Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

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Journal of Advanced Joining Processes

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Clinching of Aluminum Materials – Methods for the Continuous

Characterization of Process, Microstructure and Properties
Robert Kupfer a, *, Daniel Köhler a, David Römisch b, Simon Wituschek b, Lars Ewenz c,
Jan Kalich d, Deborah Weiß f, Behdad Sadeghian d, Matthias Busch g, Jan Krüger e,
Moritz Neuser e, Olexandr Grydin e, Max Böhnke h, Christian-Roman Bielak h, Juliane Troschitz a
a
Institute of Lightweight Engineering and Polymer Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Holbeinstraße 3, 01307 Dresden, Germany
b
Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nurnberg, Egerlandstraße 13, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
c
Institute of Materials Science, Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
d
Institute of Manufacturing Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Helmholtzstraße 10, 01069 Dresden, Germany
e
Institute of Materials Science, Paderborn University, Paderborn, Germany
f
Applied Mechanics, Paderborn University, Pohlweg 47-49, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
g
Institute of Manufacturing Metrology, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Nägelsbachstr. 25, 91052 Erlangen, Germany
h
Laboratory for material and joining technology, Paderborn University, Pohlweg 47-49, 33098 Paderborn, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Clinching as a mechanical joining technique allows a fast and reliable joining of metal sheets in large-scale
Mechanical joining production. An efficient design and dimensioning of clinched joints requires a holistic understanding of the
Clinching material, the joining process and the resulting properties of the joint. In this paper, the process chain for
Aluminum
clinching metal sheets is described and experimental techniques are proposed to analyze the process-
Characterization methods
Process-structure-property relationships
microstructure-property relationships from the sheet metal to the joined structure. At the example of clinch­
ing aluminum EN AW 6014, characterization methods are applied and discussed for the following characteristics:
the mechanical properties of the sheet materials, the tribological behavior in the joining system, the joining
process and the resulting material structure, the load-bearing behavior of the joint, the damage and degradation
as well as the service life and crack growth behavior. The compilation of the characterization methods gives an
overview on the advantages and weaknesses of the methods and the multiple interactions of material, process
and properties during clinching. In addition, the results of the analyses on EN AW 6014 can be applied for
parameterization and validation of simulations.

Introduction 2022). However, the joining process is usually accompanied by a local

change of the original mechanical properties making joints to weak
Motivated by the oil crisis at the end of the 1970s, the automotive points of an assembly (Tekkaya, A. E., et al., 2015).
industry developed concepts for the increasing use of aluminum mate­ In order to design clinching points that are suitable for the applied
rials (Gould, J. E., 2012). Due to the poor weldability of aluminum materials as well as load cases and to achieve a high application flexi­
materials in hybrid design, mechanical joining processes were devel­ bility and versatility, the whole clinching process chain is investigated in
oped and established in series production (Mori, K., et al., 2013). Today, the Collaborative Research Center TRR285 (TRR285, 2022). For this
the single-stage and pre-hole-free clinching processes have achieved a purpose, a numerical representation of the joining process chain from
particularly large share of application due to their high efficiency the material via the production of the joining part and the joining pro­
(Groche, P., et al., 2014). cess up to the property profile of the joint in the operating phase is
Joints have major influence on the entire structural behavior of required (Bielak, C. R., et al., 2021). This enables an understanding of
components as they transfer different forces (e.g. static, cyclic, impact) the causal relationships in the individual life cycle of a joint and a
from one joining partner to the other via the joints (Steinfelder, C., et al., prognostic description and improvement of its properties. Consequently,

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: robert.kupfer@tu-dresden.de (R. Kupfer).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jajp.2022.100108
Received 11 February 2022; Received in revised form 25 March 2022; Accepted 25 March 2022
Available online 10 May 2022
2666-3309/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

material can be saved, lightweight design is improved and development

costs and time can be reduced as a result of optimized joining systems.
To deliver input and validation data for the numerical process chain,
experimental analyses of the material and joint characteristics as well as
the properties of non-joined and joined structures are required. In
addition, suitable test concepts for quality assurance have to be pro­
vided. In this paper the process chain for clinching metal sheets is
described and experimental techniques are proposed which enable a
continuous understanding of the interaction between process, micro­
structure and properties from the sheet metal to the joined structure.
Each characterization method is introduced considering relevant liter­
ature and applied at the example of clinching aluminum. The results are
discussed highlighting specific advantages and limitations. The unique
compilation of methods and associated exemplary results provide an Fig. 2. Geometric parameters of a rotationally symmetric clinch joint after
overview of the complex interrelationships in mechanical joining. At the (DVS-EFB 3420:2021-04)
same time, the potentials of individual characterization methods
become visible, indicating potential issues for further research.

