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MODULE IV
Solar Energy:
Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using a range of technologies
such as solar power to generate electricity, solar thermal energy (including solar water heating), and
solar architecture. It is an essential source of renewable energy, and its technologies are broadly
characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on how they capture and distribute
solar energy or convert it into solar power.
Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems, concentrated solar power, and solar
water heating to harness the energy.
Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable
thermal mass or light-dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air.
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper
atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest 70% (122 PW) is absorbed
by clouds, oceans and land masses.
Solar radiation is absorbed by the Earth's land surface, oceans – which cover about 71% of the globe
– and atmosphere. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing
atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature
is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water
cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric
phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anticyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land
masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14 °C, By photosynthesis, green plants
convert solar energy into chemically stored energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass
from which fossil fuels are derived.
Solar irradiance is the power per unit area (surface power density) received from the Sun in the
form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar
irradiance is measured in watts per square metre (W/m 2)
Solar flux on an arbitrarily tilted surface is referred to as total hemispherical radiation on a tilted
surface, generally shortened to 'global tilt' radiation (GT)
The solar constant is the flux at Earth's mean orbital distance =
(3.83 × 1026 W)/(4π ×(1.49598×1011 m)2) = 1.36×103 W.m-2. More accurately, satellites have
measured the orbit-mean solar constant to be 1360.8±0.5 W m -2
Devices for measurement of solar flux
Solar Instruments
 Pyranometers. Pyranometers are radiometers designed for measuring the irradiance on a
plane surface, normally from solar radiation and lamps
 Pyrgeometers. ...
 Pyrheliometers. ...
 Sun Trackers. ...
 Albedometers. ...
 UV Radiometers. ...
 Net Radiometers. ...
 Sunshine Duration Sensors.
Solar Collectors
A solar collector is a device that collects and/or concentrates solar radiation from the Sun. These
devices are primarily used for active solar heating and allow for the heating of water for personal
use. These collectors are generally mounted on the roof and must be very sturdy as they are exposed
to a variety of different weather conditions.
The use of these solar collectors provides an alternative for traditional domestic water heating using
a water heater, potentially reducing energy costs over time. As well as in domestic settings, a large
number of these collectors can be combined in an array and used to generate electricity in solar
thermal power plants. In concentrating solar-thermal power (CSP) plants, collectors reflect and
concentrate sunlight and redirect it to a receiver, where it is converted to heat and then used to
generate electricity.
Different types of Solar collectors
Types of Solar Collectors:
There are many different types of solar collectors, but all of them are constructed with the same
basic premise in mind. In general, there is some material that is used to collect and focus energy
from the Sun and use it to heat water. The simplest of these devices uses a black material
surrounding pipes that water flows through. The black material absorbs the solar radiation very
well, and as the material heats up the water it surrounds. This is a very simple design, but collectors
can get very complex. Absorber plates can be used if a high temperature increase isn't necessary, but
generally devices that use reflective materials to focus sunlight result in a greater temperature
increase.
Flat Plate Collectors
These collectors are simply metal
boxes that have some sort of
transparent glazing as a cover on top
of a dark-colored absorber plate. The
sides and bottom of the collector are
usually covered with insulation to
minimize heat losses to other parts of
the collector. Solar radiation passes
through the transparent glazing
material and hits the absorber plate.
This plate heats up, transferring the
heat to either water or air that is held
between the glazing and absorber plate. Sometimes these absorber plates are painted with special
coatings designed to absorb and retain heat better than traditional black paint. These plates are
usually made out of metal that is a good conductor - usually copper or aluminum.

Parabolic Collectors
A parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal
collector that is straight in one dimension and curved
as a parabola in the other two, lined with a polished
metal mirror. The sunlight which enters the mirror
parallel to its plane of symmetry is focused along the
focal line where objects are positioned that are
intended to be heated. In a solar cooker, for example,
food is placed at the focal line of a trough, which is
cooked when the trough is aimed so the Sun is in its
plane of symmetry.
Concentric Collectors
A concentrating collector comprises a
receiver, where the radiation is
absorbed and converted to some other
energy form, and a concentrator,
which is the optical system that
directs beam radiation onto the
receiver.
Concentrating collectors provide
energy at temperatures higher than
those of FPCs and ETCs. They
redirect solar radiation passing
through an aperture into an absorber
and usually require tracking of the Sun. In concentrating collectors, solar energy is optically
concentrated before being transferred into heat.

