolic Function)

=y sinh−1 x=
⇔ x sinh y for all x and y ∈ ℜ

=y cosh −1 x=
⇔ x cosh y for x ≥ 1 and y ≥ 0
=y tanh−1 x=
⇔ x tanh y for −1 < x < 1, y ∈ ℜ

20
Graphs of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
(i) y = sinh −1 x −1
(ii) y = cosh x
Domain:
Range: Domain: Range:

21
(iii) y = tanh −1 x
Domain: Range:

22
2.3.4 Log Form of the Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
It may be shown that

(a) (
cosh −1 x = ln x + x 2 − 1 ) (b) sinh
−1
( )
x = ln x + x 2 + 1
1 1 + x  1  x + 1
(c) tanh −1 x = ln  (d) coth −1 x = ln 
2 1 − x  2  x − 1
 2 1 2
(e) sec h −1 x = ln 1 + 1 − x  −1
(f) cos ech x = ln + 1 + x 
 x  x x 
   

23
Inverse Hyperbolic Cosine (Proof)

If we let 𝑦𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥𝑥, then 2𝑥𝑥 ± √4𝑥𝑥 2 − 4

𝑦𝑦
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦 𝑒𝑒 = = 𝑥𝑥 ± �𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
𝑥𝑥 = cosh 𝑦𝑦 = 2
2
Since 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 > 0,
Hence,
∴ 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + �𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
2𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦

On rearrangement,
Taking natural logarithms,
(𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 )2 − 2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 + 1 = 0

−𝑏𝑏±√𝑏𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
𝑦𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥𝑥 = ln(𝑥𝑥 + √𝑥𝑥 2 − 1)
Hence, (using formula )
2𝑎𝑎

24
Proof for 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬−1 𝒙𝒙

𝑦𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥𝑥 Since 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 > 0,

∴ 𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 + �𝑥𝑥 2 + 1
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑦𝑦
𝑥𝑥 = sinh 𝑦𝑦 =
2
𝑦𝑦 −𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦
Taking natural logarithms,
∴ 2𝑥𝑥 = 𝑒𝑒 − 𝑒𝑒 (multiply with 𝑒𝑒 )
𝑦𝑦 2𝑦𝑦 𝑦𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥𝑥 = ln �𝑥𝑥 + �𝑥𝑥 2 + 1�
2𝑥𝑥𝑒𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 −1

𝑒𝑒 2𝑦𝑦 − 2𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝑦𝑦 − 1 = 0 In the same way, we can find the

expression for tanh−1 𝑥𝑥 in logarithmic
form.
𝑒𝑒 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 ± �𝑥𝑥 2 + 1

2
Examples 2.3:

1. Prove that cosh −1 x = ln x + ( )

x2 −1

2. Evaluate

−1
a) sinh (0.5)
−1
b) cosh (0.5)
−1
c) tanh (−0.6)

3. Solve the following equations:

−1
a) sinh x = ln 2
−1 −1
b) cosh 5 x = sinh 4 x