Materials and methods

Since aluminum EN AW 6014 is a common material in many auto­

motive applications (Novelis Inc., 2019), it is used for these in­
vestigations. Sheets with 2 mm thickness (Advanz™ 6F-e170) are
delivered by Novelis Inc. in T4 state and stored at -40◦ C to reduce ageing.
For joining, subsets are taken from the cooling chamber and processed Fig. 3. Continuous characterisation concept along the process chain of clinched
components with according sections in the paper
within one day. Since automotive body structures are usually e-coated,
going along with a hardening of the aluminum, the specimen are tested
in T6 state if not noted otherwise. For this ageing process, the specimen non-destructive experimental methods for in-situ process characteriza­
are heat-treated for approx. 20 min. at a temperature of 185◦ C. tion are proposed in this paper (sec. 3.3). The specific material expres­
In clinching, two or more overlapping metal sheets, pipes or profile sion with locally varying geometrical and micro-structural properties is
parts are joined by cold forming using a punch and a die without measured by microsections, CT, metallographic analysis and electron
auxiliary joining parts, see Fig. 1. The joining partners are partially microscopy (sec. 3.4). Common quasi-static and dynamic tests are
penetrated and then compressed, so that widening and extrusion create described, which characterize the macroscopic loading behavior (sec.
a non-detachable connection between components made of different, 3.5) and a novel test setup is proposed, to characterize damage and
even higher strength material groups (Abe et al., 2012). degradation behavior of clinched components (sec. 3.6). To gain more
During clinching, a typical joining zone is formed which can be detailed information on microscopic damage and degradation behavior,
described by a few characteristic dimensions (Fig. 2). Beside the thick­ tests for cyclic loading and fatigue growth will be introduced (sec. 3.7).
nesses of the punch layer sheet t1 and the die layer sheet t2, the inner
diameter di and the outer diameter d0 are determined by the joining Characterization methods, results and discussion
setup. Other characteristic dimensions are strongly influenced by the
clinching process parameters. Important are the interlock f* and the Material properties
neck thickness tn*. With known tool and process parameters, both
correlate with the bottom thickness tb, which can be measured non- The quality of finite element analyses depends on the material input
destructively as a quality-determining parameter (Fig. 2). Above that, parameters acquired by experimental material characterization. The
often the button height h is given. most important input data for the description of plastic material
For a continuous understanding of clinching, experimental analyses behavior is the flow curve (Alves, L. M., et al., 2011). It is determined
at all stages of the process chain are required (Fig. 3). During the fast using different test methods, which are selected depending on the ex­
joining process, large deformations at different strain rates occur in the pected stress conditions in the forming zone (Silva, C., et al., 2017). For
metal sheets, making a stain rate dependent material characterization an exact material modelling, both uniaxial and biaxial stress conditions
necessary for adequate material description (section 3.1). Furthermore, are considered. As indicated in (Bruschi, S., et al., 2014), for the char­
the two interacting surfaces of the joining partners get into intense acterization of sheet metal, the tensile test, the bulge test and the layer
contact with heavy friction. Layer compression tests and tribological compression test are preferably used to represent the most common
analyses provide data to describe these friction-related processes (sec.
3.2). To investigate the joining process, destructive analyses as well as
the discussion of force-displacement curves are common. Beyond that,

Fig. 4. Test-setup of the tensile test (a), specimen extraction depending on the
Fig. 1. Tool design and sequence for clinching with closed die rolling direction (b)

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R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

stress conditions.
The tensile test (Fig. 4) according to the standard ISO 6892-1 (ISO
6892-1:2019-11) is one of the most applied methods for characterizing
sheet metal materials. It provides a frictionless and uniaxial stress con­
dition at plastic strains ε between 0.1 and 0.8, depending on the material
strength (Bruschi, S., et al., 2014). However, the uniaxial stress condi­
tion is only present up to uniform strain. The test is carried out using
cylindrical specimen or flat specimen for sheet materials according to
(DIN 50125:2016-12). In the case of sheet metal, specimen are often
extracted from the sheet at 0◦ , 45◦ and 90◦ to the rolling direction in
Fig. 6. Layer compression test initial (a) and formed state (b)
order to investigate the rolling-induced anisotropic material behavior.
Main advantages are the comparatively simple sample preparation and
test procedure. In addition to the conventional tensile test, the strain method is characterized by a higher achievable plastic strain ε up to 0.7
hardening behavior can be investigated at higher strain rates of the (Bruschi, S., et al., 2014) compared to tensile test, which allows an
materials. For this purpose, further specimen geometries are defined, improvement of the extrapolation results for the flow curve determi­
which are shown in (SEP 1230:2007-02). nation. Disadvantages of the test setup are the elaborate sample
From the measured force-displacement data the stress-strain diagram extraction and the friction between the upsetting tool and the material.
of the material is generated and the classic material properties yield To reduce the friction, solid lubricants such as PTFE film can be used,
strength, tensile strength, elongation and permanent elongation at break ensuring the specimens cylindrical shape during the whole test.
are derived. For a highly precise strain measurement, grey scale corre­ Fig. 7 shows examplary flow curves of an EN AW 6014 obtained with
lation which is recorded by a CCD camera (e.g. ARAMIS from GOM the three test setups described above. The curves were determined with
GmbH) is used. It enables the simultaneous measurement of the Pois­ a test number of n = 3.
son’s ratio ν. The stress-strain data is then used to calculate the flow
curve with the relevant values yield stress and equivalent plastic strain ε Tribological behavior
in combination with the true cross section of the sample.
In the bulge test, shown in Fig. 5, a circular specimen is clamped In the numerical simulation of clinching processes, the predictive
between a die and a bottom tool. By applying a pressure using a fluid, accuracy depends on the friction model and the implemented friction
the blank is formed in the die. Since the clamping of the specimen coefficients (Schmid, E., 2004). The frictional behavior affects the ma­
prevents material reflowing, the material is elongated by simultaneous terial flow and thus the geometrical formation of the clinched joint,
thinning and a biaxial tensile stress results compared to the uniaxial especially the interlock, influencing both the clinching process forces as
stress condition in the tensile test described above. Again, the defor­ well as the load-bearing capacity of a clinched joint (Coppieters, S.,
mation is preferably measured by grey scale correlation. The test is 2012) (Szabolcs, J. and Tisza, M., 2020). The frictional behavior be­
conducted up to the crack of the sample, which occurs in the middle of tween the joining partners is usually assumed with reference to litera­
the circular blank. ture values or determined by inverse parameter identification. However,
The advantage of the bulge test is the ability to investigate the ma­ this contradicts the predictive character of the numerical simulation. In
terial behavior at higher plastic strains ε up to 0.8 (Bruschi, S., et al., order to guarantee a high predictive quality of the joining process
2014). Furthermore, the test setup can be assumed as friction-free due to simulation, a precise friction model based on corresponding experi­
the hydraulic active medium. A particular challenge during testing is mental data, needs to be implemented.
controlling the strain rate, as shown in (Suttner, S. and Merklein, M., In the field of forming technology, the friction behavior can be
2016), to achieve a constant value and avoid significant effects on the determined by large variety of tests (Groche, P., et al., 2018) (Recklin,
biaxial stress-strain curve of materials. V., et al., 2018). They often are divided into direct and indirect methods.
The layer compression test using circular sheet metal disks is an While direct methods determine the contact stress and the friction shear
adaptation of the compression test according to standard DIN 50106 stress by means of a measurement equipment, the indirect methods
(Merklein, M. and Kuppert, A., 2009) and is characterized by a biaxial conclude friction conditions from a total specimen deformation or a
stress condition. Instead from bulk material, the test specimens consist measured force. The indirect methods can be applied instrumented and
of a stack of sheet metal discs as shown in Fig. 6, since the initial raw un-instrumented (Buchner, B., 2008). Instrumented methods like
material is a sheet metal (Graf, M., et al., 2019). pin-on-disk test, compression-spin tests or strip drawing test allow to
Similar to the conventional compression test, force and three- record the occurring frictional effects during testing with regard to their
dimensional deformation of the sample are recorded until a height cause. However, due to local accumulation of material these methods
reduction of 50 %. By using two cameras for grey scale correlation, reach their limit for contact pressures above the yield point of the
oriented at an angle of 90◦ to each other, the true contact area and investigated materials. In addition, the test setups are more suitable for
effective plastic strain can be calculated due to the volume constancy. bulk metal forming processes and not for the friction characterization
For accurate testing a proper cylindrical alignment of the discs and between sheet materials.
constant orientation of the rolling direction must be ensured. The test