Difference between Flat Plate Solar Collector and Concentrating Type Solar Collector:
Flat Plate Solar Collector Concentrating Solar Collector
These collectors are also called These collectors are also called focusing type solar
non-concentrating type solar collectors. collectors.
In this type of solar collector, the collector area is
In this type of solar collector, the collector
very large sometimes hundreds of times more than
area is equal to the absorber area.
that of the absorber area.
The intensity of insolation is small. The intensity of insolation is very large.
The reflecting surfaces require more material. The reflecting surface requires less material.
The working fluid in this type of collector The working fluid in this type of collector attains
does not attain a high temperature. very high temperatures.
There is no use of mirrors and lenses to For focusing the sun's radiation, an arrangement of
concentrate the sun's rays. lenses and mirrors is designed.
The efficiency of concentrating type collector is
The efficiency of the flat plate collector is low.
high.
These collectors are cheaper. These collectors are expensive.
Surface treatment required to reduce heat
Surface treatment required to reduce heat losses, and
losses and to improve collector efficiency is
to improve the collector efficiency is economical.
not economical.
The absorber gets uniform solar flux. The absorber gets non-uniform solar flux.
Heliostat
A heliostat is a device that includes a
mirror, usually a plane mirror, which
turns so as to keep reflecting sunlight
toward a predetermined target,
compensating for the sun's apparent
motions in the sky. The target may be a
physical object, distant from the
heliostat, or a direction in space. To do
this, the reflective surface of the mirror
is kept perpendicular to the bisector of
the angle between the directions of the
sun and the target as seen from the mirror. In almost every case, the target is stationary relative to
the heliostat, so the light is reflected in a fixed direction.
Nowadays, most heliostats are used for day lighting or for the production of concentrated solar
power, usually to generate electricity. They are also sometimes used in solar cooking. A few are
used experimentally to reflect motionless beams of sunlight into solar telescopes. Before the
availability of lasers and other electric lights, heliostats were widely used to produce intense,
stationary beams of light for scientific and other purposes.

Utilization of Solar Energy-

For room heating,
During the day, the thermal mass is absorbing the heat provided by the solar air heating system. At
night, the thermal mass will slowly radiate the heat it collected into the living space. The more
thermal mass, the longer the home will stay warm after the Sun sets. Storage can also be handled
with rock bins.
Water heating,
Solar energy (sun rays) is used for heating water. Water is easily heated to a temperature of 60-
80 oC. Solar water heater of Solar water heaters (SWHs) of 100-300 liters capacity are suited for
domestic use. Larger systems can be used in restaurants, canteens, guest houses, hotels, hospitals
etc. The device has collectors which absorb the radiations of sun and converts it into heat. Then,
with the help of circulating pumps, this heat is passed to a water tank
Other industrial uses:
Solar Pond,
A solar pond is a solar energy collector, generally fairly large in size that looks like a pond. This
type of solar energy collector uses a large, salty lake as a kind of a flat plate collector that absorbs
and stores energy from the Sun in the warm, lower layers of the pond. A solar pond is an artificial
pond that uses solar energy to provide heating, cooling, or desalination for industry, water
treatment, or agriculture. It is an efficient way of harvesting solar energy. Solar ponds are generally
more cost-effective than flat-plate solar water-heating systems commonly used in homes. Solar
ponds can be operated at virtually all habitable latitudes and can provide energy for space heating
and cooling, industrial process heating and pre-heating, and power generation via an organic
Rankine-cycle engine.

Photovoltaic cells,
Solar Power can be thought of as “Solar Electricity” and the key to generating solar power is the
“solar cell”, or more precisely the “Photovoltaic Solar Cell”. Solar power is one of the most viable
and cleanest forms of renewable energy because we can use the suns energy within the sunlight to
produce electricity by means of photovoltaics.
The solar cell operates according to what is called the photovoltaic effect, where “photo” means
light and “voltaic” means electricity. Solar cells are more technically called Photovoltaic Solar
Cells, Photovoltaics or simply PV’s.
Photovoltaics are silicon semiconductor devices similar in many ways to electronic diodes and
transistors. Photovoltaics produce electricity by converting the solar energy generated from the sun
in the form of either visible light, ultra-violet (UV) radiation or infra-red (IR) radiation into a direct
or DC current by using the photovoltaic action of the cell without the use of any moving parts.
Sunlight is clean, easy to harness and is freely available worldwide with the only cost involved
being in the cost of a solar photovoltaic panel itself, making solar power an ideal choice for local
home electricity generation.
Solar electricity is also very environmentally friendly, as it produces no pollution or waste by-
products, no air or water pollution, and is completely silent making it ideal for a greener future. One
of the most common types of photovoltaic solar cell is made of specially treated silicon
semiconductor, and is therefore known as a silicon photovoltaic solar cell.
Solar cell construction:
The principle layer of this cell includes an anti-
reflective cover glass. This glass guards the semi-
conductor materials against
the sunlight. In this cell,
small grid patterns with slight metallic strips are
available under the glass. So that the top layer of
this cell can be formed by using the glass,
metallic strips and anti-reflective coat.
The most important part of the cell is the middle
layer where solar energy can be formed through the
effect of photovoltaic. It consists of two semiconductor layers which are made up of p-type and n-
type materials.
The base layer of this cell consists of two parts. A rear metallic electrode is beneath the p-type
semiconductor and it works with the metallic grid to generate an electric current in the pinnacle
layer. A reflective layer is the last layer in this cell used to decrease the loss of light within the
system. Based on the application, solar cells utilize various materials based on their application and
cost.
Solar cell working:
Once the solar energy falls on a solar panel, then it absorbs. Each panel in the solar panel includes
semiconductor material to combine the properties of insulators and metal. So it makes to convert the
light energy into electrical. Once the energy from the sun falls on the panel then a semiconductor
absorbs, the energy of photons transfers to electrons and allows the flow of electrons through the
material like an electric current. There are different kinds of semiconductor materials used in solar
cells like silicon, photovoltaics like Thin-film, organic and concentration photovoltaics.
Chemical storage
Thermal energy from the sun can be stored as
chemical energy in a process called solar
thermo-chemical energy storage
(TCES). The thermal energy is used
to drive a reversible endothermic
chemical reaction, storing the energy as chemical
potential.

Energy Storage Material

Graphene. Carbon Nanotubes. Lithium Ion Battery. Supercapacitors. Capacitance. Nanocrystalline
Material. Phase Change Material.

Geothermal Energy:
Geothermal energy is thermal energy in the Earth's crust. It combines energy from the formation of
the planet and from radioactive decay. Geothermal energy has been exploited as a source of heat
and/or electric power for millennia.
Geothermal heating, using water from hot springs, for example, has been used for bathing since
Paleolithic times and for space heating since Roman times. Geothermal power, (generation of
electricity from geothermal energy), has been used since the 20th century. Unlike wind and solar
energy, geothermal plants produce power at a constant rate, without regard to weather conditions.
Geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs. Most
extraction occurs in areas near tectonic plate boundaries. The most active geothermal resources are
usually found along major tectonic plate boundaries where most volcanoes are located.
Geothermal energy is a clean, renewable resource that can be harnessed for use as heat and
electricity. Geothermal energy is heat that is generated within the Earth.

WORKING OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

1. Hot water is pumped from deep underground through a well under high pressure.

2. When the water reaches the surface, the pressure is dropped, which causes the water to turn into
steam.

3. The steam spins a turbine, which is connected to a generator that produces electricity.
4. The steam cools off in a cooling tower and condenses back to water.

5. The cooled water is pumped back into the Earth to begin the process again.

Utilization of Geothermal Energy;

Geothermal energy can heat, cool, and generate electricity: Geothermal energy can be used in
different ways depending on the resource and technology chosen—heating and cooling buildings
through geothermal heat pumps, generating electricity through geothermal power plants, and
heating structures through direct-use.