Fig. 5. Schematic of the bulge test setup Fig. 7. Flow curves of EN AW 6014 with 1.5 mm sheet thickness

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R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

A frequently used un-instrumented approach is the ring compression

test, which has already been adapted for mechanical joining (Müller, M.,
et al., 2015). However, the process conditions like contact pressure,
relative velocity and temperature cannot be considered decoupled, so
that the characteristics must be determined inversely. Due to this, the
ring compression test is less suitable for obtaining proper friction
models. Alternatively, the tribo-torsion test is applied, which is based on
an axial load superimposed with a rotational torque. Here, the frictional
behavior can be evaluated for various contact stresses via the resulting
torque. This test is already applied for hot (Hora, P., et al., 2011) and
cold (Teller, M., et al., 2015a) extrusion processes. The test setup enables
an independent consideration of the influencing factors like contact
pressure, relative velocity, temperature and wear mechanisms. High
temperature tests can be carried out via an inductive coil (Hora, P., et al.,
2011) and high contact pressures can be achieved by encapsulation of
the specimen. In (Teller, M., et al., 2015b) contact stresses of up to eight
times of the initial flow stress of soft aluminum and relative speeds of 47
mm/s were be considered. In addition, due to the twisting movement, a
wear investigation with long friction paths is possible. To consider
different contact stresses, a bilinear friction law can be used as a com­
bination of the Coulomb friction model (Orowan, E., 1943) and the
model of maximum shear stress.
With regard to the numerical modeling of clinching processes, a
testing method based on the tribo-torsion test was developed to inves­
tigate the frictional behavior especially between two sheet metal parts Fig. 9. Measured friction torque and calculated friction coefficient in correla­
(Rossel, M., et al., 2021). Here, circular specimen of sheet metal are tion with the rotation angle / relative displacement
rotated against each other with an applied contact pressure. The speci­
mens are fixed in a force and a form fitting specimen mounting, see metal specimens are twisted against tool substitutes with the same
Fig. 8. To transmit the torque MF, the clamps have a special contour on surface properties as punches or dies in the clinching process. To
its surface (see Fig. 8). The clamps are fixed to a tension-torsion testing investigate contact pressures beyond the yield point of the materials,
system with two independent hydraulic drives. It applies a translational enclosures can be introduced to prevent the squeezing of material
contact force F superimposed by a rotation. During the experiment, the (Boehnke, M., et al., 2021).
upper setup generates the frictional torque MF which is measured over
the entire test. Joining process
Fig. 9 shows test results for EN AW 6014 with constant relative ve­
locity and three different contact forces. The friction coefficient μ is Based on the mechanical and tribological characterization of the
calculated according to the Coloumb friction model from the measured joining partners, numerical simulations of the clinching process can be
friction torque MF, the contact force F and the rotating angle. After the performed. Here, 2D simulation models are common for round point
friction test, the true friction surfaces of the specimens are measured, clinching ,e.g. (Steinfelder, C., et al., 2021), and hence also used for
since the specimens do not contact each other with their entire nominal visualization in this paper. Major results of the simulation are the
surface area. The true contact pressure between the specimens during force-displacement values of the clinching tool and the joint geometry.
the test is calculated from the determined friction surfaces (cf. Fig. 9). In addition, the stress condition, occurring strain rates, temperatures
The initial static friction is indicated by the steep increase and the peak and plastic strains during the process can be obtained. To validate the
at the beginning. Afterwards the transition to the kinetic friction can be simulation models, mechanical, geometrical, and micro-structural ana­
seen by decreasing friction moment followed by an approximately sta­ lyses are established. In the following, they are highlighted at the
tionary state. In the further progress the friction torque increases slightly example of EN AW 6014. For comparison, a two-dimensional axisym­
due to cold welding effects. These result from high interface pressures metric LS-DYNA model of the clinching process is used, which is
between the sheets and the local formation of intermolecular bonds. The described in detail in (Bielak, C. R., et al., 2021).
friction coefficient μ is determined accordingly in the evaluation range During the clinching process, the punch penetration depth can be
and can be used in a friction model (Fig. 9 bottom). controlled by monitoring the force-displacement characteristics (Wen­
Modifications of the experimental setup also allow the investigation zel, A. and Kolac, A., 2007). These curves are also used to evaluate the
of the contact between sheet metal and clinching tool. Here, the sheet quality of a clinched joint, e.g. for quality assurance in series production
in the automotive industry. Fig. 10 a shows experimentally and
numerically determined force-displacement data of an EN AW 6014
joint. The two process graphs initially show good agreement in the area
of elastic deformation (section 1). Subsequently, the elastic-plastic
deformation of the joining partners begins, whereby the die-sided
joining partner has not yet reached the die bottom (section 2). The in­
fluence of friction is still low here. In the further course of the punch
path from approx. 1.6 mm penetration depth (section 3), both process
graphs increase. From this point on, the die-sided joining partner and the
die bottom are in contact (cf. Fig. 11 a). As the punch moves forward, a
radial flow of material is initialized, the neck, bottom and undercut area
are formed to the final state.
Fig. 8. Test setup for investigating the frictional behavior between sheet metal The differences in section 3 may be due to the mapping of friction. At
in clinching processes (left) and contoured surface of mounting (right) this stage of clinch point formation, the friction between the joining