Wind Energy:
Wind power or wind energy describes the process by which the wind
is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines
convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power.
Wind turbines use blades to collect the wind's kinetic energy. Wind flows over the blades
creating lift (similar to the effect on airplane wings), which causes the blades to turn.
The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric generator,
which produces (generates) electricity.
Operating principles of different types of Wind Energy Mills
There are two basic types of wind turbines:
 Horizontal-axis turbines.
 Vertical-axis turbines.
Typical wind turbine components:
1. Foundation
2. Connection to the electric grid
3. Tower
4. Access ladder
5. Wind orientation control (yaw control)
6. Nacelle
7. Generator
8. Anemometer
9. Electric or mechanical brake
10. Gearbox
11. Rotor blade
12. Blade pitch control
13. Rotor hub
A wind turbine turns wind energy into electricity using the aerodynamic force from the rotor blades,
which work like an airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade. When wind flows across the blade, the
air pressure on one side of the blade decreases. The difference in air pressure across the two sides of
the blade creates both lift and drag. The force of the lift is stronger than the drag and this causes the
rotor to spin. The rotor connects to the generator, either directly (if it’s a direct drive turbine) or
through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed up the rotation and allow for a physically
smaller generator. This translation of aerodynamic force to rotation of a generator creates
electricity.

There is an air turbine of large blades attached on the top of a supporting tower of sufficient height.
When wind strikes on the turbine blades, the turbine rotates due to the design and alignment of rotor
blades. The shaft of the turbine is coupled with an electrical generator. The output of the generator
is collected through electric power cables.
When the wind strikes the rotor blades, blades start rotating. The turbine rotor is connected to a
high-speed gearbox. Gearbox transforms the rotor rotation from low speed to high speed. The high-
speed shaft from the gearbox is coupled with the rotor of the generator and hence the electrical
generator runs at a higher speed. An exciter is needed to give the required excitation to the magnetic
coil of the generator field system so that it can generate the required electricity. The generated
voltage at output terminals of the alternator is proportional to both the speed and field flux of the
alternator. The speed is governed by wind power which is out of control. Hence to maintain
uniformity of the output power from the alternator, excitation must be controlled according to the
availability of natural wind power. The exciter current is controlled by a turbine controller which
senses the wind speed. Then output voltage of electrical generator (alternator) is given to a rectifier
where the alternator output gets rectified to DC. Then this rectified DC output is given to line
converter unit to convert it into stabilized AC output which is ultimately fed to either electrical
transmission network or transmission grid with the help of step up transformer. An extra units is
used to give the power to internal auxiliaries of wind turbine (like motor, battery etc.), this is called
Internal Supply Unit.
There are other two control mechanisms attached to a modern big wind turbine.
 Controlling the orientation of the turbine blade.
 Controlling the orientation of the turbine face.
The orientation of turbine blades is governed from the base hub of the blades. The blades are
attached to the central hub with the help of a rotating arrangement through gears and small electric
motor or hydraulic rotary system. The system can be electrically or mechanically controlled
depending on its design. The blades are swiveled depending upon the speed of the wind. The
technique is called pitch control. It provides the best possible orientation of the turbine blades along
the direction of the wind to obtain optimized wind power.
The orientation of the nacelle or the entire body of the turbine can follow the direction of changing
wind direction to maximize mechanical energy harvesting from the wind. The direction of the wind
along with its speed is sensed by an anemometer (automatic speed measuring devices) with wind
vanes attached to the back top of the nacelle. The signal is fed back to an electronic microprocessor-
based controlling system which governs the yaw motor which rotates the entire nacelle with gearing
arrangement to face the air turbine along the direction of the wind.

Energy from Ocean:

Marine energy, also known as marine and hydrokinetic energy or marine renewable energy, is a
renewable power source that is harnessed from the natural movement of water, including waves,
tides, and river and ocean currents.
The three main contenders for renewable, non-polluting energy are wave and tidal power and ocean
thermal energy conversion.
Marine energy or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy, ocean power, or
marine and hydrokinetic energy) refers to the energy carried by ocean waves, tides, salinity, and
ocean temperature differences. The movement of water in the world's oceans creates a vast store of
kinetic energy, or energy in motion. Some of this energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to
power homes, transport and industries.
The term marine energy encompasses both wave power i.e. power from surface waves, and tidal
power i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power
is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines
are placed over water.
The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated
populations. Ocean energy has the potential of providing a substantial amount of new renewable
energy around the world.
Ocean thermal energy:
Water typically varies in temperature from the surface warmed by direct sunlight to greater depths
where sunlight cannot penetrate. This differential is greatest in tropical waters, making this
technology most applicable in water locations. A fluid is often vaporized to drive a turbine that may
generate electricity or produce desalinized water. Systems may be either open-cycle, closed-cycle,
or hybrid.
Tidal power: The energy from moving masses of water–a popular form of hydroelectric power
generation. Tidal power generation comprises three main forms, namely tidal stream power, tidal
barrage power, and dynamic tidal power.
Wave power: Solar energy from the Sun creates temperature differentials that result in wind. The
interaction between wind and the surface of water creates waves, which are larger when there is a
greater distance for them to build up. Wave energy potential is greatest between 30° and 60° latitude
in both hemispheres on the west coast because of the global direction of wind. When evaluating
wave energy as a technology type, it is important to distinguish between the four most common
approaches: point absorber buoys, surface attenuators, oscillating water columns, and overtopping
devices.
Biomass:
Biomass is converted to energy through various processes, including:
Direct combustion (burning) to produce heat.
Thermo-chemical conversion to produce solid, gaseous, and liquid fuels.
Chemical conversion to produce liquid fuels.
Most electricity generated from biomass is produced by direct combustion. Biomass is burned in a
boiler to produce high-pressure steam. This steam flows over a series of turbine blades, causing
them to rotate. The rotation of the turbine drives a generator, producing electricity.
Biomass feed-stocks include dedicated energy crops, agricultural crop residues, forestry residues,
algae, wood processing residues, municipal waste, and wet waste (crop wastes, forest residues,
purpose-grown grasses, woody energy crops, algae, industrial wastes, sorted municipal solid waste
[MSW], urban wood waste,
Biomass energy technologies use renewable organic resources, also known as biomass, to produce
energy-related products. Electricity; liquid, solid and gaseous fuels; heat; chemicals; and other
energy-related products can all be derived from biomass resources.
Biomass power is the largest source of renewable energy worldwide. Biomass comes from both
human and natural activities. By-products from most industries, including timber, agriculture,
naturally occurring forest residues, household wastes and landfills, are all viable sources of biomass
energy materials. Agricultural products like corn kernels, corn stalks, soybean and canola oils,
animal fats, prairie grasses, hardwoods and even algae can be converted to energy. The largest
source of energy from wood is pulping liquor or black liquor, a waste product from the pulp and
paper industry. Wood and wood waste is a major source of biomass energy, particularly in the
Northwest. Wood waste from thinning young timber stands and harvesting older stands for timber
or pulp yield tops and branches suitable for bio-energy production. Timber stands damaged by
insects, disease or fire is also potential sources of biomass fuels. Transporting wood waste and
biomass materials is often costly. The use of smaller, lower-cost power plants located near the
biomass source minimizes those costs and improves the viability of bio-energy projects.

Fuel Cell:
Distinguish between fuel cell and battery.
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the
chemical energy of a fuel (often hydrogen) and an
oxidizing agent (often oxygen) into electricity through
a pair of redox reactions. Fuel cells are different from
most batteries in requiring a continuous source of fuel
and oxygen (usually from air) to sustain the chemical
reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy
usually comes from substances that are already present
in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity
continuously for as long as fuel and oxygen are
supplied.
Here are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of
an anode, a cathode, and an electrolyte that allows ions, often positively charged hydrogen ions
(protons), to move between the two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode, a catalyst causes the fuel to
undergo oxidation reactions that generate ions (often positively charged hydrogen ions) and
electrons. The ions move from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte. At the same time,
electrons flow from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit, producing direct current
electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes ions, electrons, and oxygen to react, forming
water and possibly other products. Fuel cells are classified by the type of electrolyte they use and by
the difference in startup time ranging from 1 second for proton-exchange membrane fuel cells (PEM
fuel cells, or PEMFC) to 10 minutes for solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC). A related technology is flow
batteries, in which the fuel can be regenerated by recharging. Individual fuel cells produce relatively
small electrical potentials, about 0.7 volts, so cells are "stacked", or placed in series, to create
sufficient voltage to meet an application's requirements. In addition to electricity, fuel cells produce
water vapor, heat and, depending on the fuel source, very small amounts of nitrogen dioxide and
other emissions. PEMFC cells generally produce less nitrogen oxides than SOFC cells: they operate
at lower temperatures, use hydrogen as fuel, and limit the diffusion of nitrogen into the anode via
the proton exchange membrane which forms NOx. The energy efficiency of a fuel cell is generally
between 40 and 60%; however, if waste heat is captured in a cogeneration scheme, efficiencies of
up to 85% can be obtained.