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R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

that the simulated surface lines of the clinched sheet fit very well to the
interface in the micrograph (dashed).
To enhance understanding of the development of the clinch point
geometry, step setting tests are established, showing the gradual for­
mation of a clinch joint as a function of the punch penetration depth
(Fig. 11).
At the beginning of the clinching process, the punch penetrates the
components to be joined and the die-side joining partner reaches the
anvil surface of the die (Fig. 11 a). As the punch penetrates further, the
forming of the die-sided component into the annular channel begins
(Fig. 11 b, c). In Fig. 11 d, as a result of the radial material flow between
the punch and the die, the formation of the form fit by undercutting
begins. As a result of further penetration of the components, the un­
dercut increases (Fig. 11 e). This process continues until the target
bottom thickness is set (Fig. 11 f). After the return stroke and the
demolding of the tools, the final force-fit between the joined components
is created due to the spring-back effect.

In-situ methods
In ex-situ micrograph analyses, the observed material state is always
inaccurate due to resetting of elastic deformations and crack closure
effects caused by unloading. Also these analyses provide information
only with a time delay. In-situ analyses could avoid these disadvantages.
However, due to the compact joining setup with metallic tools, the
clinching process cannot be observed directly e.g. by optical measure­
Fig. 10. Experimental and numerical investigation of the clinching process: a) ment. Hence, other non-destructive testing (NDT) methods are required
force-displacement measurement during clinching with sections 1-3; b) geo­
to provide a better understanding of the process-quality interaction
metric characteristics
during clinching.
One promising approach is the combination of transient dynamic
partners and the tools, as well as between the joining partners them­ analysis (TDA) with the computed tomography (CT). In a TDA, ultra­
selves, exerts a more dominant influence on the process force than in sonic waves are introduced into a joining partner. After the waves have
sections 1 and 2. Furthermore, a local tearing of the aluminum oxide passed the joint, the transmitted energy is measured at the other joining
layer occurs due to the increase in surface area. As a result, the friction partner. Changes in the characteristic damping properties of the joints
pairs at the interface between the joining partners are influenced non­ can indicate irregularities in the joining process. Wang et al. (Wang F.,
homogeneously depending on the punch penetration depth, which et al., 2017) measure energy dissipation to estimate residual tightening
cannot yet be simulated and has to be investigated further. After torque of bolted joints. Bournine et al. (Bournine, H., et al., 2009)
reaching the maximum force (cf. Fig. 11 f), the return stroke of the investigate maximising the damping of bolted joints while preserving
punch tool starts. the load carrying capacity. Köhler et al. (Köhler, D., et al., 2021a) use
However, the force-displacement data provides only indirect infor­ TDA to investigate clinch points with different bottom thicknesses. An
mation about the material flow and the clinch point quality. For a deeper FEM model is coupled with the steady state dynamics module in the
understanding of the joining process, the geometry of the resulting program LS-DYNA to solve the inverse problem. Since the transmitted
clinch point is taken into account. Measuring the bottom thickness and energy is characteristic for an intact clinch point at any time during the
outer diameter of the joint after clinching delivers basic information, but clinching process, measured energy deviations indicate an altered pro­
cannot indicate inner geometrical properties like undercut and neck cess at high temporal resolution.
thickness. Therefore, micrographs are prepared and analyzed. For the In CT, the object is X-ray scanned from different angels and the
considered clinching with rotationally symmetric die and the 2D simu­ projections are reconstructed to form a 3D image of the object. This
lation model, micrographs of the cross section are suitable. During method is used, for example, for damage analyses on drilled holes
specimen preparation, a grinding up to P1200 (FEPA standard) and (Pejryd, L., et al., 2014) or joints with semi-tubular self-piercing
etching is appropriate for this validation step. In Fig. 10 b, it can be seen,

Fig. 11. Step setting test of a clinched joint Series II (cf. Tab. 1)

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R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