Explain the role of electrolytes in fuel cell.

Role of Electrolyte

In the entire process, the electrolyte plays a major role in maintaining just the right proportion of
ions to travel between the anode and the cathode. Any other freely travelling electrons could disrupt
the ongoing chemical reaction in the fuel cell.

The combination of oxygen atoms with the hydrogen ions generates electricity and the process of
generation shall continue as long as the fuel cell continues to receive the two atoms. In this chemical
process, generation of water vapour takes place. Fuel cells are used in the transport vehicles such as
cars and buses and as backup power units in electricity generating grids. Thus, the electrolyte has a
diverse role to play.

Hydrogen:
Hydrogen is an energy carrier that can be used to store, move, and deliver energy produced from
other sources. Today, hydrogen fuel can be produced through several methods. The most common
methods today are natural gas reforming (a thermal process), and electrolysis.
Hydrogen can be used to power vehicles, generate electricity, power industry and heat our homes
and businesses. It could make a huge difference on our carbon emissions and will be critical to
achieving net zero.
Hydrogen is a clean fuel. It is an energy carrier that can be used for a broad range of applications.
Also it could serve as a possible substitute to liquid and fossil fuels. Its physical properties could be
stated as following. At standard temperature and pressure, hydrogen is a nontoxic, nonmetallic,
odorless, tasteless, colorless, and highly combustible diatomic gas with the molecular formula H2.
Advantages of Hydrogen fuel cells
 It is readily available. It is a basic earth element and is very abundant. However, it time
consuming to separate hydrogen gas from its companion substances. While that may be the
case, the results produce a powerful clean energy source.
 It doesn’t produce harmful emissions. When it is burned, it doesn’t emit harmful
substances. Basically, it reacts with oxygen without burning and the energy it releases can be
used to generate electricity used to drive an electric motor. Also, it doesn’t generate carbon
dioxide when burnt, not unlike other power sources.
 It is environmentally friendly. It is a non-toxic substance which is rare for a fuel source.
Others such as nuclear energy, coal and gasoline are either toxic or found in places that have
hazardous environments. Because hydrogen is friendly towards the environment, it can be
used in ways that other fuels can’t even possibly match.
 It can be used as fuel in rockets. It is both powerful and efficient. It is enough to provide
power for powerful machines such as spaceships. Also, given that it is environmentally
friendly, it is a much safer choice compared to other fuel sources. A fun fact: hydrogen is
three times as powerful as gasoline and other fossil fuels. This means that it can accomplish
more with less.
 It is fuel efficient. Compared to diesel or gas, it is much more fuel efficient as it can produce
more energy per pound of fuel. This means that if a car is fueled by hydrogen, it can go
farther than a vehicle loaded with the same amount of fuel but using a more traditional source
of energy. Hydrogen-powered fuel cells have two or three times the efficiency of traditional
combustion technologies. For example, a conventional combustion-based power plant
usually generates electricity between 33 to 35 percent efficiency. Hydrogen fuel cells are
capable of generating electricity of up to 65 percent efficiency.
 It is renewable. It can be produced again and again, unlike other non-renewable sources of
energy. This means that with hydrogen, you get a fuel source that is limited. Basically,
hydrogen energy can be produced on demand.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen fuel cells