rivet-joints (Drossel, W. G., et al., 2013). For in-situ CT of clinching, the

joining process is interrupted at certain steps and the clinch point is
scanned. This allows, for example, the investigation of bonded and
riveted lap joints (Füßel, R., et al., 2016) and of metal inserts in
fiber-reinforced plastics (Pottmeyer, F., et al., 2017) during testing. In
order to investigate a clinching process in in-situ CT, adapted clinching
tools are necessary. The tools need to be both widely transparent to
X-ray radiation and strong enough for mechanically joining. Thus,
high-quality results can be achieved (Köhler, D., et al., 2021c). With this
approach, micro- and mesoscopic deformations and damages can be
detected at high spatial resolution.
By combining these methods, a characteristic energy transmission
pattern can be linked to the actual damage phenomena (cause-effect
relationship). For this purpose a CT- and TDA-suitable test setup was
designed that incorporates a clinching tool mounted in a testing machine
(Fig. 12). While the testing system is scanned by the surrounding X-ray Fig. 13. Micrograph of a clinch joint
tube-detector system, the TDA-actors and -sensors, which are mounted
on the punch and the die, measure the energy transmission. By delib­ clinch point production. These locally introduced shape changes lead to
erately introducing specific deviations concerning bottom thickness, different grain orientations in the characteristic areas punch feed, neck
neck thickness, undercut and coaxiality of punch and die, the resulting area, undercut area and bottom area. Fig. 14 a shows the undeformed
clinch point geometry is captured and can be correlated with the initial state of the microstructure with globular grain shape. In the neck
respective energy transmission pattern (Köhler, D., et al., 2021a). area of both joining partners (Fig. 14 b, c), a stretching of the grains in
the direction of deformation can be seen. In the bottom area, a radial
Macro- and Micro structure material flow is initialized to set the bottom thickness and the undercut,
which can be recognized by the grains stretched in the radial direction
Usually a causal relationship between the joining zone geometry and (Fig. 14 d).
the quality of a clinching point is presumed. A destructive micrograph The micrographs in Fig. 15 exemplarily show the resulting clinch
analysis of a joint is the most common way to determine the geometric point geometry for three different tool configurations (series I-III). Series
characteristics of a clinched joint. Based on the characteristic values I and II show, that the tool selection (same die, different punches) results
introduced in Fig. 2, statements about the quality of a connection can be in identical dimensions for undercut and neck thickness (cf. Table 1).
made. The final distance between punch and die has a decisive influence Due to the different punch geometries, this is accompanied by different
on the joint quality, resulting in the characteristic value of the bottom bottom thicknesses. For the conical punch, a larger bottom thickness is
thickness tb. This easily accessible dimension is also quickly measurable measured, leading to a lower work hardening in the bottom area,
non-destructively and correlates with the strength of a clinch joint especially in the punch-sided joining partner.
(Jiang, T., et al., 2015). In contrast the dimension of the undercut f * can For series III, the identical die as in series I and II is combined with a
only be determined in the cross-section and provides a prediction of the stepped punch, which has two different diameters. The special feature of
peel strength and head pull strength of the clinch joint. The size of the this punch is a cylindrical shank with a smaller diameter. It adjusts the
neck tn* correlates with the shear strength (Doege, E. and Behrens, B.-A., neck thickness and the material volume under the punch face, which is
2016). For the bottom thickness tb a range between 20 and 50 % of the used to form the undercut. Due to the smaller punch diameter at the
initial thickness tt of the joining partners is recommended. It directly front face, a smaller undercut is the result, even if the bottom thickness is
correlates with the formation of the undercut and the neck thickness reduced. Above a cylindrical shaft part at the front, the punch diameter
(Fig. 13) (DVS-EFB 3420:2021-04). is increased, leading to a plane contact of the parts to be joined in the
In addition to these basic correlations, micrographs also provide area of the shoulder. While the undercut is smaller than in series I and II,
more detailed understanding of various influencing factors and their the neck thickness is significantly larger. This can be advantageous if
effects on clinch point geometry, microstructure and their mechanical shear stress is the primary load case, since the circular cross section is
properties. For example, the parts to be joined are work hardened maximized at an identical undercut (Table 1). If tensile load is dominant,
differently in varying areas due to the inhomogeneous forming during the undercut should be maximized.
Furthermore, light microscopy is also used for the analysis of the

Fig. 12. Testing setup of the in-situ CT clinching process and exemplary result
of clinching EN AW 6014 sheets in in-situ CT Fig. 14. Grain structure of the joining partners

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R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

Optical Emission Spectrometry

For a continuous understanding of the interaction between process,
microstructure and properties the exact chemical composition of the
investigated material may provide useful information. It can help to
evaluate the mechanical properties of joined components and to inter­
pret the results of the microstructure analysis performed with trans­
mission electron microscopy.
To evaluate the local chemical composition Optical Emission Spec­
trometry (OES) is applied. Here, an electric spark vaporises and ionises a
Fig. 15. Clinch joint with different punch shapes: a) cylindrical Series I, b)
conical Series II, c) stepped Series III)
local area of the sample, causing characteristic radiation to be emitted
from the excited atoms. Since the wavelength of the characteristic ra­
diation differs depending on the element, it is possible to measure the
Table 1 exact chemical composition of a component. For this application, a
Geometrical properties of clinched joints (s1=2.0 mm) wave-length range from 130 to 620 nm is usually considered. The
Series Punch geometry Undercut f* in Neck tn in mm Bottom tb in mm conduct of OES to measure the chemical composition of aluminum is
mm standardized in DIN EN 14726 (DIN EN 14726:2019).
right left right left The chemical composition of the aluminum alloy EN AW 6014
I Cylindrical 0.35 0.35 0.38 0.38 0.84 shown in Table 2 is determined by spark spectroscopy. These informa­
II Conical 0.35 0.35 0.39 0.40 0.99 tion are useful to draw conclusions about morphology in different ma­
III Stepped 0.34 0.32 0.44 0.44 0.95 terial states. For example, the formation of precipitates of Mg2Si and
AlFeSiV or further MgxSiy precipitates in the wrought alloy EN AW 6014
can be deduced (Ostermann, F., 2014). In addition, it is evident that no
grain structure and for the determination of additional information
grain refiners such as titanium or boron are used in this alloy. At the
about microstructural defects such as local segregations or voids in order
same time, the results of the chemical analysis serve as basic data for
to evaluate their influence on the fracture mechanisms (Hatch, J. E.
numerical simulations. Programs like JMatPro (Schillé, J.-P., 2001) or
1984).
Thermo-Calc (Thermo-Calc Software, 2021) calculate the temperature-
and strain rate-dependent flow curves from the material data. Above
Ex-situ CT
that, Thermo-Calc can estimate the resulting precipitates in the micro­
In addition to the destructive analysis of joined components by
structure from the measured chemical composition (Baganis, A., et al.,
evaluating micrographs, geometric post-process inspection with indus­
2021).
trial X-ray computed tomography represents a non-destructive inspec­
tion alternative (Busch, M. and Hausotte T., 2021). Since the joint is not
TEM-studies
cut into halves, the original stress and deformation state of the clinch
TEM-studies are appropriate to identify precipitates of the wrought
point can be observed without relaxation effects. In addition to quali­
aluminum alloy EN AW 6014 and describe the dislocations substructure.
tative analyses on the formation of clinch points, measurements can also
The strong deformations during clinching in the T4 state cause high
be performed to check the three-dimensional geometry of the joint
dynamic plastic deformation in the zone of the undercut. This intensive
(Fig. 16). Thus, larger cracks inside each component can be detected and
deformation and formation of lattice defects influence the precipitation
geometric parameters like undercut or neck thickness can be measured
kinetic of the Mg2Si phase during the subsequent ageing (Grydin, O.,
at multiple positions of a single specimen.
et al., 2019), but also during intermediate storage (Ostermann, F., 2014)
Due to the equivalent X-ray absorption characteristics of both EN AW
(Pogatscher, S., et al., 2011) (Yang, Z., et al., 2019). The formation of
6014 joining partners the accurate determination of geometric param­
coherent Guinier-Preston zones II (GP II) leads to a further increase in
eters using CT is difficult. This concerns especially the inner geometrical
strength due to the high coherence stress and the resulting distortion of
parameters, which are often hardly detectable if the surfaces of the
the aluminum lattice. TEM studies also show that not only the pre­
joining partners are in close contact (Busch, M. and Hausotte T., 2021).
cipitates of the Mg2Si phase, but also the precipitates of the AlFeSiV
In order to determine these inner geometric parameters, an increase in
phase contribute to an increase in strength in the aluminum alloys of
measurability and a reduction of the measurement uncertainty are
6xxx-series (Lech-Grega, M., et al., 2013).
investigated in TRR285. On the one hand, the contrast between the
In order to compare the precipitates morphology in the T4 and T6
joining partners at the contact surface is increased by a contrast agent or
state, samples are taken from the neck and undercut area of a clinch joint
a coating. On the other hand, an improvement shall be achieved by post
in the T4 state and examined by TEM. The samples are taken using the
processing of measurement data such as the fusion of measurement data
focused ion beam technique (FIB). Firstly, the area of interest is localized
(Müller, A. M. and Hausotte, T., 2018).
in a scanning electron microscope equipped with a FIB gun. Then, the
lamellae are sampled with a finely focused ion beam. In the next step,
the clinch joint is artificially aged in accordance to section 2.1. Finally, a
TEM analysis is performed in the neck as well as undercut area and the