 It is expensive. While widely available, it is expensive. A good reason for this is that it takes
a lot of time to separate the element from others. If the process were really simple, then a lot
would have been doing it with relative ease, but it’s not. Although, hydrogen cells are now
being used to power hybrid cars, it’s still not a feasible source of fuel for everyone. Until
technology is developed that can make the whole process a lot more simpler, then hydrogen
energy will continue to be an expensive option.
 It is difficult to store. Hydrogen is very hard to move around. When speaking about oil, that
element can be sent though pipelines. When discussing coal, that can be easily carried off on
the back of trucks. When talking about hydrogen, just moving even small amounts is a very
expensive matter. For that reason alone, the transport and storage of such a substance is
deemed impractical.
 It is not easy to replace existing infrastructure. Gasoline is still being widely used to this day.
And as of the moment, there just isn’t any infrastructure that can support hydrogen as fuel.
This is why it becomes highly expensive to just think about replacing gasoline. Also, cars
need to be refitted in order to accommodate hydrogen as fuel.
 It is highly flammable. Since it is a very powerful source of fuel, hydrogen can be very
flammable. In fact, it is on the news frequently for its many number of risks. Hydrogen gas
burns in air at very wide concentrations – between 4 and 75 percent.
 It is dependent on fossil fuels. Although hydrogen energy is renewable and has minimal
environmental impact, other non-renewable sources such as coal, oil and natural gas are
 needed to separate it from oxygen. While the point of switching to hydrogen is to get rid of
using fossil fuels, they are still needed to produce hydrogen fuel.

Nuclear energy:
Nuclear Energy is the energy in the core of an atom. Where an atom is a tiny particle that constitutes
every matter in the universe. Normally, the mass of an atom is concentrated at the centre of the
nucleus. Neutrons and Protons are the two subatomic particles that comprehend the nucleus. There
is an exact massive amount of energy in bonds that bind atoms together.
Nuclear Energy is discharged by nuclear reactions either by fission or fusion. In nuclear fusion,
atoms combine to form a larger atom. In nuclear fission, the division of atoms takes place to form
smaller atoms by releasing energy. Nuclear power plants produce energy using nuclear fission. The Sun
produces energy using the mechanism of nuclear fusion.

Applications of Nuclear Energy

 Nuclear technology
 Nuclear medicine
 Nuclear Technology is used in Industries
 Agricultural uses of nuclear technology
 Environmental uses of nuclear technology
 Biological Experimentations
 Medical diagnosis and treatments
 Scientific Investigations
 Engineering Projects
 Neutron Activation Analysis
Nuclear power plants are thermal plants. They use heat produced by nuclear fission to convert
water into high-pressure steam. The steam drives a turbine generator to make electricity.
The importance of the nuclear power industry to the nation’s energy security is becoming
increasingly clear. Nuclear energy is the only large-scale, carbon-free electricity source that the
country can widely expand to produce large amounts of electricity.
Nuclear power plants prevent the release of significant quantities of emissions that would be created
by burning fossil fuels to generate the same amount of electricity. The uranium-based fuel pellets
(about the size of a finger-tip) used in Energy Northwest’s Columbia Generating Station is a
remarkable energy source. Fuel rods filled with uranium fuel pellets remain in the reactor providing
power for a full six years before being traded out for fresh fuel. About one-third of the fuel rods are
replaced every two years.
After those six years, the fuel still retains more than 95 percent of its energy potential. Unlocking
that potential will dramatically reduce the amount of used nuclear fuel requiring long-term storage
and will minimize the need for additional mining and new fuel manufacturing.
The technology for recycling used nuclear fuel is well understood and used widely throughout the
world; except in the United States. Government recognition and acceptance of the safety and
efficiency of recycling used fuel will be an important next step for the nuclear power industry and
the benefit of power consumers nationwide.
Sources of Nuclear fuels,
Uranium is the most widely used fuel by nuclear power plants for nuclear fission. Nuclear power
plants use a certain type of uranium—U-235—as fuel because its atoms are easily split apart.
Although uranium is about 100 times more common than silver, U-235 is relatively rare at just over
0.7% of natural uranium.
Indian scenario; Limited Domestic Resources: India has limited domestic resources of uranium,
which is the fuel for nuclear reactors. This has forced the country to import a significant portion of
its uranium requirements, making the country's nuclear energy program vulnerable to global market
conditions and political tensions.

Nuclear reactions and power generation by Nuclear reactors

Breeder reactor- reaction & operation.
Breeder reactors are designed to fission the actinide wastes as fuel, and thus convert them to more
fission products. After spent nuclear fuel is removed from a light water reactor, it undergoes a
complex decay profile as each nuclide decays at a different rate.
A breeder reactor is a nuclear reactor that generates more fissile material than it consumes. These
reactors can be fueled with more-commonly available isotopes of uranium and thorium, such as
uranium-238 and thorium-232, as opposed to the rare uranium-235 which is used in conventional
reactors. These materials are called fertile materials since they can be bred into fuel by these breeder
reactors.
Breeder reactors achieve this because their neutron economy is high enough to create more fissile
fuel than they use. These extra neutrons are absorbed by the fertile material that is loaded into the
reactor along with fissile fuel. This irradiated fertile material in turn transmutes into fissile material
which can undergo fission reactions.
Breeders were at first found attractive because they made more complete use of uranium fuel than
light-water reactors, but interest declined after the 1960s, as more uranium reserves were found, and
new methods of uranium enrichment reduced fuel costs.
Types of breeder reactor
Production of heavy transuranic actinides in current thermal-neutron fission reactors through
neutron capture and decays. Starting at uranium-238, isotopes of plutonium, americium, and curium
are all produced. In a fast neutron-breeder reactor, all these isotopes may be burned as fuel.
Many types of breeder reactor are possible:
A "breeder" is simply a reactor designed for very high neutron economy with an associated
conversion rate higher than 1.0. In principle, almost any reactor design could be tweaked to become
a breeder. For example, the Light Water Reactor, a very heavily moderated thermal design, evolved
into the Super Fast Reactor concept, using light water in an extremely low-density supercritical
form to increase the neutron economy enough to allow breeding.
Aside from water-cooled, there are many other types of breeder reactor currently envisioned as
possible. These include molten-salt cooled, gas cooled, and liquid-metal cooled designs in many
variations. Almost any of these basic design types may be fueled by uranium, plutonium, many
minor actinides, or thorium, and they may be designed for many different goals, such as creating
more fissile fuel, long-term steady-state operation, or active burning of nuclear wastes.
Extant reactor designs are sometimes divided into two broad categories based upon their neutron
spectrum, which generally separates those designed to use primarily uranium and transuranics from
those designed to use thorium and avoid transuranics. These designs are:
 Fast breeder reactors (FBR's) which use 'fast' (i.e. unmoderated) neutrons to breed fissile
plutonium (and possibly higher transuranics) from fertile uranium-238. The fast spectrum is
flexible enough that it can also breed fissile uranium-233 from thorium, if desired.
 Thermal breeder reactors which use 'thermal-spectrum' or 'slow' (i.e. moderated) neutrons
to breed fissile uranium-233 from thorium (thorium fuel cycle). Due to the behavior of the
various nuclear fuels, a thermal breeder is thought commercially feasible only with thorium
fuel, which avoids the buildup of the heavier transuranics.

Differences between thermal reactor and fast reactor

Thermal Reactor Fast Reactor
In thermal reactors, the fission chain reaction is In fast reactors, the chain reaction is sustained by
sustained by the thermal neutrons that have fast neutrons that have energy of 1 – 10MeV and
energy of 0.025eV and velocity of 2.2km/s. velocity of around 50,000km/s.
Moderation is required to slow down the
prompt neutrons produced in one fission No such moderation is required as fission is
reaction in order to make such neutrons suitable sustained by the fast neutrons.
for further fission.
Based on the design, thermal reactors utilize Fast reactors utilize liquid metal (liquid sodium or
either light water (H2O), or heavy water (D2O) liquid lead) as coolant.
or carbon dioxide (CO2) as coolant.
Thermal reactors require low enriched fuel.
Typically light water based reactors and gas Fast reactors require comparatively high
cooled reactors require 3 – 5% enrichment, enrichment to increase chances of fission by fast
while heavy water based reactors require no neutrons. Fast reactor fuels are usually 15 – 20%
enrichment (i.e. natural uranium can be used as enriched.
fuel).
Nuclear breeding occurs in fast breeder reactors
(FBR), where a portion of fertile material gets
Nuclear breeding does not take place in thermal
converted into fissile materials (and thus produce
reactors.
more fuel). This can reduce dependency on
inadequately available U-235.
Thermal reactors generate large radioactive Fast reactors help reducing radioactive waste by
waste. continuously disintegrating heavier isotopes.
Conversion Ratio or Breeding Ratio for a
Breeding Ratio of a fast reactor is maintained
thermal reactor remains in between 0.3 and 0.7
higher than 1.
(0.3 ≤ CR ≤ 0.7).

Liquid metal fast breeder reactor

Thermal Reactor