Table 2
Chemical composition of the wrought aluminum alloy EN AW 6014 determined
by means of an optical emission spectrometer
Elements Mean (weight-%) Standard deviation

Al 98.210 0.00
Mg 0.693 0.0004
Si 0.520 0.00003
Fe 0.220 0.00003
Cu 0.135 0.0015
V 0.053 0.00
Others 0.169
Fig. 16. Determination of geometric parameters of a clinch joint by CT analysis

7
R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

precipitation sequences of the GP I and II as well as the β’’ and β’ phases

are investigated. Simplified, the usual precipitation sequence in AlMgSi
alloys can be represented as follows (Edwards, G. A., et al., 1998):
Supersaturated solid solution→cluster→GP − zones
′
→β′′ →β →β(Mg2 Si)
Fig. 17 shows a Mg2Si precipitate of alloy AW 6014. It has a length of
about 130 nm and a width of 40 nm. The respective extension is marked
with the letters A/A’ and B/B’.

Loading behavior

In order to investigate the loading behavior of clinched joints,

different experimental approaches are established. The most common
tests are the cross tension test or pull-out test and the shear load test,
which are described in detail in (DVS-EFB 3480-1: 2007-12). Here,
standardized specimen for cross tension tests as well as
single-overlapped shear test specimen are used (Fig. 18). For investi­
gating the loading behavior, both tests were performed each on two
different thickness combinations for clinched joints in EN AW 6014
sheet metal. In the quasi-static tests a crossbeam speed of 10 mm/min is
used. The measured force-displacement curves under shearing can be
seen in Fig. 18 a and the cross-tension behavior in Fig. 18 b.
At the beginning of both tests, a linear elastic increase is observed,
representing the stiffness of the mechanically joined specimen. Subse­
quently, an increasing amount of plastic deformation is introduced into
the clinched joint. With reaching the maximum load, the shear test
curves show a pronounced plateau before failure while the cross tension
specimen fail immediately. This loading behavior is linked to different
Fig. 18. Loading behavior of clinched joints in EN AW 6014 T6 a) in shear load
failure modes. On the one hand, button separation occurs mostly at cross test; b) cross tension test
tension tests (Fig. 19 a). Here, the upper joining part deforms mainly in
the area of the interlock successively reducing the form-fit. At shear load
tests, neck fractures are dominant (b). In this case, the shear stress in the
neck region of the clinched joint exceeds the strength of the material and
a crack develops. A mixed failure is present if both failure modes occur
in combination (c).

In-situ methods
Similar to the joining process, more detailed information about the
joint behavior during pull-out or shear loading can be derived by in-situ
NDT. Again, a combination of CT and TDA enables a high spatial reso­
lution with an acceptable overall testing effort. However, to gain a
sufficient resolution in CT testing, the distance between the rotating X-
ray tube and the object needs to be small. This geometrical restriction
requires an adaption of the cantilevering cross tension specimen. To
investigate the pull-out loading behavior using combined in-situ CT and Fig. 19. Different failure modes in clinched joints in EN AW 6014 T6 a) button
separation; b) neck fracture; c) mixed failure
TDA, a cup specimen in combination with a related testing device is
currently under development in TRR285.
The tensile shear behavior can be investigated via in-situ CT using a taken from 3D-data of the specimen, which are reconstructed from 1440
common single-overlapped shear test specimen based on ISO 12996 X-ray projections via 360◦ rotation at each load step. They excellently
(ISO 12996:2013-10). In Fig. 20 the deformations of an EN AW 6014 show the successive unbuttoning of the joint and allow unprecedented
clinched joint are displayed at different load steps. The cross sections are

Fig. 17. TEM-Image of Mg2Si precipitates with a length of 130 nm (B/B’) and a Fig. 20. Shear load test in in-situ CT at displacement steps a) 0.15 mm, b) 0.37
thickness of 40 nm (A/A’) mm and c) 0.59 mm. (Köhler, D., et al., 2021b)

8
R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

observation of the deformation processes taking place in the clinch joint

(Köhler, D., et al., 2021b).

Damage and degradation

In forming technology, the limits of formability are often described

by means of a forming limit curve. In this case, the principal strains are
defined as a limit value curve and a plane stress condition is taken as a
basis. This is not sufficient for an explicit description of the three-
dimensional stress conditions that are to be expected in clinching pro­
cesses. The damage is accumulated in the process chain of part pro­
duction, joining process and operation with different stress conditions,
so that this effect can become relevant. The 3D stress condition is
unambiguously described by the stress triaxiality η and the lode angle ϑ.
More advanced damage or failure models accumulate a damage sum and
define a failure strain as a function of the stress condition, for example
Cockroft-Latham (Cockroft, M. G. and Latham, D. J., 1968),
Johnson-Cook (Johnson, G. R. and Cook, W. H., 1983) and Lemaitre
(Lemaitre, J. and Desmorat, R., 2005). To link the forming and strength
simulation, the Generalized Incremental Stress State dependent damage
Model (GISSMO) is developed (Neukamm, F., et al., 2008), which is
Fig. 21. Concept of the modified punch test (a) and corresponding numerical
suitable for linking with different plasticity models. Numerical analyses
simulation model (b) with evaluated damage parameters at point of failure (c)
show that in the bottom area the highest stresses occur according to the
process kinematics (Jaeckel, M., et al., 2020). However, this often is not
the critical area during joining, but the necking area where uni- and Residual service life & fatigue crack growth
biaxial stress states can lead to failure.
For the experimental identification of the damage parameters cor­ A full characterization of all joint properties implements also fatigue
responding to these relevant stress states, which are implemented in the tests. Especially fatigue behavior cannot be estimated without a deep
damage model, a wide range of tests (e.g. shear tests, various shear knowledge of the failure probability. According to state of the art, there
tensile tests as well as tensile tests with notched and un-notched speci­ is no reliable model to predict fatigue behavior of clinched joints. This is
mens) is proposed (Haufe, A., et al., 2011). Furthermore, various punch mainly due to the versatility of the process and the fact that even small
tests are described in (Buyuk, M., 2013), which can be used to identify changes in joint geometry (Ewenz, L., et al., 2021) or sheet thickness
the damage parameters for an extended Johnson-Cook model. These are (Chen, C., et al., 2021) largely affect the mechanical properties of the
similar to clinching processes due to the tools (punch, die) acting joint and thus also the fatigue behavior. Therefore, fatigue tests are still
orthogonally to the sheet plane, so that comparable conditions are indispensable. The classical way to determine the failure probability is
assumed. By varying the punch geometry, die diameter and edge radius, to generate a Wöhler curve. This method is time-consuming and needs a
different stress states are induced in the sheet material. The operating lot of specimens. Therefor the German industrial norm DIN 50100 (DIN
principle can be used for failure prediction studies in metallic materials 50100:2016-12) recommends other methods to estimate the failure
(Lee, Y.-W., 2005). To record the deformation of the front sample sur­ probability, like the so called “horizon” method or the “string of pearls”
face, optical measurement methods are applied, using either paint pat­ method. The main advantage of these methods is the smaller amount of
terns (Gruben, G., et al., 2017) or structured light (Grytten, F., et al., specimens which effectively shortens the testing time. However, the
2007). However, the failure behavior in the sheet plane behind the front results are less precise. If there is no knowledge of the location and shape
surface cannot be detected with such optical methods. As a result, the of the Wöhler curve, the “string of pearls” method is recommended.
exact determination of the crack initiation time and location is not al­ For fatigue tests, single lap-shear specimens, made by two 105 mm x
ways possible. So far, these parameters have been determined inversely 45 mm aluminum sheets with a 16 mm overlap area were prepared.
on the basis of the force-displacement curve or when the crack becomes Thirteen specimens of series 1 (cylindrical punch) were tested in the
visible on the front side. Therefore, a modified punch test is being high cycle (105 load cycles) to very high cycle (107 load cycles) range by
developed in TRR285, which involves penetrating the sheet directly at using the “string of pearls” method. The tests were carried out at a
the edge with a punch and using DIC to record and evaluate the material resonance pulsator from RUMUL with a load ratio R of 0.1 and a test
failure in the sheet plane. For reproducing certain stress conditions frequency of about 70 Hz. This load ratio avoids buckling or bending of
different geometries of punch and die can be used (Buyuk, M., 2013). the specimen during the test. The switch-off criterion was a 5 % fre­
The concept of a modified punch test is displayed in Fig. 21 a, showing a quency change. The specimen geometry and results of the test are shown
bar-shaped punch with a hemispherical tip. The sheet metal specimen of in Fig. 22.
the same width as the punch is clamped by a blank holder to prevent The evaluation shows a strait tilt with a slope of k = 6.7 and a scatter
slipping. band with a probability between 10 % and 90 % of TN = 3.3. Visual
Fig. 21 b shows the plastic strain in the corresponding numerical inspection and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) investigations
model for EN AW 6014 validated by the measured deformation behavior reveal cracks in the neck region of the punch sided sheet (see Fig. 23).
and force-displacement curves. Using the model, the damage parameters The SEM investigations were carried out at an IT-500 SEM from JEOL
at the experimentally determined crack initiation time and location can with an accelerating voltage of 20 kV and a working distance of 30 mm.
be determined. Fig. 21 c shows the stress triaxiality η, the lode angle
parameter ξ (left ordinate) and the plastic strain at the same location Fatigue crack growth
(right ordinate). Corresponding to the tensile superimposed stress state Initial damage and cracks can occur during the joining process under
on the sheet edge, the lode angle parameter is about ξ = 1 and stress the influence of many factors like the material, the tools, the joining
triaxiality is η ≈ 0.33 at the time of failure. The plastic failure strain is partner’s history or the joining parameters (Behrens, B.-A., et al., 2015)
evaluated at εpl = 0.24. (Lambiase, F., 2015). Under service load, these cracks can propagate

9
R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

under mode I loading. Since the here applied sheet metal is only 2 mm
thick, a miniaturized CoT (Mini-CoT) specimen is required to prevent
the specimen from buckling. This scaled standard CoT specimen for
example was utilized e.g. by Riemer et al. (Riemer, A., et al., 2014). The
geometry of the specimen is shown in Fig. 24.
After first numerical investigations on the geometry factor function
and the calibration function to determine the stress intensity factor and
the crack length during the experiments, the Mini-CoT specimen can be
used for experimental tests (Richard, H. A. and Sander, M., 2016). Here,
the determination of the crack growth rate curve is divided into the two
test types: “up” and “down” test. In the up test, the cyclic fracture
toughness ΔKIC is determined by loading the specimen with a constant
force amplitude until fracture. When this value is reached, unstable
crack growth begins. In the down test, the threshold ΔKI,th is determined
by reducing the cyclic stress intensity ΔK with increasing crack length
Fig. 22. F-N diagram of clinch joints inclusive scatter band (PA = 10 %-90 %) after crack initiation until the crack stops growing (American Society of
for R=0.1 and specimen geometry (Ewenz, L., et al., 2021) Testing and Materials, 2008). By combining the two test types (up and
down) the entire crack growth rate curve is obtained, which is shown in
Fig. 25 as an example for the base material EN AW 6014 at an R-ratio of
0.1.

Conclusion

Versatile joining processes are the backbone of a flexible and highly

qualitative automotive production since they enable a targeted adaption
on different semi-finished products, joint geometries or components. To
enable this versatility, the complex interaction between process,
microstructure and properties from basic sheet material to final appli­
cation needs to be understood. This understanding emerges from so­
phisticated testing as well as extensive process and structure
simulations. The basis of both is a detailed phenomenological knowl­
edge along the whole process chain, which is gained by numerous
complementary experimental methods. Here, each testing method is a
small contribution to the overall understanding of joining.
Fig. 23. Scanning electron microscopic image of the top view of a fractured In this contribution a unique continuous experimental character­
clinch joint fatigue specimen (Fmax=1200 N, R=0.1, 120473 cycles) (Ewenz, L., ization approach along the path from sheet metal over joining to
et al., 2021) application is proposed and discussed at the example of clinching EN
AW 6014. The variety of analyzed properties ranges from the basic
from the crack initiation sites shown in Fig. 19 and lead to a component material properties over tribological analyses, the joining process and
failure. Therefore, it is important to understand crack growth in clinched resulting microstructure, the loading as well as damage and degradation
structures and to analyze, under which circumstances a crack is able to behavior to residual service life and fatigue crack growth. In this
grow, to investigate speed and direction of crack propagation and when context, novel or modified characterization methods like in-situ CT
unstable crack growth starts. However, the state of the art reveals that analysis, the modified tribo-torsion test and the modified punch test are
while there has been research on failure modes of clinched structures proposed to strengthen the testing portfolio. The investigations under­
(Song, Y., et al., 2019) and crack initiation sites (Coppieters, S., et al., line the strong influence of each phase in the life cycle of a clinched joint
2017), there are almost no publications dealing with fatigue crack on its performance. At the same time they justify the need for further
growth in clinched structures. research in the field of testing technology, e.g. in non-destructive in-situ
In fracture mechanics the stress intensity factor K describes the in­ testing or damage and fatigue testing.
tensity of the singular stress field and the magnitude of the displace­
ments in the vicinity of the crack tip. This factor depends on the crack
geometry, length and location as well as on the geometry of the
component and its loading situation (Richard, H. A. and Sander, M.,
2016). For the characterization of fatigue crack growth in clinched
structures the threshold for crack growth ΔKI,th and the crack growth
rate curve da/dN = f(K, R) of the base material are of essential impor­
tance. In addition to strength values, the threshold and the crack growth
rate curve can be used for material selection. The knowledge of this
fracture mechanical parameters enables a prediction of residual service
life and the estimation of appropriate inspection intervals (Richard, H.
A. and Sander, M., 2016). Specimen types, test and evaluation proced­
ures are standardized in ASTM E 647 (American Society of Testing and
Materials, 2008).
To determine the fracture mechanical parameters of the base mate­
rial EN AW 6014 preliminary investigations are necessary. According to
the standard ASTM E 647 a Compact Tension (CoT) specimen is
appropriate for the determination of fracture mechanical parameters Fig. 24. Geometry of the Mini-CoT specimen

10
R. Kupfer et al. Journal of Advanced Joining Processes 5 (2022) 100108

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Declaration of Competing Interest
DVS-EFB 3480-1: 2007-12. Testing of Properties of me-chanical and hybrid (mechanical/
bonded) joints. 2007.
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Edwards, G.A., Stiller, K., Dunlop, G.L., Couper, M.J., 1998. The precipitation sequence
in Al–Mg–Si alloys. Acta Materialia 46 (11), 3893–3904.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
Ewenz, L., Kalich, J., Zimmermann, M., Füssel, U., 2021. Effect of Different Tool
the work reported in this paper. Geometries on the Mechanical Properties of Al-Al Clinch Joints. Key Engineering
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Füßel, R., Gude, M., Mertel, A., 2016. In-situ x-ray computed tomography analysis of
Acknowledgements adhesively bonded riveted lap joints. 17th European Conference on Composite
Materials, Munich.
This research was funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Graf, M., Neseler, T., Ullmann, M., Kawalla, R., Prahl, U., Awizius, B., 2019. Study on
determination of flow behaviour of 6060-aluminium and AZ31-magnesium thin
DFG, project number 418701707 – TRR 285. The following subprojects
sheet by means of stacked compression test. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science
contribute to this publication: A01, A02, A04, B02, B04, C01, C02, C04, and Engineering 480, 012023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/480/1/012023.
and C05. Responsibility for the content of the report lies with the Gould, J.E., 2012. Joining Aluminum Sheet in the Automotive Industry - A 30 Year
History. Welding Journal 91, 23–34.
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Groche, P., Wohletz, S., Brenneis, M., Pabst, C., Resch, F., 2014. Joining by forming - A
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